NASA

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Aeronautics and Space
(NASA /ˈnæsə/) is an independent agency of the U.S.
Administration
federal government responsible for the United States'
civil space program and for research in aeronautics and
space. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., NASA
operates ten field centers across the U.S. and is
organized into mission directorates for Science, Space
Operations, Exploration Systems Development, Space
Technology, Aeronautics Research, and Mission
Support. Established in 1958, NASA succeeded the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(NACA) to give the U.S. space program a distinct NASA seal
civilian orientation focused on peaceful applications.
Since then, it has led most American spaceflight
programs, including Project Mercury, Project Gemini,
the Apollo program, Skylab, the Space Shuttle, the
International Space Station (ISS) and the ongoing
multi-national Artemis program. NASA insignia

NASA maintains extensive ground and

communications infrastructure, including the Deep
Space Network and the Near Earth Network. Its
science programs focus on Earth observation through
the Earth Observing System, heliophysics research,
Solar System exploration with robotic missions such as
New Horizons and the Perseverance rover, and
astrophysics investigations using space-based
observatories including the James Webb Space Mary W. Jackson NASA Headquarters building
Telescope and the Hubble Space Telescope. The in Washington, D.C.
Launch Services Program oversees launch operations
Agency overview
for uncrewed launches.
Abbreviation NASA
The agency supports the ISS through partnerships and Formed July 29, 1958
commercial programs such as the Commercial Crew Preceding National Advisory
Program and Commercial Resupply Services, and agency Committee for
leads development of the Orion spacecraft and the
Aeronautics (1915–
Space Launch System rocket for Artemis. NASA
1958)[1]
collaborates internationally with organizations
including the European Space Agency (ESA), the Type Space agency
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the Aeronautics research
Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and Russia's agency
Roscosmos (for ISS operations), as well as with U.S. Jurisdiction United States federal
agencies such as the National Oceanic and government
Atmospheric Administration, the United States Headquarters Mary W. Jackson NASA
Geological Survey, and the United States Space Force. Headquarters
NASA’s missions and media initiatives, including the Washington, D.C.
NASA+ streaming service, contribute to its public 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W
visibility and outreach. The agency has also had a
Administrator Jared Isaacman[2]
lasting influence on popular culture since the Apollo 11
Deputy Vacant
Moon landing in 1969. For fiscal year 2026, NASA
Administrator
was authorized a budget of $24.4 billion and employs
approximately 18,400 civil servants; since December Associate Amit Kshatriya
2025, its administrator has been Jared Isaacman. Administrator
Primary Kennedy Space Center
spaceports Cape Canaveral Space
History Force Station
Vandenberg Space Force
Base
Creation
Wallops Flight Facility
NASA traces its roots to the National Advisory
Employees 17,960 (2022)[3]
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Despite Dayton,
Ohio, being the birthplace of aviation, by 1914 the Annual budget US$24.4 billion (2026)

United States recognized that it was far behind Europe Website [Link] ([Link]
in aviation capability. Determined to regain American gov/)
leadership in aviation, the US Congress created the
Aviation Section of the US Army Signal Corps in 1914 and
established NACA in 1915 to foster aeronautical research and
development. Over the next forty years, NACA would
conduct aeronautical research in support of the US Air Force,
US Army, US Navy, and the civil aviation sector. After the
end of World War II, NACA became interested in the
possibilities of guided missiles and supersonic aircraft,
developing and testing the Bell X-1 in a joint program with
the US Air Force. NACA's interest in space grew out of its
rocketry program at the Pilotless Aircraft Research A US Air Force Bell X-1 test flight
Division. [4]

The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1 ushered in the Space Age and kicked off the Space Race. Despite
NACA's early rocketry program, the responsibility for launching the first American satellite fell to the
Naval Research Laboratory's Project Vanguard, whose operational issues ensured the Army Ballistic
Missile Agency would launch Explorer 1, America's first satellite, on February 1, 1958.

The Eisenhower Administration decided to split the US's military and civil spaceflight programs, which
were organized together under the Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency. NASA
was established on July 29, 1958, with the signing of the National Aeronautics and Space Act and it
began operations on October 1, 1958.[4]
As the American's premier aeronautics agency, NACA formed
the core of NASA's new structure by reassigning 8,000
employees and three major research laboratories. NASA also
proceeded to absorb the Naval Research Laboratory's Project
Vanguard, the Army's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and
the Army Ballistic Missile Agency under Wernher von Braun.
This left NASA firmly as the US's civil space lead and the Air
Force as the military space lead.[4]

First orbital and hypersonic flights

Plans for human spaceflight began in the US Armed Forces
prior to NASA's creation. The Air Force's Man in Space
Soonest project formed in 1956,[5] coupled with the Army's
Project Adam, served as the foundation for Project Mercury.
NASA established the Space Task Group to manage the
program,[6] which would conduct crewed sub-orbital flights
with the Army's Redstone rockets and orbital flights with the Launch of the Army Ballistic Missile
Agency's Explorer 1, America's first
Air Force's Atlas launch vehicles. While NASA intended for
satellite
its first astronauts to be civilians, President Eisenhower
directed that they be selected from the military. The Mercury
7 astronauts included three Air Force pilots, three Navy
aviators, and one Marine Corps pilot.[4]

On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American to

enter space, performing a suborbital spaceflight in the
Freedom 7.[7] This flight occurred less than a month after the
Soviet Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space,
executing a full orbital spaceflight. NASA's first orbital
spaceflight was conducted by John Glenn on February 20,
1962, in the Friendship 7, making three full orbits before
reentering. Glenn had to fly parts of his final two orbits
manually due to an autopilot malfunction.[8] The sixth and
final Mercury mission was flown by Gordon Cooper in May
1963, performing 22 orbits over 34 hours in the Faith 7.[9]
The Mercury Program was wildly recognized as a resounding
success, achieving its objectives to orbit a human in space, Launch of Friendship 7, NASA's first
develop tracking and control systems, and identify other crewed orbital flight, February 20, 1962
issues associated with human spaceflight.[4]

While much of NASA's attention turned to space, it did not put aside its aeronautics mission. Early
aeronautics research attempted to build upon the X-1's supersonic flight to build an aircraft capable of
hypersonic flight. The North American X-15 was a joint NASA–US Air Force program,[10] with the
hypersonic test aircraft becoming the first non-dedicated spacecraft to cross from the atmosphere to outer
space. The X-15 also served as a testbed for Apollo program technologies, as well as ramjet and scramjet
propulsion.[4]
Moon landing
Escalations in the Cold War between the US and Soviet
Union prompted President John F. Kennedy to charge NASA
with landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to
Earth by the end of the 1960s and installed James E. Webb as
NASA administrator to achieve this goal.[11] On May 25,
1961, Kennedy openly declared this goal in his "Urgent
National Needs" speech to Congress, declaring:

I believe this Nation should commit itself to The NASA-Air Force X-15 hypersonic
achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of aircraft
landing a man on the Moon and returning him
safely to Earth. No single space project in this
period will be more impressive to mankind, or more
important for the long-range exploration of space;
and none will be so difficult or expensive to
accomplish.

Kennedy gave his "We choose to go to the Moon" speech the

next year, on September 12, 1962 at Rice University, where
he addressed the nation hoping to reinforce public support for
the Apollo program.[12]

Despite attacks on the goal of landing astronauts on the Moon

from the former president Dwight Eisenhower and 1964 Gemini 6 and Gemini 7 conduct an orbital
presidential candidate Barry Goldwater, President Kennedy rendezvous
was able to protect NASA's growing budget, of which 50%
went directly to human spaceflight and it was later estimated
that, at its height, 5% of Americans worked on some aspect of the Apollo program.[4]

Mirroring the Department of Defense's program management concept using redundant systems in
building the first intercontinental ballistic missiles, NASA requested the Air Force assign Major General
Samuel C. Phillips to the space agency where he would serve as the director of the Apollo program.
Development of the Saturn V rocket was led by Wernher von Braun and his team at the Marshall Space
Flight Center, derived from the Army Ballistic Missile Agency's original Saturn I. The Apollo spacecraft
was designed and built by North American Aviation, while the Apollo Lunar Module was designed and
built by Grumman.[4]

To develop the spaceflight skills and equipment required for a lunar mission, NASA initiated Project
Gemini.[13] Using a modified Air Force Titan II launch vehicle, the Gemini capsule could hold two
astronauts for flights of over two weeks. Gemini pioneered the use of fuel cells instead of batteries, and
conducted the first American spacewalks and rendezvous operations.

The Ranger Program was started in the 1950s as a response to Soviet lunar exploration, however most
missions ended in failure. The Lunar Orbiter program had greater success, mapping the surface in
preparation for Apollo landings, conducting meteoroid detection, and measuring radiation levels. The
Surveyor program conducted uncrewed lunar landings and
takeoffs, as well as taking surface and regolith
observations.[4] Despite the setback caused by the Apollo 1
fire, which killed three astronauts, the program proceeded.

Apollo 8 was the first crewed spacecraft to leave low Earth

orbit and the first human spaceflight to reach the Moon. The
crew orbited the Moon ten times on December 24 and 25,
1968, and then traveled safely back to Earth.[14][15][16] The
three Apollo 8 astronauts—Frank Borman, James Lovell, and
William Anders—were the first humans to see the Earth as a
globe in space, the first to witness an Earthrise, and the first
to see and manually photograph the far side of the Moon.

The first lunar landing was conducted by Apollo 11.

Commanded by Neil Armstrong with astronauts Buzz Aldrin
and Michael Collins, Apollo 11 was one of the most Launch of the 1969 Apollo 11 mission

significant missions in NASA's history, marking the end of

the Space Race when the Soviet Union gave up its lunar
ambitions. As the first human to step on the surface of the
Moon, Neil Armstrong uttered the now famous words:

That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for
mankind.

NASA would conduct six total lunar landings as part of the

Apollo program, with Apollo 17 concluding the program in
1972.[4]

End of Apollo
Buzz Aldrin salutes the US flag on the
Wernher von Braun had advocated for NASA to develop a lunar surface
space station since the agency was created. In 1973, following
the end of the Apollo lunar missions, NASA launched its first
space station, Skylab, on the final launch of the Saturn V.
Skylab reused a significant amount of Apollo and Saturn
hardware, with a repurposed Saturn V third stage serving as
the primary module for the space station. Damage to Skylab
during its launch required spacewalks to be performed by the
first crew to make it habitable and operational. Skylab hosted
nine missions and was decommissioned in 1974 and
deorbited in 1979, two years prior to the first launch of the
Space Shuttle and any possibility of boosting its orbit.[4]
Apollo 15 CSM Endeavour in lunar orbit
In 1975, the Apollo–Soyuz mission was the first ever
international spaceflight and a major diplomatic
accomplishment between the Cold War rivals, which also marked the last flight of the Apollo capsule.[4]
Flown in 1975, a US Apollo spacecraft docked with a Soviet Soyuz capsule.

Interplanetary exploration and space science

During the 1960s, NASA started its space science and
interplanetary probe program. The Mariner program was its
flagship program, launching probes to Venus, Mars, and
Mercury in the 1960s.[17][18] The Jet Propulsion Laboratory
was the lead NASA center for robotic interplanetary
exploration, making significant discoveries about the inner
planets. Despite these successes, Congress was unwilling to
fund further interplanetary missions and NASA Administrator
James Webb suspended all future interplanetary probes to
focus resources on the Apollo program.[4]
Image from Mars taken by the Viking 2
Following the conclusion of the Apollo program, NASA lander

resumed launching interplanetary probes and expanded its

space science program. The first planet tagged for exploration was Venus, sharing many similar
characteristics to Earth. First visited by American Mariner 2 spacecraft,[19] Venus was observed to be a
hot and inhospitable planet. Follow-on missions included the Pioneer Venus project in the 1970s and
Magellan, which performed radar mapping of Venus' surface in the 1980s and 1990s. Future missions
were flybys of Venus, on their way to other destinations in the Solar System.[4]

Mars has long been a planet of intense fascination for NASA, being suspected of potentially having
harbored life. Mariner 5 was the first NASA spacecraft to flyby Mars,[20] followed by Mariner 6 and
Mariner 7. Mariner 9 was the first orbital mission to Mars. Launched in 1975, Viking program consisted
of two landings on Mars in 1976. Follow-on missions would not be launched until 1996, with the Mars
Global Surveyor orbiter and Mars Pathfinder, deploying the first Mars rover, Sojourner.[21] During the
early 2000s, the 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter reached the planet and in 2004 the Sprit and Opportunity
rovers landed on the Red Planet. This was followed in 2005 by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and
2007 Phoenix Mars lander. The 2012 landing of Curiosity discovered that the radiation levels on Mars
were equal to those on the International Space Station (ISS), greatly increasing the possibility of Human
exploration, and observed the key chemical ingredients for life to occur. In 2013, the Mars Atmosphere
and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) mission observed the Martian upper atmosphere and space environment
and in 2018, the Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations Geodesy, and Heat Transport (InSight)
studied the Martian interior. The 2021 Perseverance rover carried the first extraplanetary aircraft, a
helicopter named Ingenuity.[4]

NASA also launched missions to Mercury in 2004, with the MESSENGER probe demonstrating as the
first use of a solar sail.[22] NASA also launched probes to the outer Solar System starting in the 1960s.
Pioneer 10 was the first probe to the outer planets, flying by Jupiter, while Pioneer 11 provided the first
close up view of the planet. Both probes became the first objects to leave the Solar System. The Voyager
program launched in 1977, conducting flybys of Jupiter and Saturn, Neptune, and Uranus on a trajectory
to leave the Solar System.[23] The Galileo spacecraft, deployed from the Space Shuttle flight STS-34, was
the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, discovering evidence of subsurface oceans on the Europa and
observed that the moon may hold ice or liquid water.[24] A joint NASA-European Space Agency-Italian
Space Agency mission, Cassini–Huygens, was sent to Saturn's moon Titan, which, along with Mars and
Europa, are the only celestial bodies in the Solar System suspected of being capable of harboring life.[25]
Cassini discovered three new moons of Saturn and the Huygens probe entered Titan's atmosphere. The
mission discovered evidence of liquid hydrocarbon lakes on Titan and subsurface water oceans on the
moon of Enceladus, which could harbor life. Finally launched in 2006, the New Horizons mission was
the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and the Kuiper belt.[4]

Beyond interplanetary probes, NASA has launched many space telescopes. Launched in the 1960s, the
Orbiting Astronomical Observatory were NASA's first orbital telescopes,[26] providing ultraviolet,
gamma-ray, x-ray, and infrared observations. NASA launched the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory in
the 1960s and 1970s to look down at Earth and observe its interactions with the Sun. The Uhuru satellite
was the first dedicated x-ray telescope, mapping 85% of the sky and discovering a large number of black
holes.[4]

Launched in the 1990s and early 2000s, the Great

Observatories program are among NASA's most powerful
telescopes. The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in
1990 on STS-31 from the Discovery and could view galaxies
15 billion light years away.[27] A major defect in the
telescope's mirror could have crippled the program, had
NASA not used computer enhancement to compensate for the
imperfection and launched five Space Shuttle servicing flights
to replace the damaged components. The Compton Gamma
The Hubble Space Telescope in Low
Ray Observatory was launched from the Atlantis on STS-37 Earth Orbit
in 1991, discovering a possible source of antimatter at the
center of the Milky Way and observing that the majority of
gamma-ray bursts occur outside of the Milky Way galaxy. The Chandra X-ray Observatory was launched
from the Columbia on STS-93 in 1999, observing black holes, quasars, supernova, and dark matter. It
provided critical observations on the Sagittarius A* black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy and
the separation of dark and regular matter during galactic collisions. Finally, the Spitzer Space Telescope is
an infrared telescope launched in 2003 from a Delta II rocket. It is in a trailing orbit around the Sun,
following the Earth and discovered the existence of brown dwarf stars.[4]

Other telescopes, such as the Cosmic Background Explorer and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe, provided evidence to support the Big Bang.[28] The James Webb Space Telescope, named after the
NASA administrator who lead the Apollo program, is an infrared observatory launched in 2021. The
James Webb Space Telescope is a direct successor to the Hubble Space Telescope, intended to observe the
formation of the first galaxies.[29] Other space telescopes include the Kepler space telescope, launched in
2009 to identify planets orbiting extrasolar stars that may be Terran and possibly harbor life. The first
exoplanet that the Kepler space telescope confirmed was Kepler-22b, orbiting within the habitable zone
of its star.[4]

NASA also launched a number of different satellites to study Earth, such as Television Infrared
Observation Satellite (TIROS) in 1960, which was the first weather satellite.[30] NASA and the US
Weather Bureau cooperated on future TIROS and the second generation Nimbus program of weather
satellites. It also worked with the Environmental Science Services Administration on a series of weather
satellites and the agency launched its experimental Applications Technology Satellites into
geosynchronous orbit. NASA's first dedicated Earth observation satellite, Landsat, was launched in 1972.
This led to NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration jointly developing the
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite and discovering Ozone depletion.[4]

Space Shuttle
NASA had been pursuing spaceplane development since the
1960s, blending the administration's dual aeronautics and
space missions. NASA viewed a spaceplane as part of a larger
program, providing routine and economical logistical support
to a space station in Earth orbit that would be used as a hub
for lunar and Mars missions. A reusable launch vehicle would
then have ended the need for expensive and expendable
boosters like the Saturn V.[4]

In 1969, NASA designated the Johnson Space Center as the

lead center for the design, development, and manufacturing of
the Space Shuttle orbiter, while the Marshall Space Flight
Center would lead the development of the launch system.
NASA's series of lifting body aircraft, culminating in the joint
NASA-US Air Force Martin Marietta X-24, directly informed
the development of the Space Shuttle and future hypersonic
flight aircraft. Official development of the Space Shuttle
began in 1972, with Rockwell International contracted to
design the orbiter and engines, Martin Marietta for the
external fuel tank, and Morton Thiokol for the solid rocket Launch of the Space Shuttle Discovery
boosters.[31] NASA acquired six orbiters: the Enterprise, on STS-120
Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour[4]

The Space Shuttle program also allowed NASA to make major changes to its Astronaut Corps. While
almost all previous astronauts were Air Force or Naval test pilots, the Space Shuttle allowed NASA to
begin recruiting more non-military scientific and technical experts. A prime example is Sally Ride, who
became the first American woman to fly in space on STS-7. This new astronaut selection process also
allowed NASA to accept exchange astronauts from US allies and partners for the first time.[4]

The first Space Shuttle flight occurred in 1981, when the Columbia launched on the STS-1 mission,
designed to serve as a flight test for the new spaceplane.[32] NASA intended for the Space Shuttle to
replace expendable launch systems like the Air Force's Atlas, Delta, and Titan and the European Space
Agency's Ariane. The Space Shuttle's Spacelab payload, developed by the European Space Agency,
increased the scientific capabilities of shuttle missions over anything NASA was able to previously
accomplish.[4]

NASA launched its first commercial satellites on the STS-5 mission and in 1984, the STS-41-C mission
conducted the world's first on-orbit satellite servicing mission when the Challenger captured and repaired
the malfunctioning Solar Maximum Mission satellite. It also had the capability to return malfunctioning
satellite to Earth, like it did with the Palapa B2 and Westar 6 satellites. Once returned to Earth, the
satellites were repaired and relaunched.[4]
Despite ushering in a new era of spaceflight, where NASA
was contracting launch services to commercial companies,
the Space Shuttle was criticized for not being as reusable and
cost-effective as advertised. In 1986, Challenger disaster on
the STS-51L mission resulted in the loss of the spacecraft and
all seven astronauts on launch, grounding the entire space
shuttle fleet for 36 months and forced the 44 commercial
companies that contracted with NASA to deploy their
satellites to return to expendable launch vehicles.[33] When
the Space Shuttle returned to flight with the STS-26 mission, Space Shuttle Discovery in Low Earth
it had undergone significant modifications to improve its Orbit on STS-120
reliability and safety.[4]

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian

Federation and United States initiated the Shuttle-Mir
program.[34] The first Russian cosmonaut flew on the STS-60
mission in 1994 and the Discovery rendezvoused, but did not
dock with, the Russian Mir in the STS-63 mission. This was
followed by Atlantis's STS-71 mission where it accomplished
the initial intended mission for the Space Shuttle, docking
with a space station and transferring supplies and personnel.
The Shuttle-Mir program would continue until 1998, when a
series of orbital accidents on the space station spelled an end
to the program.[4]

In 2003, a second space shuttle was destroyed when the

An Air Force Space Command Defense
Columbia was destroyed upon reentry during the STS-107 Support Program missile warning
mission, resulting in the loss of the spacecraft and all seven spacecraft deploys from the Space
astronauts. [35] This accident marked the beginning of the Shuttle Atlantis on the STS-44 mission
retiring of the Space Shuttle program, with President George
W. Bush directing that upon the completion of the ISS, the
space shuttle be retired. In 2006, the Space Shuttle returned to flight, conducting several missions to
service the Hubble Space Telescope, but was retired following the STS-135 resupply mission to the ISS
in 2011.

Space stations
NASA never gave up on the idea of a space station after Skylab's reentry in 1979. The agency began
lobbying politicians to support building a larger space station as soon as the Space Shuttle began flying,
selling it as an orbital laboratory, repair station, and a jumping off point for lunar and Mars missions.
NASA found a strong advocate in President Ronald Reagan, who declared in a 1984 speech:

America has always been greatest when we dared to be great. We can reach for greatness again.
We can follow our dreams to distant stars, living and working in space for peaceful, economic,
and scientific gain. Tonight I am directing NASA to develop a permanently manned space
station and to do it within a decade.
In 1985, NASA proposed the Space Station Freedom, which
both the agency and President Reagan intended to be an
international program.[36] While this would add legitimacy to
the program, there were concerns within NASA that the
international component would dilute its authority within the
project, having never been willing to work with domestic or
international partners as true equals. There was also a concern
with sharing sensitive space technologies with the Europeans,
which had the potential to dilute America's technical lead.
Ultimately, an international agreement to develop the Space
Station Freedom program would be signed with thirteen Skylab seen on the Skylab 4 mission
countries in 1985, including the European Space Agency
(ESA) member states, Canada, and Japan.[4]

Despite its status as the first international space program, the Space Station Freedom was controversial,
with much of the debate centering on cost. Several redesigns to reduce cost were conducted in the early
1990s, stripping away much of its functions. Despite calls for Congress to terminate the program, it
continued, in large part because by 1992 it had created 75,000 jobs across 39 states. By 1993, President
Bill Clinton attempted to significantly reduce NASA's budget and directed costs be significantly reduced,
aerospace industry jobs were not lost, and the Russians be included.[4]

In 1993, the Clinton Administration announced that the Space

Station Freedom would become the ISS in an agreement with
the Russian Federation.[37] This allowed the Russians to
maintain their space program through an infusion of
American currency to maintain their status as one of the two
premier space programs. While the US built and launched the
majority of the ISS, Russia, Canada, Japan, and the ESA all
contributed components. Despite NASA's insistence that
costs would be kept at a budget of $17.4, they kept rising and The International Space Station (ISS)
NASA had to transfer funds from other programs to keep the seen from the Space Shuttle Atlantis on
International Space Station solvent. Ultimately, the total cost the STS-132 mission
of the station was $150 billion, with the US paying for two-
thirds. Following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in
2003, NASA was forced to rely on Russian Soyuz launches for its astronauts and the 2011 retirement of
the Space Shuttle accelerated the station's completion.[4]

In the 1980s, right after the first flight of the Space Shuttle, NASA started a joint program with the
Department of Defense to develop the Rockwell X-30 National Aerospace Plane. NASA realized that the
Space Shuttle, while a massive technological accomplishment, would not be able to live up to all its
promises. Designed to be a single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane, the X-30 had both civil and military
applications. With the end of the Cold War, the X-30 was canceled in 1992 before reaching flight
status.[4]
Unleashing commercial space and return to the Moon
Following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, President Bush started the Constellation program
to smoothly replace the Space Shuttle and expand space exploration beyond low Earth orbit.[38]
Constellation was intended to use a significant amount of former Space Shuttle equipment and return
astronauts to the Moon. This program was canceled by the Obama Administration. Former astronauts
Neil Armstrong, Gene Cernan, and Jim Lovell sent a letter to President Barack Obama to warn him that if
the US did not get new human spaceflight ability, the US risked becoming a second or third-rate space
power.[4]

As early as the Reagan Administration, there had been calls for NASA to expand private sector
involvement in space exploration rather than do it all in-house. In the 1990s, NASA and Lockheed Martin
entered into an agreement to develop the Lockheed Martin X-33 demonstrator of the VentureStar
spaceplane, which was intended to replace the Space Shuttle.[39] Due to technical challenges, the
spacecraft was cancelled in 2001. Despite this, it was the first time a commercial space company directly
expended a significant amount of its resources into spacecraft development. The advent of space tourism
also forced NASA to challenge its assumption that only governments would have people in space. The
first space tourist was Dennis Tito, an American investment manager and former aerospace engineer who
contracted with the Russians to fly to the International Space Station for four days, despite the opposition
of NASA to the idea.[4]

Advocates of this new commercial approach for NASA included former astronaut Buzz Aldrin, who
remarked that it would return NASA to its roots as a research and development agency, with commercial
entities actually operating the space systems. Having corporations take over orbital operations would also
allow NASA to focus all its efforts on deep space exploration and returning humans to the Moon and
going to Mars. Embracing this approach, NASA's Commercial Crew Program started by contracting
cargo delivery to the International Space Station and flew its first operational contracted mission on
SpaceX Crew-1. This marked the first time since the retirement of the Space Shuttle that NASA was able
to launch its own astronauts on an American spacecraft from the US, ending a decade of reliance on the
Russians.[4]

In 2019, NASA announced the Artemis program, intending to return to the Moon and establish a
permanent human presence.[40] This was paired with the Artemis Accords with partner nations to
establish rules of behavior and norms of space commercialization on the Moon.[41]

In 2023, NASA established the Moon to Mars Program office. The office is designed to oversee the
various projects, mission architectures and associated timelines relevant to lunar and Mars exploration
and science.[42]
Active programs

Human spaceflight

International Space Station (1993–present)

The International Space Station (ISS)
combines NASA's Space Station
Freedom project with the Russian
Mir-2 station, the European Columbus
station, and the Japanese Kibō
laboratory module.[43] NASA
originally planned in the 1980s to
develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the
merger of these projects into a single multi-national program The International Space Station as seen
in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space from Space Shuttle Endeavour during
Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency STS-134
(JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the
Canadian Space Agency (CSA).[44][45] The station consists of
pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which were manufactured in
various factories around the world and launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the American
Space Shuttle.[43] The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment
occurred in 2009 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment occurred in 2010. The ownership
and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements,[46] which divide
the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with
the exception of Zarya),[47][48] with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international
partners.[46]

Long-duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS Expeditions. Expedition crew members typically
spend approximately six months on the ISS.[49] The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarily
decreased to two following the Columbia disaster. Between May 2009 and until the retirement of the
Space Shuttle, the expedition crew size has been six crew members.[50] As of 2024, though the
Commercial Program's crew capsules can allow a crew of up to seven, expeditions using them typically
consist of a crew of four. The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past 25 years and 153 days,
having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts
from 15 different nations.[51][52]

The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of 2026, is the largest artificial satellite
in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station.[53] The Russian
Soyuz and American Dragon and Starliner spacecraft are used to send astronauts to and from the ISS.
Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft provide service to the ISS; they are the Russian Progress spacecraft
which has done so since 2000, the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese
H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the (uncrewed) Dragon since 2012, and the American Cygnus
spacecraft since 2013.[54][55] The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer
and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain
docked for the duration of their stay. Between the retirement of the Shuttle in 2011 and the
commencement of crewed Dragon flights in 2020, American astronauts exclusively used the Soyuz for
crew transport to and from the ISS.[56] The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been
thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.[57]

The ISS program is expected to continue until 2030,[58] after which the space station will be retired and
destroyed in a controlled de-orbit.[59]

Commercial Resupply Services (2008–present)

Commercial Resupply
Services (CRS) are a
contract solution to
deliver cargo and
supplies to the
International Space Dragon Cygnus
Station on a commercial
basis by private
companies. [60] NASA
signed its first CRS
contracts in 2008 and
awarded $1.6 billion to
SpaceX for twelve cargo
Dragon and $1.9 billion
to Orbital
[note 1] Commercial Resupply Services missions approaching International Space Station
Sciences for eight
Cygnus flights, covering
deliveries until 2016. Both companies evolved or created their launch vehicle products to launch the
spacecrafts (SpaceX with The Falcon 9 and Orbital with the Antares).

SpaceX flew its first operational resupply mission (SpaceX CRS-1) in 2012.[61] Orbital Sciences
followed in 2014 (Cygnus CRS Orb-1).[62] In 2015, NASA extended CRS-1 to twenty flights for SpaceX
and twelve flights for Orbital ATK.[note 1][63][64]

A second phase of contracts (known as CRS-2) was solicited in 2014; contracts were awarded in January
2016 to Orbital ATK[note 1] Cygnus, Sierra Nevada Corporation Dream Chaser, and SpaceX Dragon 2,
for cargo transport flights beginning in 2019 and expected to last through 2024. In March 2022, NASA
awarded an additional six CRS-2 missions each to both SpaceX and Northrop Grumman (formerly
Orbital).[65]

Northrop Grumman successfully delivered Cygnus NG-17 to the ISS in February 2022.[66] In July 2022,
SpaceX launched its 25th CRS flight (SpaceX CRS-25) and successfully delivered its cargo to the
ISS.[67] The Dream Chaser spacecraft is currently scheduled for its Demo-1 launch in the first half of
2024.[68]
Commercial Crew Program (2011–present)
The Commercial Crew Program (CCP) provides commercially operated crew
transportation service to and from the International Space Station (ISS) under
contract to NASA, conducting crew rotations between the expeditions of the
International Space Station program. American space manufacturer SpaceX began
providing service in 2020, using the Crew Dragon spacecraft,[69] while Boeing's
Starliner spacecraft provided service in 2024. It was on contract for 6 missions,
but after the
first mission
nearly ended
in disaster and
left the two
astronauts
stranded on The Crew Dragon (left) and Starliner (right) approaching the ISS on their respective missions
the ISS for six
months,
NASA froze its contract with Boeing.[70][71][72][73] NASA has contracted for six operational missions
from Boeing and fourteen from SpaceX, ensuring sufficient support for ISS through 2030.[74]

The spacecraft are owned and operated by the vendor, and crew transportation is provided to NASA as a
commercial service.[75] Each mission sends up to four astronauts to the ISS, with an option for a fifth
passenger available. Operational flights occur approximately once every six months for missions that last
for approximately six months. A spacecraft remains docked to the ISS during its mission, and missions
usually overlap by at least a few days. Between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first
operational CCP mission in 2020, NASA relied on the Soyuz program to transport its astronauts to the
ISS.

A Crew Dragon spacecraft is launched to space atop a Falcon 9 Block 5 launch vehicle and the capsule
returns to Earth via splashdown in the ocean near Florida. The program's first operational mission,
SpaceX Crew-1, launched on November 16, 2020.[76] Boeing Starliner operational flights will now
commence with Boeing Starliner-1 which will launched atop an Atlas V N22 launch vehicle. Instead of a
splashdown, Starliner capsules return on land with airbags at one of four designated sites in the western
US.[77]

Artemis (2017–present)
Since 2017, NASA's crewed spaceflight program has been the Artemis program,
which involves the help of US commercial spaceflight companies and
international partners such as ESA, JAXA, and CSA.[78] Artemis would be the
first step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the
Moon, laying the foundation for companies to build a lunar economy, and
eventually sending humans to Mars.

The Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle was held over from the canceled Constellation program for Artemis.
Artemis I was the uncrewed initial launch of Space Launch System (SLS) that would also send an Orion
spacecraft on a Distant Retrograde Orbit.[79]
The first step toward returning astronauts to the Moon will be
Artemis II, expected to launch no earlier than April
2026.[80][78][81] This 10-day mission is planned to briefly
place a crew of four into a lunar flyby.[82] Artemis III,
planned for mid-2027, was originally planned to conduct the
first crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17; in February 2026,
the mission was changed to a low Earth orbit docking test of
Orion. The landing was pushed to Artemis IV, planned for
early 2028.[83][84]

In support of the Artemis missions, NASA has been funding

private companies to land robotic probes on the lunar surface
in a program known as the Commercial Lunar Payload
Services. As of March 2022, NASA has awarded contracts for
robotic lunar probes to companies such as Intuitive Machines, Launch of Artemis I
Firefly Space Systems, and Astrobotic.[85]

On April 16, 2021, NASA announced they had selected the SpaceX Lunar Starship as its Human Landing
System. The agency's Space Launch System rocket will launch four astronauts aboard the Orion
spacecraft for their multi-day journey to lunar orbit where they will transfer to SpaceX's Starship for the
final leg of their journey to the surface of the Moon.[86]

Until 2026, NASA additionally planned the construction of the Lunar Gateway, a small space station in
lunar orbit designed primarily for non-continuous human habitation.[87] In March 2026, NASA canceled
the project in favor of a lunar base.[88]

In 2017, NASA was directed by the congressional NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017 to get
humans to Mars-orbit (or to the Martian surface) by the 2030s.[89][90]

Commercial LEO Development (2021–present)

The Commercial Low Earth Orbit Destinations program is an initiative by NASA to support work on
commercial space stations that the agency hopes to have in place by the end of the current decade to
replace the "International Space Station". The three selected companies are: Blue Origin (et al.) with their
Orbital Reef station concept, Nanoracks (et al.) with their Starlab Space Station concept, and Northrop
Grumman with a station concept based on the HALO-module for the Gateway station.[91]

Robotic exploration
NASA has conducted many uncrewed and robotic spaceflight programs throughout its history. More than
1,000 uncrewed missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the Solar System.[92]

Mission selection process

NASA executes a mission development framework to plan, select, develop, and operate robotic missions.
This framework defines cost, schedule and technical risk parameters to enable competitive selection of
missions involving mission candidates that have been developed by principal investigators and their
teams from across NASA, the broader US Government
research and development stakeholders, and industry. The
mission development construct is defined by four umbrella
programs.[93]
0:00
Explorer program
The Explorer program derives its origin from the earliest days
Video of many of the uncrewed missions
of the US Space program. In current form, the program used to explore the outer reaches of
consists of three classes of systems: Small, Medium, and space
University-Class Explorers missions. The NASA Explorer
program office provides frequent flight opportunities for
moderate cost innovative solutions from the heliophysics and astrophysics science areas. The Small
Explorer missions are required to limit cost to NASA to below $150M (2022 dollars). Medium class
explorer missions have typically involved NASA cost caps of $350M. The Explorer program office is
based at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.[94]

Discovery program
The NASA Discovery program develops and delivers robotic spacecraft solutions in the planetary science
domain. Discovery enables scientists and engineers to assemble a team to deliver a solution against a
defined set of objectives and competitively bid that solution against other candidate programs. Cost caps
vary but recent mission selection processes were accomplished using a $500M cost cap for NASA. The
Planetary Mission Program Office is based at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and manages both
the Discovery and New Frontiers missions. The office is part of the Science Mission Directorate.[95]

NASA Administrator Bill Nelson announced on June 2, 2021, that the DAVINCI+ and VERITAS missions
were selected to launch to Venus in the late 2020s, having beat out competing proposals for missions to
Jupiter's volcanic moon Io and Neptune's large moon Triton that were also selected as Discovery program
finalists in early 2020. Each mission has an estimated cost of $500 million, with launches expected
between 2028 and 2030. Launch contracts will be awarded later in each mission's development.[96]

New Frontiers program

The New Frontiers program focuses on specific Solar System exploration goals identified as top priorities
by the planetary science community. Primary objectives include Solar System exploration employing
medium class spacecraft missions to conduct high-science-return investigations. New Frontiers builds on
the development approach employed by the Discovery program but provides for higher cost caps and
schedule durations than are available with Discovery. Cost caps vary by opportunity; recent missions
have been awarded based on a defined cap of $1 billion. The higher cost cap and projected longer mission
durations result in a lower frequency of new opportunities for the program – typically one every several
years. OSIRIS-REx and New Horizons are examples of New Frontiers missions.[97]

NASA has determined that the next opportunity to propose for the fifth round of New Frontiers missions
will occur no later than the fall of 2024. Missions in NASA's New Frontiers Program tackle specific Solar
System exploration goals identified as top priorities by the planetary science community. Exploring the
Solar System with medium-class spacecraft missions that conduct high-science-return investigations is
NASA's strategy to further understand the Solar System.[98]
Large strategic missions
Large strategic missions (formerly called Flagship missions) are strategic missions that are typically
developed and managed by large teams that may span several NASA centers. The individual missions
become the program as opposed to being part of a larger effort (see Discovery, New Frontiers, etc.). The
James Webb Space Telescope is a strategic mission that was developed over a period of more than 20
years. Strategic missions are developed on an ad-hoc basis as program objectives and priorities are
established. Missions like Voyager, had they been developed today, would have been strategic missions.
Three of the Great Observatories were strategic missions (the Chandra X-ray Observatory, the Compton
Gamma Ray Observatory, and the Hubble Space Telescope). Europa Clipper is the next large strategic
mission in development by NASA.[99]

Planetary science missions

NASA continues to play a material role in exploration of the
Solar System as it has for decades. Ongoing missions have
current science objectives with respect to more than five
extraterrestrial bodies within the Solar System – Moon (Lunar
Reconnaissance Orbiter), Mars (Perseverance rover), Jupiter
(Juno), asteroid Bennu (OSIRIS-REx), and Kuiper Belt
Objects (New Horizons). The Juno extended mission will
make multiple flybys of the Jovian moon Io in 2023 and 2024
after flybys of Ganymede in 2021 and Europa in 2022.
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 continue to provide science data
back to Earth while continuing on their outward journeys into
interstellar space.

On November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory

mission was successfully launched for Mars. The Curiosity
rover successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and
subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present
life on Mars.[100][101][102] Curiosity on the surface of Mars

In September 2014, NASA's MAVEN spacecraft, which is part

of the Mars Scout Program, successfully entered Mars orbit and, as of October 2022, continues its study
of the atmosphere of Mars.[103][104] NASA's ongoing Mars investigations include in-depth surveys of
Mars by the Perseverance rover.

NASA's Europa Clipper, launched in October 2024, will study the Galilean moon Europa through a
series of flybys while in orbit around Jupiter. Dragonfly will send a mobile robotic rotorcraft to Saturn's
biggest moon, Titan.[105] As of May 2021, Dragonfly is scheduled for launch in June 2027.[106][107]

Astrophysics missions
The NASA Science Mission Directorate Astrophysics division manages the agency's astrophysics science
portfolio. NASA has invested significant resources in the development, delivery, and operations of
various forms of space telescopes. These telescopes have provided the means to study the cosmos over a
large range of the electromagnetic spectrum.[108]
The Great Observatories that were launched in the 1980s and
1990s have provided a wealth of observations for study by
physicists across the planet. The first of them, the Hubble
Space Telescope, was delivered to orbit in 1990 and continues
to function, in part due to prior servicing missions performed
by the Space Shuttle.[109][110] The other remaining active
great observatories include the Chandra X-ray Observatory
(CXO), launched by STS-93 in July 1999 and is now in a 64- NASA astrophysics spacecraft fleet,
hour elliptical orbit studying X-ray sources that are not credit NASA GSFC, 2022
readily viewable from terrestrial observatories.[111]

The Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) is a space

observatory designed to improve the understanding of X-ray
production in objects such as neutron stars and pulsar wind
nebulae, as well as stellar and supermassive black holes.[112]
IXPE launched in December 2021 and is an international
collaboration between NASA and the Italian Space Agency
(ASI). It is part of the NASA Small Explorers program, which
designs low-cost spacecraft to study heliophysics and
astrophysics.[113] Chandra X-ray Observatory (rendering),
2015
The Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory was launched in
November 2004 and is a gamma-ray burst observatory that
also monitors the afterglow in X-ray, and UV/Visible light at the location of a burst.[114] The mission was
developed in a joint partnership between Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and an international
consortium from the United States, United Kingdom, and Italy. Pennsylvania State University operates
the mission as part of NASA's Medium Explorer program.[115]

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (FGST) is another gamma-ray focused space observatory that
was launched to low Earth orbit in June 2008 and is being used to perform gamma-ray astronomy
observations.[116] In addition to NASA, the mission involves the US Department of Energy, and
government agencies in France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Sweden.[117]

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), launched in December 2021 on an Ariane 5 rocket, operates
in a halo orbit circling the Sun-Earth L2 point.[118][119][120] JWST's high sensitivity in the infrared
spectrum and its imaging resolution will allow it to view more distant, faint, or older objects than its
predecessors, including Hubble.[121]

Earth Sciences Program missions (1965–present)

NASA Earth Science is a large, umbrella program comprising a range of terrestrial and space-based
collection systems in order to better understand the Earth system and its response to natural and human-
caused changes. Numerous systems have been developed and fielded over several decades to provide
improved prediction for weather, climate, and other changes in the natural environment. Several of the
current operating spacecraft programs include: Aqua,[122] Aura,[123] Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2
(OCO-2),[124] Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-on (GRACE FO),[125] and Ice, Cloud,
and land Elevation Satellite 2 (ICESat-2).[126]
In addition to systems already in orbit, NASA is designing a
new set of Earth Observing Systems to study, assess, and
generate responses for climate change, natural hazards, forest
fires, and real-time agricultural processes.[127] The GOES-T
satellite (designated GOES-18 after launch) joined the fleet of
US geostationary weather monitoring satellites in March
2022.[128]
Schematic of NASA Earth Science
NASA also maintains the Earth Science Data Systems Division operating satellite missions as of
(ESDS) program to oversee the life cycle of NASA's Earth February 2015
science data – from acquisition through processing and
distribution. The primary goal of ESDS is to maximize the
scientific return from NASA's missions and experiments for research and applied scientists, decision
makers, and society at large.[129]

The Earth Science program is managed by the Earth Science Division of the NASA Science Mission
Directorate.

Space operations architecture

NASA invests in various ground and space-based infrastructures to support its science and exploration
mandate. The agency maintains access to suborbital and orbital space launch capabilities and sustains
ground station solutions to support its evolving fleet of spacecraft and remote systems.

Deep Space Network (1963–present)

The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) serves as the primary ground station solution for NASA's
interplanetary spacecraft and select Earth-orbiting missions.[130] The system employs ground station
complexes near Barstow, California, in Spain near Madrid, and in Australia near Canberra. The placement
of these ground stations approximately 120 degrees apart around the planet provides the ability for
communications to spacecraft throughout the Solar System even as the Earth rotates about its axis on a
daily basis. The system is controlled at a 24x7 operations center at JPL in Pasadena, California, which
manages recurring communications linkages with up to 40 spacecraft.[131] The system is managed by the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory.[130]

Near Space Network (1983–present)

The Near Space Network (NSN) provides telemetry,
commanding, ground-based tracking, data and
communications services to a wide range of customers with
satellites in low earth orbit (LEO), geosynchronous orbit
(GEO), highly elliptical orbits (HEO), and lunar orbits. The
NSN accumulates ground station and antenna assets from the
Near-Earth Network and the Tracking and Data Relay
Satellite System (TDRS) which operates in geosynchronous Near Earth Network Ground Stations,
orbit providing continuous real-time coverage for launch 2021
vehicles and low earth orbit NASA missions.[132]
The NSN consists of 19 ground stations worldwide operated by the US Government and by contractors
including Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT), Swedish Space Corporation (SSC), and South African
National Space Agency (SANSA).[133] The ground network averages between 120 and 150 spacecraft
contacts a day with TDRS engaging with systems on a near-continuous basis as needed; the system is
managed and operated by the Goddard Space Flight Center.[134]

Sounding Rocket Program (1959–present)

The NASA Sounding Rocket Program (NSRP) is located at the
Wallops Flight Facility and provides launch capability,
payload development and integration, and field operations
support to execute suborbital missions.[135] The program has
been in operation since 1959 and is managed by the Goddard
Space Flight Center using a combined US Government and
contractor team.[136] The NSRP team conducts approximately
20 missions per year from both Wallops and other launch
locations worldwide to allow scientists to collect data "where NASA sounding rocket launch from the
it occurs". The program supports the strategic vision of the Wallops Flight Facility
Science Mission Directorate collecting important scientific
data for earth science, heliophysics, and astrophysics
programs.[135]

In June 2022, NASA conducted its first rocket launch from a commercial spaceport outside the US. It
launched a Black Brant IX from the Arnhem Space Centre in Australia.[137]

Launch Services Program (1990–present)

The NASA Launch Services Program (LSP) is responsible for procurement of
launch services for NASA uncrewed missions and oversight of launch integration
and launch preparation activity, providing added quality and mission assurance to
meet program objectives.[138] Since 1990, NASA has purchased expendable
launch vehicle launch services directly from commercial providers, whenever
possible, for its scientific and applications missions. Expendable launch vehicles
can accommodate all types of orbit inclinations and altitudes and are ideal
vehicles for launching Earth-orbit and interplanetary missions. LSP operates from Kennedy Space Center
and falls under the NASA Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD).[139][140]

Aeronautics Research
The Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) is one of five mission directorates within NASA,
the other four being the Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate, the Space Operations
Mission Directorate, the Science Mission Directorate, and the Space Technology Mission
Directorate.[141] The ARMD is responsible for NASA's aeronautical research, which benefits the
commercial, military, and general aviation sectors. ARMD performs its aeronautics research at four
NASA facilities: Ames Research Center and Armstrong Flight Research Center in California, Glenn
Research Center in Ohio, and Langley Research Center in Virginia.[142]
NASA X-57 Maxwell aircraft (2016–present)
The NASA X-57 Maxwell is an experimental aircraft being developed by NASA to demonstrate the
technologies required to deliver a highly efficient all-electric aircraft.[143] The primary goal of the
program is to develop and deliver all-electric technology solutions that can also achieve airworthiness
certification with regulators. The program involves development of the system in several phases, or
modifications, to incrementally grow the capability and operability of the system. The initial
configuration of the aircraft has now completed ground testing as it approaches its first flights. In mid-
2022, the X-57 was scheduled to fly before the end of the year.[144] The development team includes staff
from the NASA Armstrong, Glenn, and Langley centers along with a number of industry partners from
the US and Italy.[145]

Next Generation Air Transportation System (2007–present)

NASA is collaborating with the Federal Aviation Administration and industry stakeholders to modernize
the US National Airspace System (NAS). Efforts began in 2007 with a goal to deliver major
modernization components by 2025.[146] The modernization effort intends to increase the safety,
efficiency, capacity, access, flexibility, predictability, and resilience of the NAS while reducing the
environmental impact of aviation.[147] The Aviation Systems Division of NASA Ames operates the joint
NASA/FAA North Texas Research Station. The station supports all phases of NextGen research, from
concept development to prototype system field evaluation. This facility has already transitioned advanced
NextGen concepts and technologies to use through technology transfers to the FAA.[146] NASA
contributions also include development of advanced automation concepts and tools that provide air traffic
controllers, pilots, and other airspace users with more accurate real-time information about the nation's
traffic flow, weather, and routing. Ames' advanced airspace modeling and simulation tools have been used
extensively to model the flow of air traffic flow across the US, and to evaluate new concepts in airspace
design, traffic flow management, and optimization.[148]

Technology research

Nuclear in-space power and propulsion (ongoing)

NASA has made use of technologies such as the multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(MMRTG), which is a type of radioisotope thermoelectric generator used to power spacecraft.[149]
Shortages of the required plutonium-238 have curtailed deep space missions since the turn of the
millennium.[150] An example of a spacecraft that was not developed because of a shortage of this material
was New Horizons 2.[150]

In July 2021, NASA announced contract awards for development of nuclear thermal propulsion reactors.
Three contractors will develop individual designs over 12 months for later evaluation by NASA and the
US Department of Energy.[151] NASA's space nuclear technologies portfolio are led and funded by its
Space Technology Mission Directorate.

In January 2023, NASA announced a partnership with Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) on the Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO) program to demonstrate
a NTR engine in space, an enabling capability for NASA missions to Mars.[152] In July 2023, NASA and
DARPA jointly announced the award of $499 million to Lockheed Martin to design and build an
experimental NTR rocket to be launched in 2027.[153]
In July 2025, Acting NASA Administrator Sean Duffy issued a directive to fast-track plans for placing a
nuclear reactor on the Moon to support the agency's Artemis program and maintain U.S. leadership in
space exploration. The directive, prompted by concerns that China and Russia may deploy a joint lunar
reactor by the mid-2030s, emphasizes the need for a 100-kilowatt system to power long-term lunar
missions. Duffy warned that if another nation establishes a reactor first, it could create "keep-out zones"
limiting U.S. access.[154]

Other initiatives
Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC), founded in 1994, "focuses on archiving and
distributing data related to human interactions in the environment. SEDAC synthesizes Earth science and
socioeconomic data and information" in Palisades, NY,[155] with partner Center for Integrated Earth
System Information, Columbia University.[156] SEDAC has extensive geospatial data holdings.[155][157]

Free Space Optics. NASA contracted a third party to study the probability of using Free Space Optics
(FSO) to communicate with Optical (laser) Stations on the Ground (OGS) called laser-com RF networks
for satellite communications.[158]

Water Extraction from Lunar Soil. On July 29, 2020, NASA requested American universities to propose
new technologies for extracting water from the lunar soil and developing power systems. The idea will
help the space agency conduct sustainable exploration of the Moon.[159]

In 2024, NASA was tasked by the US Government to create a Time standard for the Moon. The standard
is to be called Coordinated Lunar Time and is expected to be finalized in 2026.[160]

Human Spaceflight Research (2005–present)

NASA's Human Research Program
(HRP) is designed to study the effects
of space on human health and also to
provide countermeasures and
technologies for human space
exploration.[161] The medical effects
of space exploration are reasonably
limited in low Earth orbit or in travel to the Moon. Travel to
Mars is significantly longer and deeper into space, significant SpaceX Crew-4 astronaut Samantha
medical issues can result. These include bone density loss, Cristoforetti operating the rHEALTH ONE
radiation exposure, vision changes, circadian rhythm on the ISS to address key health risks for
disturbances, heart remodeling, and immune alterations. In space travel
order to study and diagnose these ill-effects, HRP has been
tasked with identifying or developing small portable
instrumentation with low mass, volume, and power to monitor the health of astronauts.[162] To achieve
this aim, on May 13, 2022, NASA and SpaceX Crew-4 astronauts successfully tested its rHEALTH ONE
universal biomedical analyzer for its ability to identify and analyzer biomarkers, cells, microorganisms,
and proteins in a spaceflight environment.[163]
Planetary Defense (2016–present)
NASA established the Planetary Defense Coordination Office (PDCO) in 2016 to
catalog and track potentially hazardous near-Earth objects (NEO), such as
asteroids and comets and develop potential responses and defenses against these
threats.[164] The PDCO is chartered to provide timely and accurate information to
the government and the public on close approaches by Potentially hazardous
objects (PHOs) and any potential for impact. The office functions within the
Science Mission Directorate Planetary Science Division.[165]

The PDCO augmented prior cooperative actions between the US, the European Union, and other nations
which had been scanning the sky for NEOs since 1998 in an effort called Spaceguard.[166]

Near Earth object detection (1998–present)

From the 1990s NASA has run many NEO detection programs from Earth bases observatories, greatly
increasing the number of objects that have been detected. Many asteroids are very dark and those near the
Sun are much harder to detect from Earth-based telescopes which observe at night, and thus face away
from the Sun. NEOs inside Earth orbit only reflect a part of light also rather than potentially a "full
Moon" when they are behind the Earth and fully lit by the Sun.[167]

In 1998, the US Congress gave NASA a mandate to detect 90% of near-Earth asteroids over 1 km
(0.62 mi) diameter (that threaten global devastation) by 2008.[168] This initial mandate was met by
2011.[169] In 2005, the original USA Spaceguard mandate was extended by the George E. Brown, Jr.
Near-Earth Object Survey Act, which calls for NASA to detect 90% of NEOs with diameters of 140 m
(460 ft) or greater, by 2020 (compare to the 20-meter Chelyabinsk meteor that hit Russia in 2013).[170] As
of January 2020, it is estimated that less than half of these have been found, but objects of this size hit the
Earth only about once in 2,000 years.[171]

In January 2020, NASA officials estimated it would take 30 years to find all objects meeting the 140 m
(460 ft) size criteria, more than twice the timeframe that was built into the 2005 mandate.[172] In June
2021, NASA authorized the development of the NEO Surveyor spacecraft to reduce that projected
duration to achieve the mandate down to 10 years.[173][174]

Involvement in current robotic missions

NASA has incorporated planetary defense objectives into several ongoing missions.

In 1999, NASA visited 433 Eros with the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft which entered its orbit in 2000,
closely imaging the asteroid with various instruments at that time.[175] NEAR Shoemaker became the first
spacecraft to successfully orbit and land on an asteroid, improving our understanding of these bodies and
demonstrating our capacity to study them in greater detail.[176]

OSIRIS-REx used its suite of instruments to transmit radio tracking signals and capture optical images of
Bennu during its study of the asteroid that will help NASA scientists determine its precise position in the
solar system and its exact orbital path. As Bennu has the potential for recurring approaches to the Earth-
Moon system in the next 100–200 years, the precision gained from OSIRIS-REx will enable scientists to
better predict the future gravitational interactions between Bennu and our planet and resultant changes in
Bennu's onward flight path.[177][178]

The WISE/NEOWISE mission was launched by NASA JPL in 2009 as an infrared-wavelength

astronomical space telescope. In 2013, NASA repurposed it as the NEOWISE mission to find potentially
hazardous near-Earth asteroids and comets; its mission has been extended into 2023.[179][180]

NASA and Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (JHAPL) jointly developed the first planetary
defense purpose-built satellite, the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) to test possible planetary
defense concepts.[181] DART was launched in November 2021 by a SpaceX Falcon 9 from California on
a trajectory designed to impact the Dimorphos asteroid. Scientists were seeking to determine whether an
impact could alter the subsequent path of the asteroid; a concept that could be applied to future planetary
defense.[182] On September 26, 2022, DART hit its target. In the weeks following impact, NASA declared
DART a success, confirming it had shortened Dimorphos' orbital period around Didymos by about 32
minutes, surpassing the pre-defined success threshold of 73 seconds.[183][184]

NEO Surveyor, formerly called the Near-Earth Object Camera (NEOCam) mission, is a space-based
infrared telescope under development to survey the Solar System for potentially hazardous asteroids.[185]
The spacecraft is scheduled to launch in 2026.

Study of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (2022–present)

In June 2022, the head of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, Thomas Zurbuchen, confirmed the start
of NASA's UAP independent study team.[186] At a speech before the National Academies of Science,
Engineering and Medicine, Zurbuchen said the space agency would bring a scientific perspective to
efforts already underway by the Pentagon and intelligence agencies to make sense of dozens of such
sightings. He said it was "high-risk, high-impact" research that the space agency should not shy away
from, even if it is a controversial field of study.[187]

Collaboration

NASA Advisory Council

In response to the Apollo 1 accident, which killed three astronauts in 1967, Congress directed NASA to
form an Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) to advise the NASA Administrator on safety issues
and hazards in NASA's air and space programs. In the aftermath of the Shuttle Columbia disaster,
Congress required that the ASAP submit an annual report to the NASA Administrator and to
Congress.[188] By 1971, NASA had also established the Space Program Advisory Council and the
Research and Technology Advisory Council to provide the administrator with advisory committee
support. In 1977, the latter two were combined to form the NASA Advisory Council (NAC).[189] The
NASA Authorization Act of 2014 reaffirmed the importance of ASAP.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
NASA and NOAA have cooperated for decades on the development, delivery and
operation of polar and geosynchronous weather satellites.[190] The relationship
typically involves NASA developing the space systems, launch solutions, and
ground control technology for the satellites and NOAA operating the systems and
delivering weather forecasting products to users. Multiple generations of NOAA Polar orbiting platforms
have operated to provide detailed imaging of weather from low altitude.[191] Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellites (GOES) provide near-real-time coverage of the western hemisphere to ensure
accurate and timely understanding of developing weather phenomenon.[192]

United States Space Force

The United States Space Force (USSF) is the space service branch of the US
Armed Forces, while NASA is an independent agency of the US government
responsible for civil spaceflight. NASA and the Space Force's predecessors in the
Air Force have a long-standing cooperative relationship, with the Space Force
supporting NASA launches out of Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral Space
Force Station, and Vandenberg Space Force Base, to include range support and
rescue operations from Task Force 45.[193] NASA and the Space Force also
partner on matters such as defending Earth from asteroids.[194] Space Force members can be NASA
astronauts, with Colonel Michael S. Hopkins, the commander of SpaceX Crew-1, commissioned into the
Space Force from the International Space Station on December 18, 2020.[195][196][197] In September
2020, the Space Force and NASA signed a memorandum of understanding formally acknowledging the
joint role of both agencies. This new memorandum replaced a similar document signed in 2006 between
NASA and Air Force Space Command.[198][199]

US Geological Survey
The Landsat program is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of satellite
imagery of Earth. It is a joint NASA / USGS program.[200] On July 23, 1972, the
Earth Resources Technology Satellite was launched. This was eventually renamed
to Landsat 1 in 1975.[201] The most recent satellite in the series, Landsat 9, was
launched on September 27, 2021.[202]

The instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images. The images, archived in the
US and at Landsat receiving stations around the world, are a unique resource for global change research
and applications in agriculture, cartography, geology, forestry, regional planning, surveillance and
education, and can be viewed through the US Geological Survey (USGS) "EarthExplorer" website. The
collaboration between NASA and USGS involves NASA designing and delivering the space system
(satellite) solution, launching the satellite into orbit with the USGS operating the system once in
orbit.[200] As of October 2022, nine satellites have been built with eight of them successfully operating in
orbit.
European Space Agency (ESA)
NASA collaborates with the European Space Agency on a wide range of scientific
and exploration requirements.[203] From participation with the Space Shuttle (the
Spacelab missions) to major roles on the Artemis program (the Orion Service
Module), ESA and NASA have supported the science and exploration missions of
each agency. There are NASA payloads on ESA spacecraft and ESA payloads on NASA spacecraft. The
agencies have developed joint missions in areas including heliophysics (e.g. Solar Orbiter)[204] and
astronomy (Hubble Space Telescope, James Webb Space Telescope).[205]

Under the Artemis Gateway partnership, ESA will contribute habitation and refueling modules, along
with enhanced lunar communications, to the Gateway.[206][207] NASA and ESA continue to advance
cooperation in relation to Earth Science including climate change with agreements to cooperate on
various missions including the Sentinel-6 series of spacecraft[208]

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

In September 2014, NASA and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
signed a partnership to collaborate on and launch a joint radar mission, the NASA-
ISRO Synthetic Aperature Radar (NISAR) mission. The mission was launched on
July 30, 2025.[209] NASA has provided the mission's L-band synthetic aperture
radar, a high-rate communication subsystem for science data, GPS receivers, a
solid-state recorder and payload data subsystem. ISRO has provided the
spacecraft bus, the S-band radar, the launch vehicle and associated launch
services.[210][211]

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)

NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) cooperate on a
range of space projects. JAXA is a direct participant in the Artemis program,
including the Lunar Gateway effort. JAXA's planned contributions to Gateway
include I-Hab's environmental control and life support system, batteries, thermal
control, and imagery components, which will be integrated into the module by the
European Space Agency (ESA) prior to launch. These capabilities are critical for sustained Gateway
operations during crewed and uncrewed time periods.[212][213]

JAXA and NASA have collaborated on numerous satellite programs, especially in areas of Earth science.
NASA has contributed to JAXA satellites and vice versa. Japanese instruments are flying on NASA's
Terra and Aqua satellites, and NASA sensors have flown on previous Japanese Earth-observation
missions. The NASA-JAXA Global Precipitation Measurement mission was launched in 2014 and
includes both NASA- and JAXA-supplied sensors on a NASA satellite launched on a JAXA rocket. The
mission provides the frequent, accurate measurements of rainfall over the entire globe for use by
scientists and weather forecasters.[214]
Roscosmos
NASA and Roscosmos have cooperated on the development and operation of the
International Space Station since September 1993.[215] The agencies have used
launch systems from both countries to deliver station elements to orbit. Astronauts
and Cosmonauts jointly maintain various elements of the station. Both countries
provide access to the station via launch systems noting Russia's unique role as the
sole provider of delivery of crew and cargo upon retirement of the space shuttle in 2011 and prior to
commencement of NASA COTS and crew flights. In July 2022, NASA and Roscosmos signed a deal to
share space station flights enabling crew from each country to ride on the systems provided by the
other.[216] Current geopolitical conditions in late 2022 make it unlikely that cooperation will be extended
to other programs such as Artemis or lunar exploration.[217]

Artemis Accords
The Artemis Accords have been established to define a framework for cooperating in the peaceful
exploration and exploitation of the Moon, Mars, asteroids, and comets. The accords were drafted by
NASA and the US State Department and are executed as a series of bilateral agreements between the US
and the participating countries.[218][219] As of June 2023, 22 countries have signed the accords. They are
Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, France, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea,
Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Singapore,
Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the UK, and the US.[220][221]

China National Space Administration

The Wolf Amendment was passed by the US Congress into law in 2011 and prevents NASA from
engaging in direct, bilateral cooperation with the Chinese government and China-affiliated organizations
such as the China National Space Administration without the explicit authorization from Congress and
the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The law has been renewed annually since by inclusion in annual
appropriations bills.[222]

Management

Leadership
The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC, and provides overall
guidance and direction.[223] Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are
required to be US citizens.[224] NASA's administrator is nominated by the US president subject to Senate
approval[225] and serves at the president's pleasure as a senior space science advisor.

Jared Isaacman is the administrator of NASA since December 2025. His first nomination was withdrawn
by President Donald Trump on May 31, 2025.[226] He was renominated on November 4, 2025,[227] and
confirmed by the Senate on December 17.[228]
Strategic plan
NASA operates with four FY2022 strategic goals.[229]

Expand human knowledge through new scientific

discoveries
Extend human presence to the Moon and on towards
Mars for sustainable long-term exploration,
development, and utilization
Catalyze economic growth and drive innovation to
address national challenges
Enhance capabilities and operations to catalyze current
and future mission success

Budget
Administrator Jared Isaacman (2025–
NASA budget requests are developed by NASA and approved by
present)
the administration prior to submission to the US Congress.
Authorized budgets are those that have been included in enacted
appropriations bills that are approved by both houses of Congress and enacted into law by the US
president.[230]

NASA fiscal year budget requests and authorized budgets are listed below.

Budget Request Authorized Budget US Government

Year
in bil. US$ in bil. US$ Employees

2018 $19.092[231] $20.736[232] 17,551[233]

2019 $19.892[232] $21.500[234] 17,551[235]

2020 $22.613[234] $22.629[236] 18,048[237]

2021 $25.246[236] $23.271[238] 18,339[239]

2022 $24.802[238] $24.041[240] 18,400 est

Organization
NASA funding and priorities are developed through its six Mission Directorates.

Associate
Mission Directorate
Administrator % of Budget[238]

Aeronautics Research (ARMD) Catherine Koerner[241] 4%

Exploration Systems (ESDMD) Jim Free[242] 28%

Space Operations (SOMD) Ken Bowersox[243] 17%

Science (SMD) Nicola Fox[244] 32%

Space Technology (STMD) Clayton Turner (acting)[245] 5%

Mission Support (MSD) Robert Gibbs[246] 14%

Center-wide activities such as the Chief Engineer and Safety
and Mission Assurance organizations are aligned to the
headquarters function. The MSD budget estimate includes
funds for these HQ functions. The administration operates 10
major field centers with several managing additional
subordinate facilities across the country. Each center is led by
a director (data below valid as of December 23, 2024).

Primary
Field Center Director
Location
Ames Research Moffett Field,
Center California Eugene Tu[247]
Budget allocations to Mission Directorates
Armstrong Flight Bradley
Edwards, Science (32.0%)
Research
Center
California Flick[248]
Exploration Systems (28.0%)
Glenn Research James Space Operations (17.0%)
Cleveland, Ohio
Center Kenyon[249] Mission Support (14.0%)
Cynthia Space Technology (5.00%)
Goddard Space Greenbelt,
Simmons
Flight Center Maryland Aeronautics Research (4.00%)
(acting)[250]
La Cañada Laurie
Jet Propulsion
Flintridge,
Laboratory
California Leshin[251]

Johnson Space Vanessa

Houston, Texas
Center Wyche[252]
Glenn
Kennedy Space Merritt Island, Ames Goddard
Center Florida Janet Petro[253] Langley
Armstrong
JPL Marshall
Langley Dawn Schaible
Hampton, Stennis
Research
Center
Virginia (acting)[245]
Johnson Kennedy
Marshall Space Huntsville, Joseph
Flight Center Alabama Pelfrey[254] NASA field center locations

Hancock
Stennis Space
Center
County, John Bailey[255]
Mississippi

Sustainability

Environmental impact
The exhaust gases produced by rocket propulsion systems, both in Earth's atmosphere and in space, can
adversely affect the Earth's environment. Some hypergolic rocket propellants, such as hydrazine, are
highly toxic prior to combustion, but decompose into less toxic compounds after burning. Rockets using
hydrocarbon fuels, such as kerosene, release carbon dioxide and soot in their exhaust.[256] Carbon dioxide
emissions are insignificant compared to those from other sources; on average, the US consumed
803 million US gal (3.0 million m3) of liquid fuels per day in 2014, while a single Falcon 9 rocket first
stage burns around 25,000 US gallons (95 m3) of kerosene fuel per launch.[257][258] Even if a Falcon 9
were launched every single day, it would only represent 0.006% of liquid fuel consumption (and carbon
dioxide emissions) for that day. Additionally, the exhaust from LOx- and LH2- fueled engines, like the
SSME, is almost entirely water vapor.[259] NASA addressed environmental concerns with its canceled
Constellation program in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act in 2011.[260] In
contrast, ion engines use harmless noble gases like xenon for propulsion.[261][262]

An example of NASA's environmental efforts is the NASA Sustainability Base. Additionally, the
Exploration Sciences Building was awarded the LEED Gold rating in 2010.[263] On May 8, 2003, the
Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use landfill gas
to produce energy at one of its facilities—the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland.[264]

In 2018, NASA along with other companies including Sensor Coating Systems, Pratt & Whitney, Monitor
Coating and UTRC launched the project CAUTION (CoAtings for Ultra High Temperature detectION).
This project aims to enhance the temperature range of the Thermal History Coating up to 1,500 °C
(2,730 °F) and beyond. The final goal of this project is improving the safety of jet engines as well as
increasing efficiency and reducing CO2 emissions.[265]

Climate change
NASA also researches and publishes on climate change.[266] Its statements concur with the global
scientific consensus that the climate is warming.[267] Bob Walker, who has advised former US President
Donald Trump on space issues, has advocated that NASA should focus on space exploration and that its
climate study operations should be transferred to other agencies such as NOAA. Former NASA
atmospheric scientist J. Marshall Shepherd countered that Earth science study was built into NASA's
mission at its creation in the 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act.[268] NASA won the 2020 Webby
People's Voice Award for Green in the category Web.[269]

STEM Initiatives
Educational Launch of Nanosatellites (ELaNa). Since 2011, the ELaNa program has provided
opportunities for NASA to work with university teams to test emerging technologies and commercial-off-
the-shelf solutions by providing launch opportunities for developed CubeSats using NASA procured
launch opportunities.[270] By example, two NASA-sponsored CubeSats launched in June 2022 on a
Virgin Orbit LauncherOne vehicle as the ELaNa 39 mission.[271]

Cubes in Space. NASA started an annual competition in 2014 named "Cubes in Space".[272] It is jointly
organized by NASA and the global education company I Doodle Learning, with the objective of teaching
school students aged 11–18 to design and build scientific experiments to be launched into space on a
NASA rocket or balloon. On June 21, 2017, the world's smallest satellite, KalamSAT, was launched.[273]

Use of the metric system

US law requires the International System of Units to be used in all US Government programs, "except
where impractical".[274]

In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the Moon using a mix of US customary units and metric units. In the 1980s,
NASA started the transition towards the metric system, but was still using both systems in the
1990s.[275][276] On September 23, 1999, a mixup between NASA's use of SI units and Lockheed Martin
Space's use of US units resulted in the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter.[277]

In August 2007, NASA stated that all future missions and explorations of the Moon would be done
entirely using the SI system. This was done to improve cooperation with space agencies of other
countries that already use the metric system.[278] As of 2007, NASA is predominantly working with SI
units, but some projects still use US units, and some, including the International Space Station, use a mix
of both.[279]

Media presence

NASA TV
Approaching 40 years of service, the NASA TV channel airs content ranging from live coverage of
crewed missions to video coverage of significant milestones for operating robotic spacecraft (e.g. rover
landings on Mars) and domestic and international launches.[280] The channel is delivered by NASA and is
broadcast by satellite and over the Internet. The system initially started to capture archival footage of
important space events for NASA managers and engineers and expanded as public interest grew. The
Apollo 8 Christmas Eve broadcast while in orbit around the Moon was received by more than a billion
people.[281] NASA's video transmission of the Apollo 11 Moon landing was awarded a primetime Emmy
in commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the landing.[282] The channel is a product of the US
Government and is widely available across many television and Internet platforms.[283]

NASAcast
NASAcast is the official audio and video podcast of the NASA website. Created in late 2005, the podcast
service contains the latest audio and video features from the NASA web site, including NASA TV's This
Week at NASA and educational materials produced by NASA. Additional NASA podcasts, such as
Science@NASA, are also featured and give subscribers an in-depth look at content by subject matter.[284]

NASA EDGE
NASA EDGE is a video podcast which explores different
missions, technologies and projects developed by NASA. The
program was released by NASA on March 18, 2007, and, as
of August 2020, there have been 200 vodcasts produced. It is
a public outreach vodcast sponsored by NASA's Exploration
Systems Mission Directorate and based out of the Exploration
and Space Operations Directorate at Langley Research Center
in Hampton, Virginia. The NASA EDGE team takes an
insider's look at current projects and technologies from
NASA facilities around the US, and it is depicted through NASA EDGE broadcasting live from
personal interviews, on-scene broadcasts, computer White Sands Missile Range in 2010
animations, and personal interviews with top scientists and
engineers at NASA.[note 2]
The show explores the contributions NASA has made to society as well as the progress of current projects
in materials and space exploration. NASA EDGE vodcasts can be downloaded from the NASA website
and from iTunes.

In its first year of production, the show was downloaded over 450,000 times. As of February 2010, the
average download rate is more than 420,000 per month, with over one million downloads in December
2009 and January 2010.[286]

NASA and the NASA EDGE have also developed interactive programs designed to complement the
vodcast. The Lunar Electric Rover App allows users to drive a simulated Lunar Electric Rover between
objectives, and it provides information about and images of the vehicle.[287] The NASA EDGE Widget
provides a graphical user interface for accessing NASA EDGE vodcasts, image galleries, and the
program's Twitter feed, as well as a live NASA news feed.[288]

Astronomy Picture of the Day

Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD) is a website provided by NASA and Michigan Technological
University (MTU). Each day it features a different image of the universe accompanied by an explanation
written by a professional astronomer.[289] The photograph does not necessarily correspond to a celestial
event on the exact day that it is displayed, and images are sometimes repeated.[290] These often relate to
current events in astronomy and space exploration. The text has several hyperlinks to more pictures and
websites for more information. The images are either visible spectrum photographs, images taken at non-
visible wavelengths and displayed in false color, video footage, animations, artist's conceptions, or
micrographs that relate to space or cosmology.

Past images are stored in the APOD Archive, with the first image appearing on June 16, 1995.[291] This
initiative has received support from NASA, the National Science Foundation, and MTU. The images are
sometimes authored by people or organizations outside NASA, and therefore APOD images are often
copyrighted, unlike many other NASA image galleries.[292]

NASA+
In July 2023, NASA announced a new streaming service known as NASA+. It launched on November 8,
2023, and has live coverage of launches, documentaries and original programs. According to NASA, it
will be free of ads and subscription fees. It will be a part of the NASA app on iOS, Android, Amazon Fire
TV, Roku and Apple TV as well as on the web on desktop and mobile devices.[293][294][295]

Gallery
NASA spacecraft observations of the Solar System
 Sun image by Planet Mercury Planet Venus Planet Earth Moon image by
Solar Dynamics image by image by image by Apollo Apollo 8 crew, 1968
Observatory, MESSENGER, Mariner 10, 1974 17 crew, 1972
2010 2008

Planet Mars Asteroid 433 Dwarf planet Planet Jupiter Moon Io (Jupiter)
image by Viking Eros image by Ceres image by image by Juno, image by
1, 1976 NEAR Dawn, 2015 2019 Galileo, 1999
Shoemaker,
2000

Planet Saturn Moon Mimas Planet Uranus Moon Miranda Planet Neptune
image by (Saturn) image by Voyager 2, (Uranus) image image by
Cassini, 2016 by Cassini, 2010 1986 by Voyager 2, Voyager 2, 1989
1986

Dwarf planet Moon Charon

Pluto image by (Pluto) image by
New Horizons, New Horizons,
2015 2015

NASA Great Observatory images

 Helix Nebula by 1901 GK Persei Carina Nebula by Stephens quintet
Spitzer Space supernova by Hubble Space by James Webb
Telescope, 2007 Chandra X-ray Telescope, 2010 Space Telescope,
Observatory, 2015 Jul 2022

NASA spacecraft

Comparison of Apollo, Surveyor 3, Pete Space Shuttle Endeavor Hubble Space

Gemini, and Mercury Conrad, and in orbit, 2008 Telescope released in
systems[note 3] Apollo 12 on the orbit after servicing,
Moon, 1969 2009.

James Webb Space Opportunity rover on Curiosity rover self- Perseverance

Telescope now in surface of Mars portrait on Mars, 2021 rover during Mars
orbit, 2025. (rendering), 2003 skycrane landing,
February 2021

Voyager 2, now 21.1 Orion spacecraft and

billion kilometers European Service Module
from the Earth, June testing, 2020
2025
 NASA space launch systems

Saturn V and Titan III/Centaur Delta II Space Shuttle Space Launch

Apollo 11 at launching launching (STS-124) System and
launch, Jul 1969 Voyager 2 Spirit rover, during launch, Artemis I at
spacecraft, Jul Jun 2003 May 2008 launch, Nov
1977 2022

Concepts and plans

Concept of Space Tug NASA Langley's Lunar Gateway space

space tug cargo concept, 1970s Interstellar probe Mars Ice station, 2020
transport to a concept, 2022 Dome
Nuclear Shuttle, design for a
1960s Mars
habitat,
2010s

NASA lunar outpost NASA concept for NASA concept for

concept, 2006 crewed floating 2069 Alpha
outpost on Venus, Centauri solar sail
2014 mission

See also
United States
portal
Politics portal
 Spaceflight portal

Rocketry portal

List of crewed spacecraft

List of NASA aircraft
List of space disasters
List of United States rockets
Category: NASA people
NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program
NASA Art Program
NASA Clean Air Study – 1989 study of plants removing air pollutants
NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts – NASA program
NASA Research Park – Research park near San Jose, California
TechPort (NASA) – Technology Portfolio System

Explanatory notes
1. Orbital Sciences was awarded a CRS contract in 2008. In 2015, Orbital Sciences became
Orbital ATK through a business merger. Orbital ATK was awarded a CRS-2 contract in 2016.
In 2018, Orbital ATK was acquired by Northrop Grumman.
2. NASA EDGE Cast and Crew: Chris Giersch (Host); Blair Allen (Co-host and senior
producer); Franklin Fitzgerald (News anchor and "everyman"); Jaqueline Mirielle Cortez
(Special co-host); Ron Beard (Director and "set therapist"); and Don Morrison (Audio/video
engineer)[285]
3. From left to right: Launch vehicle of Apollo (Saturn 5), Gemini (Titan 2) and Mercury (Atlas).
Left, top-down: Spacecraft of Apollo, Gemini and Mercury. The Saturn IB and Mercury-
Redstone launch vehicles are left out.

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Further reading
Alexander, Joseph K. Science Advice to NASA: Conflict, Consensus, Partnership,
Leadership (2019) excerpt ([Link]
adership-ebook/dp/B07RF7Q5HF/)
Bizony, Piers et al. The NASA Archives. 60 Years in Space (2019)
Brady, Kevin M. "NASA Launches Houston into Orbit How America's Space Program
Contributed to Southeast Texas's Economic Growth, Scientific Development, and
Modernization during the Late Twentieth Century." Journal of the West (2018) 57#4 pp 13–
54.
Bromberg, Joan Lisa. NASA and the Space Industry (Johns Hopkins UP, 1999).
Clemons, Jack. Safely to Earth: The Men and Women Who Brought the Astronauts Home
(2018) excerpt ([Link]
056020/)
Dick, Steven J., and Roger D. Launius, eds. Critical Issues in the History of Spaceflight
(NASA, 2006)
Launius, Roger D. "Eisenhower, Sputnik, and the Creation of NASA." Prologue-Quarterly of
the National Archives 28.2 (1996): 127–143.
Pyle, Rod. Space 2.0: How Private Spaceflight, a Resurgent NASA, and International
Partners are Creating a New Space Age (2019), overview of space exploration excerpt (http
s://[Link]/dp/1944648453/)
Spencer, Brett. "The Book and the Rocket: The Symbiotic Relationship between American
Public Libraries and the Space Program, 1950–2015", Information & Culture 51, no. 4
(2016): 550–582.
Weinzierl, Matthew. "Space, the final economic frontier." Journal of Economic Perspectives
32.2 (2018): 173–192. online ([Link]
WC2o6lYsJ:[Link]/&hl=en&as_sdt=1,27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=871185811190
3232899&oi=lle) Archived ([Link]
[Link]/scholar?output=instlink&q=info%3AYffWC2o6lYsJ%[Link]%2F&hl=
en&as_sdt=1%2C27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=8711858111903232899&oi=lle) December 31,
2021, at the Wayback Machine, review of economics literature

External links
Official website ([Link]
NASA Watch, an agency watchdog site ([Link]
Works by or about NASA ([Link]
ics+and+Space+Administration%22+OR+%22NASA%22%29) at the Internet Archive
 How NASA works ([Link] on [Link]

Retrieved from "[Link]