Circuit Theory Ch.
Class Notes
CHAPTER 2
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
Chapter Topics
(1) The symbols of ideal basic circuit elements
(2) Independent voltage and current sources
(3) Dependent voltage and current sources
(4) Resistors
(5) Ohm’s law
(6) Kirchhoff’s current law
(7) Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(8) Power calculation
2.1 Voltage and Current Sources
Electric source := a device that converts nonelectric energy to electric energy
and vice versa.
For example,
• Battery: chemical energy ←→ electric energy
• Dynamo (generator or motor): mechanical energy ←→ electric energy
An ideal voltage source := a circuit element maintaining a prescribed voltage
An ideal current source := a circuit element maintaining a prescribed current
Textbook: J. W. Nilsson and R. A. Riedel, ”Electric Circuits”, 11th Ed. (Global), Pearson
Circuit Theory Ch. 2
Independent sources := a source supplying voltage or current alone
Dependent sources (= controlled sources) := a source supplying voltage or
current whose value depends on voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit
µ, ρ, α, and β are multiplying constants.
Active element := a device capable of generating electric energy
(for example, sources)
Passive element := a device that cannot generate electric energy
(for example, resistors, inductors, capacitors)
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Circuit Theory Ch. 2
2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm’s Law)
Resistance := the capacity of materials to impede the flow of current (Ω)
Resistor := the circuit element with resistance
• Converted to thermal energy (dissipated in the form of heat)
• Can be used as stoves, toasters, irons, and space heaters
• R is constant in circuit theory. (It changes a little in the real world.)
Ohm’s law
v = iR or i = v/R
Reference choices (voltage drop vs. voltage rise)
Conductance (unit: S or f)
1
G=
R
Power at the terminals of a resistor:
p = vi
= (iR)i = i2 R
v v2
= v( )=
R R
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Circuit Theory Ch. 2
2.4 Kirchhoff ’s Laws
Circuit model of flashlight built in Section 2.3.
Node := a point where two or more circuit elements meet
Loop (=closed path) := a path where we start at a node, trace the path, and
then return to the starting node (by passing any intermediate node once)
The above circuit has 4 nodes (a, b, c, and d) and 1 loop.
• Known parameters: R1 , Rc , Rl
• Known variables: vs
• 7 unknown variables: is , i1 , ic , il , v1 , vc , vl
– To determine these unknowns (we call it “solve the circuit”),
7 independent equations are required.
3 equations can be built on the basis of Ohm’s law as follows:
v1 = i 1 R 1 vc = i c R c vl = il Rl
To obtain 4 more equations, we can use Kirchhoff’s laws.
Kirchhoff ’s law := the relationships between terminal voltages and currents
that is formed when circuit elements are connected
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Circuit Theory Ch. 2
Kirchhoff ’s current law (KCL)
P
At any node, {all the currents} = 0
Sign rule 1
• assign + sign to a current leaving a node
• assign − sign to a current entering a node
Sign rule 2
• assign + sign to a current entering a node
• assign − sign to a current leaving a node
(sign rule 1) = (sign rule 2) or (sign rule 2) = (sign rule 1)
For example,
node a is − i1 = 0
node b i1 + ic = 0
node c − ic − il = 0
node d il − is = 0
Only 3 independent equations can be obtained from KCL.
(Any 1 of 4 can be derived from the other 3.)
Still, we need 1 more equation.
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Circuit Theory Ch. 2
P
Kirchhoff ’s voltage law (KVL) Around any loop, {all the voltages} = 0
Sign rule 1
• assign + sign to a voltage drop
• assign − sign to a voltage rise
Sign rule 2
• assign + sign to a voltage rise
• assign − sign to a voltage drop
(sign rule 1) = (sign rule 2) or (sign rule 2) = (sign rule 1)
For example,
vl − vc + v1 − vs = 0
Now, we can solve the circuit with 7 independent equations.
However, we will learn easier way to solve circuits in coming chapters.
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Circuit Theory Ch. 2
2.5 Analysis of a Circuit Containing Dependent Sources
From KVL around the left loop:
500 = 5i∆ + 20io
Note that we cannot apply KVL around the right loop.
From KCL at node b:
io = i∆ + 5i∆
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