Chapter No.
2
Energy, Energy Transfer, and
General Energy Analysis
2
Objectives
• Concept of energy and internal energy.
• Concept heat and work.
• Introduce the first law of thermodynamics.
• Define energy conversion efficiencies.
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Energy
Energy: The ability to cause changes.
May be contained in a system
May transfer from one system to another
Units are Joules (J ) or kilo Joules (kJ )
Total energy of a system is the sum of different forms of energy
Forms of Energy
Thermal Thermodynamics deals only with
Not Covered Chemical the change of the Total Energy.
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Magnetic Microscopic
Total (Internal Energy) Total Energy contained in a
Energy E Electrical
system has two forms
Nuclear
Kinetic Total Energy =
Macroscopic
Potential Macroscopic forms +
Microscopic forms
Specific
Energy
e = E/m (J/kg) or (kJ/kg)
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Total Energy
= Macroscopic forms + Microscopic forms
Macroscopic forms Microscopic forms
Energy related to the system as a Energy related to molecular structure
whole with respect to some outside and degree of molecular activity
reference frame.
Internal energy, U:
The sum of all the microscopic forms of
KE = ½ mv 2 and PE = mgz energy.
The sum of the kinetic and potential
energies of the molecules.
Sensible Energy Thermal
Latent Energy Energy
Sensible energy: The portion of the
internal energy of a system associated
with the kinetic energies of the molecules.
The macroscopic energy of an object
changes with velocity and elevation. Latent energy: The internal energy
associated with the phase of a system.
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Total Energy
Total Energy = Macroscopic forms + Microscopic forms
Kinetic energy Internal Energy U =
Sensible Energy + Latent Energy
Potential energy
Total energy of a system
Energy per unit mass e = E/m (kJ/kg)
Kinetic energy per unit mass Internal Energy per
unit mass
Potential energy per unit mass u = U/m
Energy of a system per unit mass
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Total Energy
• Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and thus experience no
change in their kinetic and potential energies. Closed systems whose velocity and
elevation of the center of gravity remain constant during a process are frequently
referred to as stationary systems.
• Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time, and it is
convenient to express the energy flow associated with a fluid stream in the rate form.
This is done by incorporating the mass flow rate m
ɺ , which is the amount of mass
flowing through a cross section per unit time.
Mass flow rate mɺ = ρVɺ kg/s
Energy flow rate Eɺ = me
ɺ kJ/s or kW
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CONTAINED ENERGY
Total Energy = Macroscopic forms + Microscopic forms
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Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can be
converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical
device such as an ideal turbine.
Where, P / ρ--> flow energy
V 2 / 2--> kinetic energy
gz --> potential energy
For incompressible flow ( ρ = constant )
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ENERGY TRANSFER
Energy can cross the boundary of a
closed systems in two distinct forms:
heat and work
for open systems
Heat, work and mass flow
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ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
A process during which there is no heat
transfer is called an
adiabatic process
Temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer.
The larger the temperature difference, the higher is the rate of heat transfer.
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ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Three Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
1. Radiation Heat Transfer
Energy transfer occurs through electromagnetic radiations.
2. Conduction Heat Transfer
Energy transfer occurs as a result of interaction between particles.
Energy transfer from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones
3. Convection Heat Transfer
Energy transfer occurs through bulk fluid motion.
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ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
▫ A rotating shaft, an electric wire crossing the system boundaries and
A moving piston, are all associated with work interactions.
Spring Work is also encountered in thermodynamic problems
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Electrical Form of Work
Electrical Work
Electrical power
When potential difference
and current change with time
When potential difference Electrical power in terms of resistance
and current remain constant R, current I, and potential difference V.
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Mechanical Forms of Work
Rotating shaft Work (Wsh) and Power (Wsh)
Work = Force × Displacement
A force F acting through a moment arm r
generates a torque T
For rotating shaft the force acts through
a distance s
Shaft work
Shaft power An example of Energy transmission
with nɺ = rev/ s through rotating shaft.
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Mechanical Forms of Work
Rotating shaft Work (Wsh) and Power (Wsh)
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Mechanical Forms of Work
Spring work
Work = Force × Displacement
For linear elastic springs, the force applied
is proportional to the displacement x
k: spring constant (kN/m)
The work done for a differential amount of
displacement dx is
Substituting value of F and integrating yields:
x1 and x2: The initial and the final displacements
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Mechanical Forms of Work
Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars
Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film
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Mechanical Forms of Work
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
1. The work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to the
change in the potential energy of the body.
W = mg ∆z
2. The work transfer needed to accelerate a body is equal
to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.
W = (V f 2 −V i 2 )
m
2
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Mechanical Forms of Work
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
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Mechanical Forms of Work
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
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Mechanical Forms of Work
Work done due to moving boundary
Work = Force × Displacement
Force F due to acting pressure F = PA
For a differential amount of displacement ds
Work done
δW = PAds Or δW = PdV
The P-V diagram
2
W12 = ∫ PdV
1
Area under the curve1- 2 on the PV diagram
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Path functions and Point functions
Properties are point functions
they depend on the state only, and not on
how a system reaches that state
Heat and Work are path functions
they depend on
a) the end states of the process
b) the path followed during the process
Point functions have exact differentials
designated by the symbol d, eg. dV.
2
∫ dV = V
1
2 − V1 = ∆V
Note:
Path functions have inexact differentials
We never say work in a system in
designated by the symbol δ, eg. δQ and δW.
state 1 or state 2: W2 – W1
2
∫ δW
1
= W12 not ∆W We say work done in going from
state 1 to state 2 through a path: W12
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Heat Transfer and Work
Heat Transfer Work
Both are forms of energy transfer and have the units: Joules (J ) or kilo-Joules (kJ )
Heat transfer per unit mass Work done per unit mass
q=Q m (kJ/kg) w = W m (kJ/kg)
Rate of heat transfer Rate of work done (Power)
Qɺ = δQ dt (kJ/s or kW) Wɺ = δW dt (kJ/s or kW)
Summary
Both represent energy crossing the boundary (i.e., both are boundary phenomena.)
Both are path functions & have inexact differentials
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
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Heat Transfer and Work
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Heat Transfer and Work
Work done due to moving boundary
Problem: Determine the total work done
2
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First Law of Thermodynamics
• First law of thermodynamics, also known as
“conservation of energy”
“Energy can be neither created nor destroyed
during a process: it can only change forms”
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First Law of Thermodynamics
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Energy Balance
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.
SIGN CONVENTION
For Closed System
Ein = Qin + Win If ∆Esystem > 0,
energy is being
Eout = Qout + Wout stored in the system.
If ∆Esystem < 0,
For Open System energy is being
Ein = Qin + Win + Emass,in rejected from the
system.
Eout = Qout + Wout + Emass,out
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Energy Transfer in Open Systems
Eɺ mass = Uɺ + P × (Volume Flow Rate ) + KE
ɺ + PE
ɺ
2
V
Eɺ mass = mu
ɺ + PVɺ + mɺ + mgz
ɺ
2
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Problem: A classroom that normally contains 40 people is to be air-
conditioned with window air-conditioning units of 5-kW cooling capacity. A
person at rest may be assumed to dissipate heat at a rate of about 360 kJ/h.
There are 10 light-bulbs in the room, each with a rating of 100 W. The rate of
heat transfer to the classroom through the walls and the windows is
estimated to be 15,000 kJ/h. If the room air is to be maintained at a
constant temperature of 21oC, determine the number of window air-
conditioning units required.
Qperson = 360 kJ/h (for each person)
Qbulbs = 100 W (each bulb)
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Problem: The driving force for fluid flow is the pressure difference, and a pump
operates by raising the pressure of a fluid (by converting the mechanical shaft work
to flow energy). A gasoline pump is measured to consume 3.8 kW of electric power
when operating. If the pressure differential between the outlet and inlet of the pump
is measured to be 7 kPa and the changes in velocity and elevation are negligible,
determine the maximum possible volume flow rate of gasoline.
2
V
Eɺ mass = mu
ɺ + PVɺ + mɺ + mgz
ɺ
2
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Energy Conversion Efficiencies
desired output input − loss
efficiency = =
required input input
For a motor
Input = Electric Work
Output = Shaft Work
Wɺ shaft
η motor =
Wɺ electric
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Energy Conversion Efficiencies
For a combustion chamber
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Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
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Problem: Water is pumped from a lake to a storage tank 15 m above at a rate of 70
Liter/s while consuming 15.4 kW of electric power. Disregarding any frictional
losses in the pipes and any changes in kinetic energy, determine (a) the overall
efficiency of the pump–motor unit and (b) the pressure difference between the inlet
and the exit of the pump.
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Problem: In a hydroelectric power plant, 65 m3/s of water flows from an elevation
of 90 m to a turbine, where electric power is generated. The overall efficiency of the
turbine–generator is 84 percent. Disregarding frictional losses in piping, estimate
the electric power output of this plant.
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Problem: An oil pump is drawing 44 kW of electric power while pumping oil with
ρ = 860 kg/m3 at a rate of 0.1 m3/s. The inlet and outlet diameters of the pipe are 8
cm and 12 cm, respectively. If the pressure rise of oil in the pump is measured to be
500 kPa and the motor efficiency is 90 percent, determine the mechanical efficiency
of the pump.
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