Contents….

➢ Darcy’s law of permeability, coefficient of

permeability, Factors affecting permeability
➢ Determination of coefficient of permeability by
constant head and falling permeability method’s,
simple problems to determine coefficient of
permeability.
➢ Seepage through earthen structures, seepage
velocity, seepage pressure, phreatic line
➢ flow lines and equipotential lines. Flow net,
characteristics of flow net, application of flow net
(no numerical problems)
 Introduction

• In soil mechanics and foundation,

engineering, you must know how much
water is flowing through a soil in unit time.
• This knowledge is required to design earth
dams, determine the quantity of seepage
under hydraulic structures before and during
the construction of foundations.

3
 Soil Permeability
Permeability is defined as a capacity of soil to
allow water passes through it i.e. quantity of
flowing for a unit of soil surface under a pressure
of 1 unit hydraulic gradient.

4
 Permeability of Soil
• Soils are permeable due to the existence of
interconnected voids through which water flow from
points of high energy to points of low energy.

5
 Soil Permeability

• A soil is highly pervious then water can flow

through it easily. (Gravels)
• In an impervious soil, the permeability is very low
and water can not easily flow through it. (Clays)
• Rocks are impermeable

6
 Water Flow

The water flow is divided into two categories:

1)Laminar flow ]

2)Turbulent flow ]
 Water Flow
Laminar flow indicates that eachwater
particle follows a definite path and never
crosses the path of another particle.

Laminar flow
 Water Flow
Turbulent flow indicates a random path of
irregular and twisted movement.

Turbulent flow
 Darcy’s Law
Henry Darcy (1803-1858), Hydraulic Engineer.
Darcy’s L aw demonstrated experimentally
that under laminar flow conditions in a
saturated soil, the rate of flow or the
discharge per unit time is proportional to the
hydraulic gradient

𝑣α i
𝑣=𝑘I ……………………….(1)

𝑘 = Coeffiecient of permeability
• But,
• Disharge or rate of flow (Q) = Area x Velocity
Q =AxV
Q
V= ……………… (2)
A

• But, from equation 1

V =Ki
Q
Ki=
A
where:
Q =AK i m3/sec. k = coefficient of permeability.
v = average velocity
I = hydraulic gradient
 Coefficient of permeability (k)
• It is defined as average velocity of flow that will occur
through the total cross-sectional area of a soil mass under
unit hydraulic gradient.
• As we know
𝑣=𝑘i
v
k= Cm/sec
i

where :
k = coefficient of permeability.
v = discharge velocity (average velocity )
i = hydraulic gradient
 Hydraulic Gradient (i)

If a soil sample of length ‘L’ and cross-

sectional area ‘A’ is subjected to
differential head of water (h1 & h2) the
hydraulic gradient will be
 Hydraulic Gradient
T he hydraulic gradient is expressed as

∆ℎ
i= ∆ℎ
𝐿
where: A
i = hydraulic gradient
B
∆h = the head loss
L = distance between points A and B
Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils

The following factors affect the permeability

of soils
1) Particle size
2) Void ratio of soil.
3) Properties of pore fluid.
4) Shape of particles.
5) Structure of soil mass.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils

The following factors affect the permeability

of soils
6) Degree of saturation.
7) Adsorbed water.
8)Entrapped air and organic impurities in
water.
9) Temperature.
10) Stratification of soil
Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils
1. Particle size
The Permeability varies approximately as
the square of grain size. It depends on the
effective diameter of the grain size (D10)
2. Void ratio
Increase in the void ratio increases the area
available for flow hence permeability
increases for critical conditions.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils

3. Properties of pore fluid.

Pore fluids are fluids that occupy pore spaces
in a soil or rock. Permeability is directly
proportional to the unit weight of pore
fluid and inversely proportional to viscosity
of pore fluid.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils

4. Shape of particles
Permeability is inversely proportional to specific
surface e.g. as angular soil have more specific
surface area compared to the round soil
therefore, the soil with angular particles is less
permeable than soil of rounded particles.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils
5. Structure of soil mass
For same void ratio the permeability is more
for flocculent structure as compared to the
dispended structure
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils
6. Degree of saturation
The permeability of partially saturated soil is
less than that of fully saturated soil.

Permeability
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils
7. Adsorbed Water
Adsorbed Water means a thin microscopic
film of water surrounding individual soil
grains. T his water is not free to move and
hence reduces the effective pore space and
thus decreases coefficient of permeability.
Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils
8. Entrapped air and organic impurities
The organic impurities and entrapped air
obstruct the flow and coefficient of
permeability is reduces due to their
presence.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils
9. Temperature
As the viscosity of the pore fluid decrease with
the temperature , permeability increases with
temperature , as unit weight of pore fluid
does not change much with change in
temperature.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils
10. Stratification of soil
Stratified soils are those soils which are formed
by layer upon layer of the earth or dust
deposited on each other. If the flow is parallel
to the layers of stratification , the permeability
is max. while the flow in Perpendicular
direction occur with min. permeability.
 Determination of Coefficient of
Permeability

1. Constant – Head Test

2. Falling – Head Test
 Constant – Head Test
• The permeability test is a measure of the rate of
the flow of water through soil.
• In this test, water is forced by a known constant
pressure through a soil specimen of known
dimensions and the rate o flow is determined.
This test is used primarily to determine the
suitability of sands and gravels for drainage
purposes, and is made only on remolded samples.
• The constant head test is used primarily for
coarse-grained soils
• In this type of laboratory setup, the water
supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way
that the difference of head between the
inlet and the outlet remains constant during
the test period. After a constant flow rate is
established, water is collected in a graduated
flask for a known duration.
 Constant – Head Test
Water
supply
The Coefficient of
permeability is be
expressed as:
ℎ

QL
K =
Aht Soil
𝐿

Where :
Q = volume of water collected
A = areaof cross section of the soil specimen
T = duration of water
collection,and
Constant – Head Test
 Falling – Head Test
• Relatively for less permeable soils
• Water flows through the sample from a
standpipe attached to the top of the cylinder.
• The head of water (h) changes with time as
flow occurs through the soil. At different
times the head of water is recorded.
• Falling – Head Test
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡1
• A typical arrangement of Stand
pipe
th 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡2
e falling-head permeability
test is shown in figure. ℎ1
Porous
•Water from a standpipe ℎ2 stone
flows through the soil , the
Soil
initial head difference h1 at
time t=0 is recorded and
Porous
water is allowed to flow stone
through the soil specimen
such that the final head
difference at time t = t2 is
h2.
Falling – Head Test
• Co-efficient of permeability of soil can be
calculated by following formula ;

2.303 𝑎 𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= log
𝐴 𝑡 ℎ2

t = time
L = Length of the fine soil
A = cross section area of soil
a= cross section area of tube
K = Coefficient of permeability
 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
• Seepage – The flow of water through soil is
called as seepage. ( Action of flow of water
through soil is called as seepage)
Main difference between Seepage and Permeability
• Seepage- Action of flow of water through soil. ( irrespective
of type of soil)
• Permeability- Property of soil which allows seepage through
interconnected voids.
 Seepage pressure (Pore water pressure)
• Soil particles in a soil mass are burdened by the weight of
everything above them which includes weight of all the soil
particles above them, weight of water and weight of any
structure if present above; and because of this weight these
particles experience stress which we call total stress.
• This total stress is shared by the two components in the soil
mass.
• Part of the stress is shared by the water present in the voids
of the soil structure and that is called pore water pressure.
The pressure exerted by the flowing water ( seeped Water)
on soil particle is called as seepage pressure.
• And the other part of the stress is
shared by soil grains by their grain to
grain force transfer at their point of
contact and that is called the effective
stress. It is the part of the total stress
that is acting on soil particles.
• So total stress is equal to the sum of
effective stress and pore water
pressure.

σ = σ’ + u

due to the seepage pressure sometimes

effective stresses get increases due to
compaction of soil particles when flow is
towards downward and effective stresses
get reduced due to upward flow
condition.
 Seepage Velocity (𝑣𝑠)
• According to Darcy's law of flow of water
through soil, it is considered that the water is
flowing through the soil mass.
• But in actual practice the water will only flow
through the volume of voids present in the
soil mass
Let us consider ;
• A= C/s area of soil mass
• a = area of a single void
• Vd = velocity of water through soil mass
(Darcy's Velocity)
• Vs = Velocity of water through a single void.

specimen = A
Flow rate, q
Area of
L voids = a
Area of soil
solids = As
• Apply continuity equation

Discharge through Discharge through

=
total soil mass Voids

Qs = Qv

Q = 𝐴 Vd = a 𝑣𝑠
Where
A = C/s area os soil sample
Vd = Velocity through soil sample (Darcy’s Velocity)
Vs= Seepage velocity
A ==area of void in the cross section of the specimen
 𝐴.[Link] = L.𝐴𝑣.𝑣𝑠

Volume soil . Vd = Volume of voids. 𝑣𝑠

Vsoil. Vd = Vvoids .𝑣𝑠
VSoil VVoids
𝑣𝑠 = Vd But, n =
VVoids Vsoil

𝑣𝑠 = (1/n) Vd
Seepage velocity = (Velocity through total soil sample / Porosity)
 FLOW NET
• It is the graphical representation of water
(Seepage) through soil .
• It is the curvilinear net formed by the combination
of sets of flow lines or Stream lines or ψ-lines)
Equipotential line or φ-lines.
 flow lines or Stream lines or Equipotential line or φ-lines
ψ-line
• The line or path along which • The line joining or represent
the individual particle of the points of equal head loss
water seep or moves or equal potential energy
through the soil mass is are known as Equipotential
called as flow line or Stream line or φ-lines.
lines or ψ-line
 Phreatic Line
• It is the line in the earthen dam section below which there is a
positive hydrostatic pressure
• The line which divides saturated and unsaturated zone of soil
in earthen dam is known as phreatic line
• It Also the top most line of flow of water (Seepage ) through
earthen dam.
Charectorstics
of flow net
 Characteristic of FLOW NET
1. Two flow line and two equipotential lines never intersects each
other.( because flow in soil voids is considered laminar and the
total head at any point will be single values only.
2. flow line and two equipotential lines are perpendicular to each
other.
3. The area bounded between two flow lines is called flow channel.
4. The area bounded between two flow lines and two equipotential
line is called as flow field.

5. The flow field is square for isotropic soil and rectangular for
anisotropic soil.
6. The quantity of water flowing through each flow channel is the
same. Similarly the same potential drop will occur between two
successive equipotential lines.
7. Smaller the dimension of flow field , greater will be the hydraulic
gradient and velocity through field.
 Application Of Flow Net
Flow net is useful to determine the following
parameters in seepage analysis of soil :
1. Rate of Seepage loss
2. Seepage Pressure
3. Uplift Pressure
4. Exit Gradient
 [Link] of Seepage loss (Q)
• Using flow net, the rate of seepage loss or
seepage quantity can be determined using the
below expression :

Where,
k = coefficient of permeability
H = Head causing flow
Nf = Number of flow lines
Nd = Number of Equipotential lines
 2. Seepage Pressure (Ps)
• Seepage pressure at any point is determined by using the
below mentioned formula :

Where,
• h = Hydraulic potential after “n” potential drops. It can be
expressed as :
 3. Uplift Pressure (Pu)
• The uplift pressure at any point within the soil mass can
be found using the undermentioned formula. It is also
called as hydrostatic pressure.

• Where,
•
 4. Exit Gradient (iexit)
• The exit gradient is the hydraulic gradient at the
downstream end of flow line where seepage water from
the soil mass joins with free water at the downstream. Exit
gradient can be expressed as :

Where,