Chapter 2 Molecules of life
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2.1 Chemical constituents of organisms
Organisms are made up of various types of substances:
Organic substances (biomolecules) Inorganic substances
Carbohydrates Water
Proteins Minerals
Lipids
Nucleic acids
2.2 Water
Water is a major component of cells, blood and other body fluids.
Importance of water Description
As a good solvent As the medium in which chemical reactions
take place within organisms
Transport nutrients, gases and metabolic wastes
As a reactant in metabolic reactions Involved digestion which is the breakdown of
complex food molecules into smaller molecules
Used in photosynthesis during which the
reactants are converted to carbohydrates and
oxygen
As a cooling agent Takes away heat during evaporation
Sweating in humans to cool the body
Transpiration in plants to prevent overheating
As a temperature buffer Absorbs a large amount of heat to raise
temperature by 1 ˚C
Maintains a stable body temperature
Provides a favourable habitat for aquatic
organisms
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Importance of water Description
Provides support to organisms and aids Provides a hydrostatic skeleton for some animals
movement e.g. earthworms
Turgidity provides support to young seedlings
and non-woody plants
Provides buoyancy for aquatic organisms
As a good lubricant that reduces friction between
bones during movement
2.3 Minerals
Minerals play important roles in regulating metabolism. They are needed in small amount and
occur as inorganic ions.
Inorganic ion Functions
Nitrate For making proteins, nucleic acids and chlorophyll
Magnesium For making chlorophyll in plants
Minor component of bones and teeth
Calcium Major component of bones, teeth and shells
For muscle contraction and blood clotting
Iron For making chlorophyll in plants
For forming haemoglobin, a pigment in red blood
cells
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2.4 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO)
The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1. E.g. glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
A. Monosaccharides
Characteristics The simplest forms of carbohydrates
Soluble in water and taste sweet
Used as basic units to build other larger molecules
Are reducing sugars that can be tested using the Benedict’s test
Examples Glucose used as a fuel in cell respiration to release energy
Fructose
Galactose
B. Disaccharides
Characteristics Condensation of two monosaccharides with the removal of a water
molecule
Can be broken down by hydrolysis
Soluble in water and taste sweet
Most are reducing sugars except sucrose
Examples Maltose: glucose + glucose
Sucrose: glucose + fructose
Lactose: glucose + galactose
C. Polysaccharides
Characteristics Condensation of a large number of monosaccharide molecules
resulting in long chains
Insoluble or only slightly soluble in water
Examples Glycogen: storage form of carbohydrates in animals
Starch: energy reserves in plants
Cellulose: main component of cell walls in plants
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Condensation & Hydrolysis
Remark:
Students are expected to recognize that during condensations, water molecules are given out.
However, you are not required to memorize or draw the detailed chemical structures of
monosaccharides.
Challenge yourself
Student W has tested on 2 types of carbohydrates. The table below shows the results.
Results
Test
Sample A Sample B
Solubility in water Soluble Insoluble
Glucose strip test Negative Negative
Benedict’s test No precipitate No precipitate
Iodine test Brown Blue-black
Suggest what carbohydrates Sample A and B are respectively. Explain your answers.
Details of food tests are included in chapter 6 notes.
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2.5 Lipids
Lipids are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but the ratio of hydrogen
atoms to oxygen atoms is greater than 2:1.
They are insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents.
A. Triglycerides (fat and oil)
Characteristic Condensation of one glycerol molecule and
three fatty acids molecules
Functions Energy reserves in organisms
Stored in adipose tissues in mammals
Acts as an insulating layer to reduce heat loss
Acts as shock absorbers to protect internal organs
Stored in seeds in plants
B. Phospholipids
Characteristic Condensation of one glycerol, two fatty acids and a
phosphate group
Function Main component of cell membranes
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C. Cholesterol
Characteristic Complex molecule consisting of carbon rings
Function For making membranes, lipid hormones and vitamin D
Both lipids and polysaccharides are ideal form of energy storage, because they are
both insoluble in water. Therefore, they do not affect water potential of cells.
Comparatively, lipid has two more advantages as an energy source in our bodies,
1. The capacity of storing glycogen in human is finite, whereas the capacity of
storing fat is unlimited
2. Fats provide more than twice the amount of energy per gram compared to
carbohydrates. This means that a smaller amount of fat can provide a larger
amount of energy, making it an efficient and compact energy storage form.
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2.6 Proteins
Proteins are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur.
The basic unit of a protein molecule is called amino acids.
Structure of an amino acid: Side chain
Amino group Carboxyl group
20 types of amino acids are joined by peptide bond in different combinations to form
polypeptide of varying sequences and lengths. A protein molecule may possess one or more
polypeptide chains.
Protein formation:
Different amino acid sequences give rise to protein molecules with different shapes
(conformation) which serve different functions in organisms.
Functions of proteins in organisms:
Forming haemoglobin, enzymes , antibodies and certain hormones
As the components of various cellular structures such as the cytoplasm and the cell
membrane
For the growth and repair of body tissues
As a source of energy when the body is short of carbohydrates and lipids
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2.7 Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are made up of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus.
There are two types of nucleic acids:
deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and ribonucleic acids
(RNA).
The basic unit of nucleic acid is nucleotide.
Components of nucleotide DNA RNA
5-carbon sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Nitrogenous base adenine (A) adenine (A)
Thymine (T) Uracil (U)
guanine (G) guanine (G)
cytosine (C) cytosine (C)
Phosphate group
Condensation of nucleotides may form polynucleotides with a sugar-phosphate backbone.
RNA consists of a single polynucleotide chain.
DNA consists of two polynucleotide chains, which are held together by hydrogen bonds and
form a double helix.
DNA Structure: