2018

A short introduction to Python

Last update: July 2019

Aniel Bhulai
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 2
Contents
1. Introduction .........................................................................................................................7
2. Overview..............................................................................................................................8
3. Reserved keywords ..............................................................................................................9
4. Operators...........................................................................................................................10
4.1. Arithmetic operators ...................................................................................................10
4.2. Assignment operators .................................................................................................11
4.3. Comparison (relational) operators ..............................................................................12
4.4. Logical operators.........................................................................................................12
4.5. Identity operators .......................................................................................................13
4.6. Bitwise operators ........................................................................................................13
4.7. Membership operators ...............................................................................................14
5. Strings ................................................................................................................................15
6. Escape characters ..............................................................................................................16
7. Numbers ............................................................................................................................17
7.1. Numerical data types ..................................................................................................17
7.2. Number type conversion .............................................................................................18
7.3. Mathematical functions ..............................................................................................19
7.4. Trigonometric functions ..............................................................................................20
7.5. Random number functions ..........................................................................................21
8. Data types ..........................................................................................................................22
9. Variables ............................................................................................................................23
10. Lists....................................................................................................................................24
10.1. Creating lists ............................................................................................................24
10.2. Accessing values in lists ...........................................................................................24
10.3. Updating lists...........................................................................................................25
10.4. Deleting values from lists.........................................................................................25
10.5. Basic list operations .................................................................................................26
10.6. Built-in list functions ................................................................................................26
10.7. Built-in list methods ................................................................................................27
A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 3
11. Tuples ................................................................................................................................28
11.1. Creating tuples ........................................................................................................28
11.2. Accessing values in tuples ........................................................................................28
11.3. Updating tuples .......................................................................................................29
11.4. Deleting values from tuples .....................................................................................29
11.5. Basic tuple operations .............................................................................................30
11.6. Built-in tuple functions ............................................................................................30
12. Dictionary ..........................................................................................................................31
12.1. Creating dictionaries................................................................................................31
12.2. Accessing values in dictionaries ...............................................................................31
12.3. Updating dictionaries ..............................................................................................32
12.4. Deleting dictionaries ................................................................................................32
12.5. Built-in dictionary functions .....................................................................................33
12.6. Built-in dictionary methods .....................................................................................34
13. Decision-making.................................................................................................................35
13.1. if-statement ............................................................................................................35
13.2. if…else-statement....................................................................................................36
13.3. if…elif…else-statement ............................................................................................37
13.4. Nested if-statement ................................................................................................38
14. Loops .................................................................................................................................39
14.1. While-loop...............................................................................................................39
14.2. For-loop...................................................................................................................40
14.3. Nested loop .............................................................................................................42
14.4. Loop control statements..........................................................................................42
14.4.1. Break statement ...............................................................................................42
14.4.2. Continue statement..........................................................................................43
14.4.3. Pass statement .................................................................................................43
15. Functions ...........................................................................................................................45
15.1. Creating a function ..................................................................................................45

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 4

 15.2. Calling a function .....................................................................................................45
15.3. Parameters and arguments .....................................................................................45
15.4. Return values ..........................................................................................................46
15.5. Parameters vs arguments ........................................................................................47
16. Modules .............................................................................................................................48
16.1. Creating modules ....................................................................................................48
16.2. Using modules .........................................................................................................48
16.2.1. Import statement .............................................................................................48
16.2.2. Import…from statement ...................................................................................48
16.3. Variables in modules ...............................................................................................49
16.4. Renaming modules ..................................................................................................50
16.5. Using the dir() function ............................................................................................50
17. Date & Time .......................................................................................................................52
18. Files I/O..............................................................................................................................55
18.1. Writing to standard output ......................................................................................55
18.2. Reading from standard input ...................................................................................56
18.3. Opening a file ..........................................................................................................56
18.4. Closing a file ............................................................................................................58
18.5. Reading a file ...........................................................................................................58
18.5.1. Read the whole file...........................................................................................58
18.5.2. Read a part of a file ..........................................................................................59
18.5.3. Read a few lines of a file ...................................................................................59
18.5.4. Looping through a file.......................................................................................59
18.6. Writing a file ............................................................................................................59
18.7. Creating a file ..........................................................................................................60
18.8. Deleting a file or a directory ....................................................................................60
18.9. Directory methods ...................................................................................................61
Index .........................................................................................................................................62
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................63

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 5

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 6
1. Introduction
Python is a general-purpose object-oriented, interactive and interpreted programming language
with high-level programming capabilities. To learn the Python programming language you do
not need any previous programming knowledge or skills. However, the basic understanding of
any other programming language will help you to understand the Python programming
concepts quickly. In this tutorial we will give you a short introduction to Python. Note that this
tutorial is not complete as it was created for the Computational Thinking course. However, a
short introduction to Python will give you a tool to analyze and design algorithms. Please, refer
to the official Python documentation at [Link] if you need more
information.

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 7

2. Overview
Python is designed to be highly readable and is a great language for beginners. It uses English
keywords frequently. As mentioned in the introduction, Python is an interpreted programming
language. The Python source code is compiled to bytecode as a .pyc file, and this bytecode can
be interpreted. The Python interpreter can be used in two modes: interactive and script mode.

In the interactive mode, the Python script can be executed directly to the Python prompt
without passing the script file to the interpreter. The interactive mode is useful when dealing
with small pieces of code as you can type and execute them directly at the Python prompt.

In the script mode, the Python script file is stored with the .py extension. The interpreter is then
used to execute the contents of the script file. The name of the script file is passed to the
interpreter to be executed. The script mode is useful when the code is more than 4 lines and
when you want to use the code in future. Example 1 shows how to run the script file
[Link] on a UNIX/LINUX system.

Example

python [Link]

Example 1: Passing a Python script file to the interpreter

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 8

3. Reserved keywords
Like in most programming language, the Python programming language has some reserved
keywords which you cannot use as constant, variable or any other identifier names. All the
Python reserved keywords contain lowercase letters only. Table 1 shows the Python reserved
keywords.

as continue except global lambda raise yield

and def exec if not return
assert del finally import or try
break elif for in pass while
class else from is print with
Table 1: Reserved keywords in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 9

4. Operators
Operators are special symbols that are used to perform mathematical or logical manipulations.
Operands are the values or variables with which the operator is applied to. The values of
operands can be manipulated by using the operators.

Example

10 + 2 = 12

Example 2: Operator and operands

In Example 2 we see two operands (i.e., 10 and 2) and a plus symbol (+) which is the operator.
The plus symbol performs the addition. The output of the operation is 12.

The Python programming language supports the following types of operators:

• Arithmetic operators
• Assignment operators
• Comparison (relational) operators
• Logical operators
• Identity operators
• Bitwise operators
• Membership operators

4.1. Arithmetic operators

Arithmetic operators perform various arithmetic calculations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, exponent, etc. There are various methods for arithmetic calculation in
Python. You can for example use the eval() function, declare variable & calculate, or call
functions. Table 2 shows the arithmetic operators that are supported by Python.

Symbol Operator name Example Description

+ Addition 10 + 2 = 12 This operator adds the values on either side of the operator.

This operator subtracts the right side value from the left side
- Subtraction 6–3=3
value.
This operator multiplies the values on both sides of the
* Multiplication 8 * 2 = 16
operator.
This operator divides the left side value with the right side
/ Division 4/2=2
value.
This operator returns the remainder by dividing the left side
% Modulus 7%2=1
value with right side value.

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 10

 ** Exponent 2**3 = 8 This operator calculates the exponential power.

This operator calculates the result of 9/4 and leaves the

// Floor division 9 // 4 = 2
digits after the decimal point away.
Table 2: Arithmetic operators

4.2. Assignment operators

Python assignment operators are used for assigning the value of the right operand to the left
operand. Table 3 shows the assignment operators that are supported by Python.

Symbol Operator name Example Description

This operator calculates the sum of the value of the right side
= Equal 11 + 2 = 13
operand and the left side operand.

+= Add AND 𝑝 += 2 Same as 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 2

-= Subtract AND 𝑝 -= 3 Same as 𝑝 = 𝑝 − 3

*= Multiply AND 𝑝 *= 4 Same as 𝑝 = 𝑝 ∗ 4

/= Division AND 𝑝 /= 5 Same as 𝑝 = 𝑝/5

%= Modulus AND 𝑝 %= 4 Same as 𝑝 = 𝑝%4

**= Exponent AND 𝑝 **= 3 Same as 𝑝 = 𝑝 ∗∗ 3

//= Floor division AND 𝑝 //= 6 Same as 𝑝 = 𝑝//6

Table 3: Assignment operators

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 11

4.3. Comparison (relational) operators
Comparison operators, also referred as relational operators, compare the values on either side
of the operand and determine the relation between them. Table 4 shows the comparison
operators that are supported by Python.

Symbol Operator name Example Description

== Double equal 𝑎 == 𝑏 TRUE if 𝑎 is equal to 𝑏.

!= Not equal to 𝑎 != 𝑏 TRUE if 𝑎 is not equal to 𝑏.

<> Not equal to 𝑎 <> 𝑏 TRUE if 𝑎 is not equal to 𝑏.

> Greater than 𝑎>𝑏 TRUE if 𝑎 is greater than 𝑏.

< Less than 𝑎<𝑏 TRUE if 𝑎 is less than 𝑏.

<= Less than equal to 𝑎<=𝑏 TRUE if 𝑎 is less than or equal to 𝑏.

Greater than equal

>= 𝑎 >= 𝑏 TRUE if 𝑎 is greater than or equal to 𝑏.
to
Table 4: Comparison (relational) operators

4.4. Logical operators

Table 5 shows the logical operators that are supported by Python.

Symbol Operator name Example Description

or Logical OR 𝑎 or 𝑏 TRUE if either 𝑎 or 𝑏 is TRUE.

and Logical AND 𝑎 and 𝑏 TRUE if both 𝑎 and 𝑏 are TRUE.

not Logical NOT not 𝑎 TRUE if 𝑎 is FALSE.

Table 5: Logical operators

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 12

4.5. Identity operators
Identity Operators are used to compare the memory location of two objects. Table 6 shows the
identity operators that are supported by Python.

Symbol Operator name Example Description

TRUE if values on either side of the operator point to the
is is 𝑎 is 𝑏
same object and FALSE otherwise.
FALSE if the variables on either side of the operator point to
is not is not 𝑎 is not 𝑏
the same object and TRUE otherwise.
Table 6: Identity operators

4.6. Bitwise operators

Table 7 shows the bitwise operators that are supported by Python.

Symbol Operator name Example Description

Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in both

& Binary AND 𝑎&𝑏
operands.

| Binary OR 𝑎|𝑏 Operator copies a bit if it exists in either operand.

Operator copies the bit if it is set in one operand but not

^ Binary XOR 𝑎^𝑏
both.
Binary 1s
~ ~𝑎 Operator is unary and has the effect of ‘flipping’ bits.
Complement
The left operands value is moved left by the number of bits
<< Binary Left Shift 𝑎 << 𝑏
specified by the right operand.
The left operands value is moved right by the number of bits
>> Binary Right Shift 𝑎 >> 𝑏
specified by the right operand.
Table 7: Bitwise operators

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 13

4.7. Membership operators
Membership operators test for membership in a sequence such as lists, strings or tuples. Table
8 shows the membership operators that are supported by Python.

Symbol Operator name Example Description

TRUE if it finds a variable in the specified sequence and

in in 𝑎 in 𝑏
FALSE otherwise.
TRUE if it does not finds a variable in the specified sequence
not in not in 𝑎 not in 𝑏
and FALSE otherwise.
Table 8: Membership operators

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 14

5. Strings
A string is a list of characters represented in either double quote ( " ) or single quote ( ' ).

Example

str = "Study algorithms."

print (str) # Prints complete string

print (str[0]) # Prints 1st character of the string
print (str[4:10]) # Prints characters starting from the 5th to 10th
print (str[4:]) # Prints characters starting from the 5th
print (str * 2) # Prints string two times
print (str + "Hello") # Prints concatenated string

Example 3: Strings

Example 3 shows a few examples of strings. We can take a subset of strings using the slice
operator ( [ ] and [:] ) with index numbers. The plus (+) sign is the string concatenation operator
and the asterisk (*) is the repetition operator. Table 9 shows the output of Example 3.

Output example

Study algorithms.
S
y algo
y algorithms.
Study [Link] algorithms.
Study [Link]

Table 9: Output of Example 3

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 15

6. Escape characters
The Python programming language has some special characters which are used for special
purposes. These characters are represented by a backslash followed by character(s). They can
be interpreted using both single and double quote. Table 10 shows the escape characters in
Python.

Backslash notation Hexadecimal character Description

\a 0x07 Bell or alert

\b 0x08 Backspace

\cx Control-x

\C-x Control-x

\e 0x1b Escape

\f 0x0c Form feed

\M-\C-x Meta-Control-x

\n 0x0a Newline
Octal notation,
\nnn
n is in the range 0-7
\r 0x0d Carriage return

\s 0x20 Space

\t 0x09 Tab

\v 0x0b Vertical tab

\x Character x
Hexadecimal notation,
\xnn
n is in the range 0-9, a-f, or A-F
Table 10: Escape characters in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 16

7. Numbers
Python supports integers, floating point numbers and complex numbers. These are number-
based data types that store various types of numeric values. Number objects are created when
we assign a value to them, see Example 4.

Example

var1 = 20
var2 = 7.3

Example 4: Creating number objects

The reference to a number object can be deleted by using the del statement, see Example 5.

Example

del var1
del var1, var2

Example 5: Syntax of the del statement

7.1. Numerical data types

Table 11 shows the four numerical data types that are supported by Python.

Numerical data types Examples Description

7.15j Complex numbers are of the form a + bJ, where a and b

complex (complex numbers) 97.j are floating point numbers and J (or j) represents the
4.78e-8j square root of -1 (imaginary number).
Floating points represent real numbers. They are
16.13 written with a decimal point dividing the integer and
float (floating point real values) -34.78 fractional parts. Floats may also be written in scientific
2.5e100 notation. The E or e indicates the power of 10 (e.g.,
3.4e2 = 3.4 x 102 = 340).
10
Signed integers are positive or negative whole numbers
int (signed integers) -89
with no decimal point.
-0x260
62835472L Long integers are integers of unlimited size. They are
long (long integers) -0x19453L written like integers and followed by an uppercase or
-067674545L lowercase L.
Table 11: Numerical data types in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 17

7.2. Number type conversion
Python converts numbers internally in an expression that contains mixed numerical data types
to a common type for evaluation. We can force a number from one type to another type in
Python. This is sometimes necessary to satisfy the requirements of an operator or function
parameter.

Number type conversion Description

int(x) Is used to convert value x to an integer.

long(x) Is used to convert value x to a long integer.

float(x) Is used to convert value x to a floating point value.

Is used to convert value x to a complex number with real part x and

complex(x)
imaginary part as 0.
Is used to convert values x and y to a complex number with real part x and
complex(x, y)
imaginary part y.
Table 12: Number type conversion

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 18

7.3. Mathematical functions
Table 13 shows the mathematical functions in Python. Note that some functions are not
accessible directly. We need to import the math module first in order to call the function using
the math static object, e.g., [Link](10).

Mathematical Output
Description Example
function example
The absolute value of 𝑥: the positive abs(-30) 30
abs(𝑥)
distance between 𝑥 and zero. abs(202.19) 202.19
The ceiling of 𝑥: the smallest integer [Link](-30.6) -30.0
ceil(𝑥)
not less than 𝑥. [Link](20.12) 21

exp (𝑥) The exponential of 𝑥: 𝑒 𝑥 [Link](4) 54.5981500331

[Link](-30) 30.0
fabs(𝑥) The absolute value of 𝑥.
[Link](202.19) 202.19
The floor of 𝑥: the largest integer not [Link](-30.6) -31.0
floor(𝑥)
greater than 𝑥. [Link](20.12) 20.0

log (𝑥) The natural logarithm of 𝑥, for 𝑥 > 0. [Link](10) 2.30258509299

log10(𝑥) The base-10 logarithm of 𝑥, for 𝑥 > 0. math.log10(10) 1.0

The largest of its arguments: the value

max (𝑥1, 𝑥2, … ) max(10, 40, 25) 40
closest to positive infinity.
The smallest of its arguments: the value
min (𝑥1, 𝑥2, … ) min(10, 40, 25) 10
closest to negative infinity.
The fractional and integer parts of 𝑥 in
a two-item tuple. Both parts have the (0.1999999999999993,
modf(𝑥) [Link](10.2)
same sign as 𝑥. The integer part is 10.0)
returned as a float.

pow(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑥 to the power of 𝑦. [Link](10, 2) 100.0

round(10.23167,
𝑥 rounded to 𝑛 digits from the decimal 2) 10.23
round(𝑥 [, 𝑛])
point. round(10.23167, 10.2317
4)

sqrt(𝑥) The square root of 𝑥, for 𝑥 > 0. [Link](100) 10.0

Table 13: Mathematical functions in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 19

7.4. Trigonometric functions
Table 14 shows the trigonometric functions in Python. Note that the functions are not
accessible directly. We need to import the math module first in order to call the function using
the math static object, e.g., [Link](0).

Trigonometric Output
Description Example
functions example
This function returns the arc cosine of 𝑥
acos(𝑥) [Link](0) 1.57079632679
in radians.
This function returns the arc sine of 𝑥 in
asin(𝑥) [Link](0) 0.0
radians.
This function returns the arc tangent of 𝑥
atan(𝑥) [Link](0) 0.0
in radians.
This function returns atan(𝑦/𝑥) in
atan2(𝑦, 𝑥) math.atan2(5, 5) 0.785398163397
radians.
This function returns the cosine of 𝑥 in
cos(𝑥) [Link](0) 1.0
radians.
This function converts angle 𝑥 from [Link](0) 0.0
degrees(𝑥)
radians to degrees. [Link]([Link]) 180.0
This function returns the Euclidean norm,
hypot(𝑥, 𝑦) [Link](0, 3) 3.0
sqrt(𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∗ 𝑦).
This function returns the sine of 𝑥 in
sin(𝑥) [Link](0) 0.0
radians.
This function returns the tangent of 𝑥 in
tan(𝑥) [Link](0) 0.0
radians.
This function converts angle 𝑥 from
radians(𝑥) [Link](0) 0.0
degrees to radians.
Table 14: Trigonometric functions

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 20

7.5. Random number functions
Table 15 shows some random number functions which are commonly used in Python for, e.g.,
in games, privacy applications, security, testing, and simulation. Note that the functions are not
accessible directly. We need to import the random module first in order to call the function
using the random static object, e.g., [Link]([1, 2, 3]).

Random number Output

Description Example
function example
This function returns a random [Link]([1, 2, 3]) 2
choice(seq)
item from a list, tuple, or string. [Link]('Hello') e
This function returns a random
random() [Link]() 0.19661692033
float 𝑟, such that 0 <= 𝑟 < 1
This function returns a randomly
randrange([start,] [Link](0, 100, 5) 50
selected element from
stop [,step])
range(start, stop, step)
This function sets the integer
[Link](5)
starting value used in generating 0.62290169489
[Link]()
random numbers. The method
should be called before any other
[Link](5)
seed([𝑥]) random module function is called. 0.62290169489
[Link]()
𝑥 is the seed for the next random
number. The method takes system
[Link](5) 0.62290169489
time to generate next random
[Link]()
number if 𝑥 is omitted.
list = [4, 56, 20, 34]
This function randomizes the
shuffle(lst) [Link](list) [56, 4, 34, 20]
items of a list in place.
print (list)
This function returns a random
uniform(𝑥, 𝑦) [Link](10, 25) 18.6310645777
float 𝑟, such that 𝑥 <= 𝑟 < 𝑦
Table 15: Random number functions

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 21

8. Data types
Data types are an important concept in almost all programming languages. They represent a
type of the data which can be processed in a computer program. Data types tell the interpreter
how the programmer intends to use the data. It is important to specify the type of data when
we write a computer program to process different types of data such as strings and integers. If
we lack to specify the type of data, the computer will not understand how the different
operations should be performed on the given data. The Python interpreter can determine
which data type we are storing. So, there is no need to specify the data type in Python as it
understands a given data type automatically. Many data types are available in Python. Some
important ones we list below.

• Numbers (int, float, long, complex)

• Sequences (strings, bytes/byte array, lists, tuples)
• Boolean (true/false)
• Sets
• Dictionaries
• Module
• Function
• Class
• Method
• File

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 22

9. Variables
In simplest terms, we could say that a variable is just a box that you can use to put stuff in. To
distinguish the different boxes (i.e., variables) we label the boxes. This means every variable has
a name which describes what the variable is storing. We can view the content of the box and
we can change the content just by calling the box label.

Formally, we can say that variables are reserved memory locations to store values (e.g., a letter
or a number). When we create a variable we reserve some space in memory. These variables
hold values temporarily during program execution. Based on the data type of a variable, the
Python interpreter allocates memory and decides what can be stored in the reserved memory.
Different data types like integers, decimals, characters, etc. can be stored in these variables.

Variables do not need to be declared in Python as the Python interpreter determines what type
of data is stored. To assign values to a variable we use an equal sign ( = ) in the Python
programming language. The equal sign assigns the value of right side operand to left side
operand. The left side operand is the name of the variable and the right side operand is the
assigned value.

Example

name = "John" # A string

height = "200" # An integer
distance = "4.5" # A floating point

Example 6: Assigning values to variables

To create variable names in Python we should comply with the following rules:
• Variable names must begin with a letter or underscore.
• Variable names are case-sensitive.
• A variable name does not contain spaces.
• A variable name can only contain alphanumeric characters (i.e., a-z, A-Z, and 0-9) and
underscore ( _ ).
• Reserved keywords cannot be used as variable names.

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 23

10. Lists
The lists data structure in Python is used to organize data in a single set. Lists are sequences,
just like tuples. Each element of a sequence is assigned a number, i.e., the index number or the
position of the element. The first index number is zero, the second index number is one, the
third index number is two, and so forth. On all sequence types (e.g., lists or tuples) we can
apply operations like indexing, adding, multiplying, slicing, and checking for membership.

10.1. Creating lists

A list can be created by putting different comma-separated values or elements between square
brackets.

Example

list1 = ['John', 'Paul', 'Catherine']

list2 = [100, 300, 500]
list3 = [20, 10, "Tina", "John"]

Example 7: Creating a list

10.2. Accessing values in lists

Values in a list can be accessed by square brackets for slicing along with index numbers. For
example, 𝐿[𝑖 ] represents the value at index 𝑖 in list 𝐿.

Example

list1 = ['John', 'Paul', 'Catherine']

list2 = [100, 300, 500]
list3 = [20, 10, "Tina", "John"]

print ("list1[0]=", list1[0])

print ("list2[2]=", list2[2])
print ("list3[1:3]=", list3[1:3])

Example 8: Accessing values in lists

Output example

list1[0]= John
list2[2]= 500
list3[1:3]= [10, 'Tina']

Table 16: Output of Example 8

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 24

10.3. Updating lists
Example 9 shows how single or multiple values can be updated in a list.

Example

list1 = ['John', 'Paul', 'Catherine']

print ("The third value in list1 is:")

print (list1[2])

print ("The value Catherine is updated in list1 with Carin:")

list1[2]= 'Carin'
print (list1)

Example 9: Updating and adding values to a list

Output example

The third value in list1 is:

Catherine
The value Catherine is updated in list1 with Carin:
['John', 'Paul', 'Carin']

Table 17: Output of Example 9

10.4. Deleting values from lists

The del-statement can be used to remove a value from a list by 𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑡_𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒[𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥].

Example

list1 = ['John', 'Paul', 'Catherine']

print ("list1 before deleting values:")

print (list1)
del list1[2]

print ("list1 after deleting value at index 2:")

print (list1)

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 25

Example 10: Deleting values from lists

Output example

list1 before deleting values:

['John', 'Paul', 'Catherine']
list1 after deleting value at index 2:
['John', 'Paul']

Table 18: Output of Example 10

10.5. Basic list operations

The operators * (asterisk) and + (plus sign) work in lists almost the same as in strings. The *
stands for repetition and the + stands for concatenation. The result is a new list instead of a
string. Table 19 shows the basic list operations in Python.

Basic list Output

Description Example
operations example
len([x1, x2, x3,…]) Length len([1, 2, 3, 4]) 4

[x1, x2,..] + [x3, x4,..] Concatenation [1, 2] + [3, 4] [1, 2 ,3 ,4]

[x] * y Repetition ['hello'] * 3 ['hello', 'hello', 'hello' ]

y in [x, y ,z] Membership 2 in [1, 2, 3, 4] True

for x in [y1, y2,…]: for x in [1, 2, 3]: print (x,

Iteration 123
print (x, end=" ") end=" ")
Table 19: Basic list operations in Python

10.6. Built-in list functions

Python has some built-in list functions which are shown in Table 20.

Output
List functions Description Example
example
This function returns the list = [1, 2, 3]
len(list) 3
number of elements in the list. print (len(list))
This function returns the list = [10, 280, 38]
max(list) 280
elements from the list with print (max(list))

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 26

 maximum value.

This function returns the

list = [10, 280, 38]
min(list) elements from the list with 10
print (min(list))
minimum value.
tuple = ('x', 1 ,'r', 10)
This function converts a tuple
list(seq) list = list(tuple) ['x', 1, 'r', 10]
into list.
print (list)
Table 20: Built-in list functions in Python

10.7. Built-in list methods

Table 21 shows the built-in list methods in Python.

Output
List methods Description Example
example
list1 = [1, 2]
This method appends an object
[Link](obj) [Link](3)
obj to list. [1, 2, 3]
print (list1)
This method returns count of
list1 = [1, 2, 1, 1]
[Link](obj) how many times obj occurs in 3
print ([Link](1))
list.
list1 = [1, 2]
This method appends the list2 = [3, 4]
[Link](seq) [1, 2, 3, 4]
contents of seq to list. [Link](list2)
print (list1)
This method returns the lowest list1 = ['Zara', 'John', 'Joe']
[Link](obj) 1
index in list that obj appears. print ([Link]('John'))
list1 = ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e']
This method inserts object obj
[Link](index, obj) [Link](2, 'c') ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
into list at offset index.
print (list1)
This method removes and list1 = ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e']
e
[Link](obj=list[-1]) returns last object or obj from print ([Link]())
d
list. print ([Link](2))
list1 = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
This method removes object obj
[Link](obj) [Link]('c') ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e']
from list.
print (list1)
list1 = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
This method reverses objects of
[Link]() [Link]() ['e', 'd', 'c', 'b', 'a']
list in place.
print (list1)
list1 = [34, 23, 'd', 'a', 'j']
This method sorts objects of list;
[Link]([func]) [Link]() [23, 34, 'a', 'd', 'j']
use compare func if given.
print (list1)
Table 21: Built-in list methods in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 27

11. Tuples
Just like lists, tuples are sequences of objects which are immutable. Once a tuple is created it
cannot be changed. The differences between tuples and lists are:
• tuples cannot be changed unlike lists,
• tuples are enclosed within parentheses instead of square brackets,
• values/elements of the tuples must have a defined order.

Like in lists, in tuples each element of a sequence is assigned a number, i.e., the index number
or the position of the element. The first index number is zero, the second index number is one,
the third index number is two, and so forth. We can apply operations like indexing, adding,
multiplying, slicing, and checking for membership on tuples and other sequence types (e.g.,
lists).

11.1. Creating tuples

A tuple can be created by putting different comma-separated values or elements between
parentheses.

Example

list1 = ('John', 'Paul', 'Catherine')

list2 = (100, 300, 500)
list3 = (20, 10, "Tina", "John")

Example 11: Creating a tuple

11.2. Accessing values in tuples

Values in a tuple can be accessed by square brackets for slicing along with index numbers. For
example, 𝑇[𝑖 ] represents the value at index 𝑖 in tuple 𝑇.

Example

tuple1 = ('John', 'Paul', 'Catherine')

tuple2 = (100, 300, 500)
tuple3 = (20, 10, "Tina", "John")

print ("tuple1[0]=", tuple1[0])

print ("tuple2[2]=", tuple2[2])
print ("tuple3[1:3]=", tuple3[1:3])

Example 12: Accessing values in tuples

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 28

Output example

tuple1[0]= John
tuple2[2]= 500
tuple3[1:3]= (10, 'Tina')

Table 22: Output of Example 12

11.3. Updating tuples

Tuples are immutable which means that we cannot update or change the values of tuple
elements. However, we can join tuples to create a new tuple as Example 13 shows.

Example

tuple1 = ('John', 'Paul', 'Catherine')

tuple2 = (23, 67, 78)
tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print (tuple3)

Example 13: Joining tuples

Output example

('John', 'Paul', 'Catherine', 23, 67, 78)

Table 23: Output of Example 13

11.4. Deleting values from tuples

We cannot remove individual values from a tuple. But we can remove a whole tuple with the
del-statement by 𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒_𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒.

Example

tuple1 = ('John', 'Paul', 'Catherine')

del tuple1

Example 14: Deleting a tuple in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 29

11.5. Basic tuple operations
The operators * (asterisk) and + (plus sign) work in tuples almost the same as in strings. The *
stands for repetition and the + stands for concatenation. The result is a new tuple instead of a
string. Table 24 shows the basic tuple operations in Python.

Basic tuple Output

Description Example
operations example
len((x1, x2, x3,…)) Length len((1, 2, 3, 4)) 4

(x1, x2,..) + (x3, x4,..) Concatenation (1, 2) + (3, 4) (1, 2 ,3 ,4)

(x) * y Repetition ('hello') * 3 ('hello', 'hello', 'hello' )

y in (x, y ,z) Membership 2 in (1, 2, 3, 4) True

for x in (y1, y2,…): for x in (1, 2, 3): print (x,

Iteration 123
print (x, end=" ") end=" ")
Table 24: Basic tuple operations in Python

11.6. Built-in tuple functions

Table 25 shows the built-in tuple functions in Python.

Output
Tuple functions Description Example
example
This function returns the
tuple = (1, 2, 3)
len(tuple) number of elements in the 3
print (len(tuple))
tuple.
This function returns the
tuple = (10, 280, 38)
max(tuple) elements from the tuple with 280
print (max(tuple))
maximum value.
This function returns the
tuple = (10, 280, 38)
min(tuple) elements from the tuple with 10
print (min(tuple))
minimum value.
list = ['x', 1 ,'r', 10]
This function converts a list into
tuple(seq) tuple = tuple(list) ('x', 1, 'r', 10)
tuple.
print (tuple)
Table 25: Built-in tuple functions in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 30

12. Dictionary
Dictionaries are the fundamental data structure in Python. They have been heavily optimized
for memory overhead and lookup speed efficiency. A dictionary consists of keys and values,
where each key is unique and maps a value. The combination of a key and its value is called a
key-value pair or item. Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:) and the items are
separated by a comma. A dictionary is enclosed by curly braces ( {} ). The keys of a dictionary
should be of an immutable data type such as strings, numbers, or tuples. The values can be of
any types.

12.1. Creating dictionaries

Example 15 shows a simple way to create a dictionary in Python.

Example

dict = {'Name': 'Catherine', 'Age': 18, 'Gender': 'Female'}

Example 15: Creating a dictionary

12.2. Accessing values in dictionaries

You can access values in a dictionary by using square brackets along with the key name to
obtain the value.

Example

dict = {'Name': 'Catherine', 'Age': 18, 'Gender': 'Female'}

print ("Name: ", dict['Name'])

print ("Age: ", dict['Age'])
print ("Gender: ", dict['Gender'])

Example 16: Accessing values in a dictionary

Output example

Name: Catherine
Age: 18
Gender: Female

Table 26: Output of Example 16

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 31

12.3. Updating dictionaries
A dictionary can be updated by
• adding a new key-value pair or a new entry,
• modifying an existing entry, or
• deleting an existing entry.

Example 17 shows how you can update an existing entry and how you can add an entry in a
dictionary.

Example

dict = {'Name': 'Catherine', 'Age': 18, 'Gender': 'Female'}

dict['Age'] = 20 # update an existing entry
dict['Residence'] = "Amsterdam" # Add a new entry

print ("Name: ", dict['Name'])

print ("Age: ", dict['Age'])
print ("Gender: ", dict['Gender'])
print ("Residence: ", dict['Residence'])

Example 17: Updating dictionaries

Output example

Name: Catherine
Age: 20
Gender: Female
Residence: Amsterdam

Table 27: Output of Example 17

12.4. Deleting dictionaries

You can either remove individual entries from a dictionary with the del-statement or clear the
entire contents of a dictionary with the [Link]() method. The entire dictionary can be
deleted with the del-statement by 𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦_𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒. See also Example 18.

Example

dict = {'Name': 'Catherine', 'Age': 18, 'Gender': 'Female'}

del dict['Age'] # remove entry with key 'Age'
[Link]() # remove all entries in dict
del dict # delete entire dictionary

Example 18: Deleting entries from dictionaries

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 32
12.5. Built-in dictionary functions
Python has some built-in dictionary functions which are shown in Table 28.

Dictionary Output
Description Example
functions example
This function returns the dict = {'Name': 'Jean',
len(dict) number of items in the 'Age': 17} 2
dictionary. print (len(dict))
This function produces a dict = {'Name': 'Jean',
{'Name': 'Jean', 'Age':
str(dict) printable string representation 'Age': 17}
17}
of a dictionary. print (str(dict))
This function returns the type of
the passed variable. If the dict = {'Name': 'Jean',
type(variable) passed variable is dictionary 'Age': 17} <type 'dict'>
then it would return a dictionary print (type(dict))
type.
Table 28: Built-in dictionary functions in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 33

12.6. Built-in dictionary methods
Table 29 shows the built-in dictionary methods in Python.

Dictionary Output
Description Example
methods example
dict = {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age':
This method removes all 18}
[Link]() {}
elements of dictionary dict. [Link]()
print (dict)
dict1 = {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age':
This method returns a shallow 18} {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age':
[Link]()
copy of dictionary dict. dict2 = [Link]() 18, }
print (str(dict2))
This method creates a new
seq = ('Name', 'Age')
[Link](seq[, dictionary with keys from seq {'Name': 20, 'Age':
dict = [Link](seq, 20)
value]) and values set to value if 20}
print (str(dict))
provided.
dict = {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age':
This method returns a value
18}
[Link](key, for the given key. Default is Tina
print ([Link]('Name'))
default=none) the value that is returned in Does not exist
print ([Link]('Gender', "Does
case the key does not exist.
not exist"))
dict = {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age':
This method returns a view of dict_items([('Name',
[Link]() 18}
dict's (key, value) tuple pairs 'Tina'), ('Age', 18)])
print ([Link]())
This method returns a view of dict = {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age':
dict_keys(['Name',
[Link]() all available keys in the 18}
'Age'])
dictionary. print ([Link]())
dict = {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age': Tina
18}
None
This method is similar to get(), print (dict. setdefault ('Name',
[Link](key,
but will set dict[key]=default if "None"))
default=none)
key is not already in dict. print (dict. setdefault New dict: {'Name':
('Gender', "None")) 'Tina', 'Age': 18,
print ("New dict: %s" % dict) 'Gender': 'None'}
dict1 = {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age':
This method adds dictionary 18} {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age':
[Link](dict2) dict2's key-values pairs to dict2 = {'Gender': 'female'} 18, 'Gender':
dict1. [Link](dict2) 'female'}
print (dict1)
This method returns a view of dict = {'Name': 'Tina', 'Age':
dict_values(['Tina',
[Link]() all the values in a given 18}
18])
dictionary. print ([Link]())
Table 29: Built-in dictionary methods in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 34

13. Decision-making
In real life, we encounter sometimes situations when we need to make decisions. Based on
these decisions we decide what to do next. Likewise, we encounter situations in programming
where we need to make some decisions. Based on these decisions we execute the next block of
code.

Flowcharts are very helpful in understanding and recognizing decision making structures. The
following decision-making statements are available in Python.
• if-statements
• if…else statements
• if...elif…else statements
• nested if-statements

13.1. if-statement
If-statements consists of a Boolean expression which evaluates to TRUE or FALSE (see Figure 1).
If the Boolean expression evaluates to TRUE, then the block of statement(s) inside the if-
statement is executed. If the Boolean expression evaluates to FALSE, then the first set of code
after the end of the if-statement(s) is executed.

Figure 1: if-statement depicted in a flowchart

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 35

Example 19 shows two situations of an if-statement code. In the first situation, the Boolean
expression evaluates to TRUE and in the other situation to FALSE.

Example

# Boolean evaluates to TRUE

𝑥 = 10
if 𝑥 > 5:
print("𝑥 is greater than 5")

# Boolean evaluates to FALSE

𝑦 = 10
if 𝑦 > 100:
print("𝑦 is greater than 100")
print("𝐵𝑦𝑒 𝑏𝑦𝑒! ")

Example 19: if-statement in Python

13.2. if…else-statement
In the if…else-statement, the if-statement is followed by an optional else-statement. The
if…else-statement contains a Boolean expression (see Figure 2) which if evaluates to FALSE, the
else-statement is executed.

Figure 2: if...else-statement depicted in a flowchart

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 36
Example 20 shows an if…else-statement code in which the Boolean expression is evaluated to
FALSE which results in the execution of the else-statement.

Example

𝑥=1
if 𝑥 > 5: # Boolean evaluates to TRUE
print("𝑥 is greater than 5")
else: # Boolean evaluates to FALSE
print("𝑥 is less than 5")

Example 20: if…else-statement in Python

13.3. if…elif…else-statement
To check multiple expressions we use the if…elif…else-statement. Elif is short for else if. It is also
called the chained conditional statement (see Figure 3). The condition of the next elif-statement
is checked if the condition for the if-statement is FALSE. If the condition of the next elif-
statement is FALSE, then the condition of the next elif-statement is checked and so on. If all the
conditions are FALSE, the else-statement is executed. The if…elif…else-statement can have only
one else-statement and multiple elif-statements. Note that only one elif statement is executed
according to the condition.

Figure 3: if...elif…else-statement depicted in a flowchart

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 37

Example 21 shows an if…elif…else-statement code in which the condition of the elif-statement
is evaluated to TRUE which results in the execution of the elif-statement.

Example

𝑥=1
𝑦=5

if 𝑥 > 𝑦:
print("𝑥 is greater than 𝑦")
elif 𝑥 < 𝑦:
print("𝑥 is less than 𝑦")
else:
print("𝑥 is equal to 𝑦")

Example 21: if...elif..else-statement in Python

13.4. Nested if-statement

Sometimes there may be situations in which you want to check for another condition after a
condition evaluates to TRUE. In such situations, you can use nested if-statements. This is called
nesting in computer programming. In nested if-statements, you can have an if…elif…else-
statement inside another if…elif…else-statement. Nesting should be avoided when possible, as
indentation is the only way to figure out the level of nesting in Python which can get confusing.

Example 22 shows a nesting code in Python in which the condition of the elif-statement is
evaluated two times to TRUE before the program quits.

Example

𝑥 = 10

if 𝑥 < 11:
print("𝑥 is less than 11")
if 𝑥 == 5:
print("𝑥 is 5")
elif 𝑥 > 5:
print("𝑥 is greater than 5")
elif 𝑥 < 5:
print("𝑥 is less than 5")
else:
print("Cannot guess 𝑥")
print("Leaving program")

Example 22: Nesting in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 38
14. Loops
In computer programming, a loop is a sequence of instructions that is repeated until a certain
condition is met. The loop iteration technique is used to repeat the same or similar type of
tasks based on a specified condition. Two of the most common types of loops are the while-
loop and the for-loop. Besides the while-loops and the for-loops, we will also discuss here the
nested loop.

14.1. While-loop
The while-loop is the simplest form of a programming loop. The statements in a while-loop are
repeated as long as a given condition is TRUE (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: while-loop depicted in a flowchart

Example 23 shows loop created with the while-loop. Note that 𝑥 is incremented with one after
every iteration, or else the loop will continue forever.

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 39

Example

𝑥=1
while 𝑥 < 5:
print("Iteration:", 𝑥)
𝑥 = 𝑥+1

Example 23: while-loop in Python

Output example

Iteration: 1
Iteration: 2
Iteration: 3
Iteration: 4

Table 30: Output of Example 23

14.2. For-loop
The for-loop is used when we want to repeat a piece of code ‘n’ times (see Figure 5) or when
we want to iterate over a sequence (i.e., a list, a tuple or a string).

Figure 5: for-loop depicted in a flowchart

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 40
Example 24 shows how to repeat a piece of code ‘n’ times with a for-loop.

Example

for 𝑥 in range (0,4):

print("Iteration:", 𝑥)

Example 24: repeat ‘n’ times with a for-loop in Python

Output example

Iteration: 0
Iteration: 1
Iteration: 2
Iteration: 3

Table 31: Output of Example 24

Example 25 shows how to iterate over a sequence with a for-loop in Python.

Example

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "pineapple"]

for 𝑖 in fruits:
print(𝑖)

Example 25: Iterate over a sequence with a for-loop in Python

Output example

apple
banana
pineapple

Table 32: Output of Example 25

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 41

14.3. Nested loop
We talk about nested loops when we use a loop inside another loop, e.g., a for-loop inside a
while-loop or vice versa. We can also put a for-loop inside a for-loop and a while-loop inside a
while-loop. Example 26 gives an example of a nested loop using a for-loop inside a for-loop.

Example

for g in range(1, 3):

for k in range(1, 3):
print ("%d * %d = %d" % (g, k, g*k))

Example 26: A nested loop in Python

Output example

1 * 1 = 1
1 * 2 = 2
2 * 1 = 2
2 * 2 = 4

Table 33: Output of Example 26

14.4. Loop control statements

A loop control statement is a statement that determines whether other statements will be
executed or not. The Python language supports three loop control statements:
• break statement,
• continue statement, and
• pass statement.

14.4.1. Break statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all the statements.
It terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the statement next to the loop. The
break statement can be used in both while-loops and for-loops.

Example

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "pineapple"]

for 𝑖 in fruits:
if 𝑖 == "banana":
break
print(𝑖)

Example 27: break statement in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 42

Output example

apple

Table 34: Output of Example 27

14.4.2. Continue statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and continue with
the next. The continue statement can be used in both while-loops and for-loops.

Example

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "pineapple"]

for 𝑖 in fruits:
if 𝑖 == "banana":
continue
print(𝑖)

Example 28: continue statement in Python

Output example

apple
pineapple

Table 35: Output of Example 28

14.4.3. Pass statement

The pass statement in Python is used when a statement is required syntactically but you do not
want any command or code to execute. Nothing will happen when the pass statement is used.
It is therefore called a null operation. The pass statement is especially useful in places where
your code will eventually go but has not been written yet.

Example

for letter in 'Python':

if letter == 'h':
pass
print("pass block")
print(letter)

Example 29: pass statement in Python

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 43

Output example

P
y
t
pass block
h
o
n

Table 36: Output of Example 29

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 44

15. Functions
A function is a block of code which runs when it is called. Functions make codes reusable. We
can pass data into a function and a function can return data as a result. The Python
programming language has many built-in functions like print(), random(), and other built-in
functions. It is also possible to create your own functions in Python. These functions are called
user-defined functions.

15.1. Creating a function

In Python, a function block is started with the def keyword followed by the name of the
function and parentheses. The code block within the function starts with a colon (:) and is
indented (see Example 30 ).

Example

def my_function():
print("Hello World")

Example 30: Creating a function in Python

15.2. Calling a function

We can call a function just by using the function name followed by parenthesis (see Example
31).

Example

def my_function():
print("Hello World")

my_function()

Example 31: Calling a function in Python

15.3. Parameters and arguments

Parameters are variables in a function definition. We pass data to functions as parameters
which are specified after the function name inside the parenthesis. The parameters are
separated with a comma, if the function has many parameters. An argument is the actual value
of the parameter that gets passed to function. Example 32 shows a function with one
parameter, called name. When the function is called, it prints hello and the name that is passed
along. The name that is passed along is used inside the function.

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 45

Example

def my_function(name):
print("Hello " + name)

my_function("John")
my_function("Catherine")

Example 32: Parameters in Python

Example 33 shows how to use a default parameter value in a Python function. When the
function is called without a parameter, the default value is used.

Example

def my_function(name = "World "):

print("Hello " + name)

my_function("John")
my_function("Catherine")
my_function()

Example 33: Default parameter value in Python

15.4. Return values

With the return statement, we can let a function return a value (). This makes it possible to use
a function output outside the function.

Example

def average(x, y):

avg = (x + y)/2
print("Inside: Average is: ", avg)
return avg

avg = average(2, 6)
# We can print avg outside the function
# because it is returned by the function
print("Outside: Average is: ", avg)

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 46

Example 34: The return statement in Python

15.5. Parameters vs arguments

The term parameter is often used to refer to the variable names within a function. An argument
can be thought of as the value that is assigned to that variable. Parameters are in fact
placeholders within a function for the arguments which are passed. In Example 35, name is the
parameter for the function my_function. Anywhere we see name within the function will act as
a placeholder until name is passed as an argument. The argument is passed to the function by
my_function("John"). This calls the function, my_function, and assigns the value of 'John' (pass
the argument 'John') to the parameter name. Now, the parameter name within the function
will act as a variable with the value of 'John'.

Example

def my_function(name):
print("Hello " + name)

my_function("John")

Example 35: Parameter vs argument

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 47

16. Modules
A module can be considered to be the same as a code library, a file consisting of Python code,
e.g., set of functions, that we want to include in your application. It allows us to organize the
Python code logically and makes the code easier to understand and use. Module codes can be
reused as many times as we require.

16.1. Creating modules

We can create a module by saving the Python code in a file with the file extension .py. To create
a module of Example 36, we just have to save the code in a file, e.g., my_module.py.

Example

def greeting(name):
print("Hello " + name)

Example 36: Creating a module in Python

16.2. Using modules

16.2.1. Import statement

We can use a module by using the import statement followed by the name of the module(s).
The module names are separated by a comma when we import multiple modules. The module
created in 16.1 can be used by importing the module named my_module and calling the
greeting function (see Example 37). Use the syntax module_name.function_name when you use
a function from a module.

Example

import my_module

my_module.greeting("John")

Example 37: Using modules in Python

16.2.2. Import…from statement

With the import…from statement it is possible to import a part of a module instead of the
whole module. In this way, we can import specific attributes from a module into the current
namespace. Suppose we have a module, named my_module, as shown in Example 38.

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 48

Example

def greeting(name):
print("Hello " + name)

def gb(name):
print("Goodbye " + name)

Example 38: Module with multiple functions

To import only the gb function from the module my_module, we use the syntax from
module_name import name (see Example 39).

Example

from my_module import gb

gb("John")

Example 39: Import attributes from a module

Note that when import specific attributes from a module using the from keyword we do not use
the module name when we refer to elements in the module, e.g., not
my_module.gb("John"), but gb("John").

16.3. Variables in modules

Modules also can contain variables of all types, like arrays, dictionaries, objects, etc. (see
Example 40 for a module named my_module).

Example

person1 = {
"Name": "Catherine",
"Age": "24",
"Residence": "Amsterdam"
}

Example 40: Variables in modules

We can access the person1 dictionary by importing the module named my_module (see
Example 41).

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 49

Example

import my_module

country = my_module.person1["Residence"]
print(country)

Example 41: Importing a dictionary from a module

16.4. Renaming modules

We can create an alias for a module by using the as keyword when we import a module (see
Example 42).

Example

import my_module as MM

[Link]("John")

Example 42: Renaming modules in Python

16.5. Using the dir() function

The dir() built-in function returns a list of defined names belonging to a module (see Example
43). The list contains the names of all the modules, variables and functions that are defined in a
module (see Table 37 for the output of Example 43). Note that the dir() function can be used on
all modules, also on the ones we create ourselves.

Example

import math

list_of_names = dir(math)
print(list_of_names)

Example 43: Using the dir() function

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 50

Output example

['__doc__', '__name__', '__path__', 'acos', 'acosh', 'asin', 'asinh',

'atan', 'atan2', 'atanh', 'ceil', 'copysign', 'cos', 'cosh',
'degrees', 'e', 'exp', 'fabs', 'factorial', 'floor', 'hypot', 'isinf',
'isnan', 'log', 'log10', 'pi', 'pow', 'radians', 'sin', 'sinh',
'sqrt', 'tan', 'tanh', 'trunc']

Table 37: Output of Example 43

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 51

17. Date & Time
There are several ways to handle date and time in a Python program. Python's time and
calendar modules help track dates and times. Time intervals have to be represented in floating
point numbers in units of seconds which are expressed by tick in python. The function time()
from Python’s time module returns the current system time in ticks since 12:00 am, January 1,
1970 (epoch).

Example

import time

ticks = [Link]()
print ("Number of ticks:", ticks)

Example 44: Python's time module

Output example

Number of ticks: 1530196021.89

Table 38: Output of Example 44

Another way to work with time is using Python’s datetime module (see Example 45). The
method strftime() is used to format date objects into readable strings. This method takes one
parameter, format, to specify the format of the returned string. Table 40 shows a reference of
all the legal format codes for the strftime() method.

Example

from datetime import datetime

current = [Link]()
print("Current date and time: ", current)
print("Today's date is: ", [Link]("%Y-%m-%d"))
print("Year: ", [Link])
print("Month: ", [Link])
print("Day: ", [Link])

Example 45: Python's datetime module

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 52

Output example

Current date and time: 2018-06-28 16:46:25.420000

Today's date is: 2018-06-28
Year: 2018
Month: 6
Day: 28

Table 39: Output of Example 45

Directive Description Example

%a Weekday, short version Tue

%A Weekday, full version Tuesday
%w Weekday as a number 0-6, 0 is Sunday 2
%d Day of month 01-31 21
%b Month name, short version Nov
%B Month name, full version November
%m Month as a number 01-12 11
%y Year, short version, without century 17
%Y Year, full version 2017
%H Hour 00-23 13
%I Hour 00-12 01
%p AM/PM PM
%M Minute 00-59 31
%S Second 00-59 09
%f Microsecond 000000-999999 586512
%z UTC offset +0100
%Z Timezone CST
%j Day number of year 001-366 365
Week number of year, Sunday as the first day of
%U 52
week, 00-53
Week number of year, Monday as the first day of
%W 52
week, 00-53
Tue Nov 21 13:31:00
%c Local version of date and time
2017

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 53

 %x Local version of date 11/21/17
%X Local version of time 13:31:00
%% A % character %
Table 40: Reference of all the legal format codes for the strftime() method

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 54

18. Files I/O
Programs need an input to process and an output to display data (see Figure 6). The input can
come, e.g., from a keyboard, an output from another program or a file. The output can be sent,
e.g., to a computer screen, a printer, or another program.

Figure 6: Input and output stream for a program

We can store the data in variables while a program runs. But this data get lost if we terminate
the program. If we want to keep the data after the termination of the program, we have to
store the data in a file. The print function converts the expressions you pass into a string and
writes the result to standard output ().

18.1. Writing to standard output

Writing to the standard output (stdout), e.g., a computer screen, can be done by the print
statement.

Example

print ("Hello world")

Example 46: Writing to standard output

Output example

Hello world

Table 41: Output of Example 46

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 55

18.2. Reading from standard input
Reading from the standard input (stdin), e.g., a keyboard, can be done by Python’s built-in
function input().

The input() function interpret the user’s input. If the user, e.g., puts in an integer value, the
input function returns this integer value. If the user, on the other hand, inputs a list, the
function will return a list. A prompt is displayed to enter the string.

Example

str = input("Enter your input: ")

print ("Received input is: ", str)

Example 47: The use of input() function to read from standard input

Output example

Received input is: Hello world

Table 42: Output of Example 47 if we give “Hello world” as input

18.3. Opening a file

We have to use Python’s built-in open() function to open a file before we can read or write a
file. The open() function creates a file object and requires two arguments, the file name, and
the file opening mode. Table 43 shows the different modes of opening a file in Python.

Mode Description

t This mode opens a file in text mode (default mode).

b This mode opens a file in binary mode.

+ This mode opens a file for updating (reading and writing).

r This mode opens a file for reading only (default mode).

rb This mode opens a file for reading only in binary format.

r+ This mode opens a file for both reading and writing.

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 56

 rb+ This mode opens a file for both reading and writing in binary format.

This mode opens a file for writing only. It overwrites the file if the file exists. If the
w
file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing.
This mode opens a file for writing only in binary format. It overwrites the file if the
wb
file exists. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing in binary format.
This mode opens a file for both writing and reading. It overwrites the file if the file
w+
exists. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing and reading.
This mode opens a file for both writing and reading in binary format. It overwrites
wb+ the file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing and
reading in binary format.
This mode opens a file for appending (pointer is at the end of the file). If the file
a
does not exist, it creates a new file for writing.
This mode opens a file for appending in binary format (pointer is at the end of the
ab
file). If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing in binary format.
This mode opens a file for both appending and reading (pointer is at the end of the
a+
file). If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing.
This mode opens a file for both appending and reading in binary format (pointer is at
ab+ the end of the file). If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and
writing in binary format.

x This mode creates a file. It returns an error if the file exists.

Table 43: Modes of opening a file in Python

We can get various information related to a file once the file is open by using attributes related
to the file object. Table 44 shows the attributes which can be used with the file object.

Mode Description

[Link] This attribute returns TRUE if the file is closed and FALSE otherwise.

[Link] This attribute returns the access mode with which file was opened.

[Link] This attribute returns name of the file.

Table 44: Attributes related to file object

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 57

Example 48 shows how we use the attributes on an open file.

Example

demo = open("[Link]", "w")

print ("Name of the file: ", [Link])
print ("Opening mode: ", [Link])
print ("Closed: ", [Link])

Example 48: Opening a file and the use of the related attributes

Output example

Name of the file: [Link]

Opening mode: w
Closed: False

Table 45: Output of Example 48

18.4. Closing a file

A file that is open can be closed by the close() method.

Example

demo = open("[Link]", "r") # Open the demo file in reading mode

print ("Name of the file: ", [Link])
[Link]() # Close the demo file

Example 49: Closing a file

18.5. Reading a file

We can read a file by the read() method once it is open by the open() function.

18.5.1. Read the whole file

Example 50 shows how we can read all the content of a file at once.

Example

demo = open("[Link]", "r")

# Read all the content of the demo file
str = [Link]()
print(str)

Example 50: Read all the content of the file

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 58

18.5.2. Read a part of a file
Example 51 shows how we can read a part of a file.

Example

demo = open("[Link]", "r")

# Return the 5 first characters of the demo file
str = [Link](5)
print(str)

Example 51: Read a part of a file

18.5.3. Read a few lines of a file

Example 52 shows how we can read one line of a file with the readline() method. If we want to
read, e.g., the first three lines of a file, we call the readline() method three times.

Example

demo = open("[Link]", "r")

# Read one line of the demo file
str = [Link]()
print(str)

Example 52: Read one line of a file

18.5.4. Looping through a file

Example 53 shows how we can loop through a file line by line. This is useful when we want to
read a whole file line by line.

Example

demo = open("[Link]", "r")

# Looping through the file
for x in demo:
print(x)

Example 53: Looping through a file line by line

18.6. Writing a file

With the write() method we can write to an open file. Note that the write() method does not
add a newline character ('\n') to the end of a string.
A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 59
Example 54 shows how we can add a new line to an existing file. The append mode ("a")adds
strings to the end of a file.

Example

demo = open("[Link]", "a")

[Link]("A new line is added to the file")

Example 54: Add a new line with the write() method

Example 55 shows how we can overwrite an existing file. The write mode ("w")overwrites any
existing content.
Example

demo = open("[Link]", "w")

[Link]("Existing content has been deleted")

Example 55: Overwriting an existing file

18.7. Creating a file

Three modes can be used to create a file with the open() method, namely with the modes
create("x"), append("a"), and write("w").

• create("x"), it returns an error if the file exists.

• append("a"), file is only created if the specified file does not exist.
• write("w"), file is only created if the specified file does not exist.

Example 56 shows how a file named, [Link], is created if the file does not exist.

Example

demo = open("[Link]", "w")

Example 56: Create the demo file

18.8. Deleting a file or a directory

We have to import the os module to delete a file or a directory. This module provides us
methods to perform file processing operations, such as deleting and renaming files. To delete a
file we use the remove() method. With the rmdir() method we can delete empty directories

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 60

(folders). In Example 57 we check whether the file [Link] exists or not. We delete the file if it
exists otherwise we print “File not exist”.

Example

import os

# Check if the file exists

if [Link]("[Link]"):
[Link]("[Link]")
print("File deleted")
else:
print("File does not exist")

Example 57: Delete a file

18.9. Directory methods

Example 58 shows some commonly used directory methods. We need to import the os module
first in order to call the methods.

Method Description Example

chdir(path) This method is used to change the current directory. [Link]("/misc/tmp")

getcwd() This method displays the current working directory. [Link]()

mkdir(path[,mode]) This method creates a directory. [Link]("/misc/tmp")

rename(src, dst) This method renames the file or directory src to dst. [Link]("tut", "tutorial")

rmdir(path) This method deletes an empty directory. [Link]("/misc/tmp")

Example 58: Some directory methods

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 61

Index
A P
argument .............................................................. 45 pass statement ..................................................... 43
Python .................................................................... 7
B
python interactive mode ......................................... 8
break statement .................................................... 42 Python interpreter .................................................. 8
C python script mode ................................................. 8

chained conditional statement .............................. 37 R

close() ................................................................... 58 read().................................................................... 58
continue statement ............................................... 43 readline() .............................................................. 59
I remove() ............................................................... 60
reserved keywords .................................................. 9
import statement .................................................. 48 rmdir() .................................................................. 60
import…from statement ........................................ 48
input ..................................................................... 56 S

K standard input ...................................................... 56

standard output .................................................... 55
key-value pair........................................................ 31 stdin ............................................ See standard input
L stdout ........................................ See standard output
string .................................................................... 15
loop....................................................................... 39
T
N
tick ....................................................................... 52
nested if-statements ............................................. 38
nesting .................................................................. 38 U
numerical data types ............................................. 17 user-defined functions .......................................... 45
O W
open() ................................................................... 56 while loop ............................................................. 39
Operand ................................................................ 10 write()................................................................... 59
Operator ............................................................... 10
os module ............................................................. 60

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 62

Acknowledgements

Python ([Link]

Trademarks
Python and PyCon are trademarks or registered trademarks of the Python Software
Foundation.

Licenses
Python, its standard libraries, and Jython, are distributed under the Python License. The
intellectual property rights behind Python and Jython are held and managed by the Python
Software Foundation.

The licenses, trademarks, and copyrights for other implementations of Python (such as
IronPython, Stackless Python, and PyPy) may vary and are managed by their respective
owners.

A short introduction to Python by Aniel Bhulai 63