Roseville Secondary School Enugu

A project of Ikota Educational Foundation.

SECOND TERM 2025/2026 ACADEMIC SESSION
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY CLASS: SS 1

EXPECTATIONS

[Link] YOUR NOTE OR PRINT AND SPIRAL BIND

[Link] GRADED ASSESSMENT OF 20 MARKS BEFORE CAT = 60%
[Link] : 40%
[Link]-GRADED ASSESSMENT
[Link] TO BE SUBMITTED IN WEEK 6.
[Link] GRADED ASSESSMENT OF 20 MARKS BEFORE EXAM= 60%
[Link] 40%
[Link]: FOUR

NAME OF TEACHER: MISS UDUIJE CALISTA

FOR ENQUIRIES: 08105871481
Email: calistauduije@[Link]
 SCHEME OF WORK FOR SECOND TERM

WEEKS TOPICS

1 TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEM

2 PLANT NUTRITION

3 NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

4 BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

5 FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM
I. AUTOTROPHS AND
HETEROTROPHS
II. FOOD WEB AND TROPHIC
LEVELS
6
NB : PROJECT TO BE SUBMITTED ON OR
BEFORE FRIDAY,THIS WEEK

7 ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN
NATURE
8 RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY TO
AGRICULTURE
HOLIDAY ASSIGNMENT

1. READ WEEK ONE TOPIC OF THIS NOTE ON “TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEM”
AND GET PREPARED FOR A SHORT BRAINSTORMING SESSION. (Bonus marks can be
earned)

2. READ FROM SECOND HALF OF LAST TERM’S TOPIC FOR YOUR KICK OF TEST.

3. Answer the following question. Read the topic Excretion and Reproduction from your first term note
and biology textbook to answer the questions. (20 marks)

i. Define excretion. (2 mks)

ii. State three importance of excretion. (3 mks)
iii. Copy and complete the table below. (4 ½ mks)

EXCRETORY WASTE EXCRETORY ORGAN THE BIOLOGICAL PROCESS

PRODUCT THAT PRODUCES THIS WASTE
Example: CO2 Lungs in humans, birds etc. Respiration
Gills in fish, tadpole
iv. Ammonia Deamination.

v. Urea

vi. Salt Osmoregulation and

vii. Water vapour

viii. Alkaloid Shedding of leaves,

ix. Define the two types of reproduction. (2mks)

x. a. List and briefly explain the (5) types of ASEXUAL reproduction. (5 mks)
x. b. Mention the two types of vegetative propagation. State an example of each. (3 mks)

TOTAL MARKS = 20
Note; write this assignment in your biology note.
Deadline –Thursday of week 1.
 PROJECT

SS 1 & SS 2 – (FOR CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND BIOLOGY)

PROJECT TEACHERS- (MRS IYIDA, MRS AMAECHI, MS UDUIJE, MS IRENE & MS.
ONOCHIE)

PROJECT TOPIC:
Design, Analysis, and Biological Importance of a Public Water Fountain.

Class Level: SS1 & SS2 Science Students

Project Overview: The Science, Sustainability and Production of a water fountain

This project investigates the scientific principles, biological relevance, and sustainability dimensions of a
water fountain. Students will explore how water fountain’s function, the engineering technologies behind
them, the microbiological considerations involved in maintaining safe drinking water, and the alignment of
water fountains with global sustainability goals such as
SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation).
The project integrates concepts across Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, making it suitable for senior
secondary science classes.
Project Rationale:
Water fountains serve as accessible sources of potable water in schools, communities, and public spaces.
Their operation relies on fundamental scientific principles—such as water pressure, fluid mechanics,
electrical pumping systems, and water purification chemistry. From a biological perspective, water fountains
support human hydration and health, influence microbial growth depending on maintenance, and contribute
to public hygiene and disease prevention. The project promotes awareness of clean water access as a global
developmental priority and encourages sustainable practices within the school environment.
Relevance to Curriculum:
1. Physics Component:
o Fluid dynamics (pressure, flow rate, continuity of flow)
o Pump systems and energy consumption
o Design considerations for efficient water delivery
2. Chemistry Component:
o Water treatment methods (filtration, chlorination, pH control)
o Chemical contaminants and water quality testing
o Corrosion, scaling, and material selection
3. Biology Component:
o Human physiology of hydration
o Microbiology of water systems (biofilms, pathogens)
o Public health and sanitation implications
4. Environmental and Sustainable Development Component:
o Alignment with SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation)
o Reduction of plastic waste through public water access
o Environmental impact of water sourcing and usage
5. SDG Connection: SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation),
SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation)
Learning Objectives:
By the end of the project, students should be able to;
• Explain the scientific principles that underpin how water fountains work.
• Evaluate the quality of water delivered by a fountain using standard tests.
• Assess biological and public-health implications associated with water use.
• Investigate sustainability considerations and propose improvements.
• Develop a simple model or prototype of a water fountain (optional)
• Demonstrate knowledge of water purification, flow mechanisms, and biological safety
• Conduct and interpret water-quality tests (pH, turbidity, microbial load).
• Identify potential contamination risks and propose maintenance strategies.
• Explain how water fountains support SDG 6 and public health goals.
• Present a functional model, prototype, or scientific report based on findings.
Materials Needed:
• A large transparent bowl
• A straw or flexible tube
• Pebbles
• Clean water
• Electrical pumping system
• Two plastic bottles
• Plastics plants/shrubs
• Soldering materials
Procedures:
1. Collect water from any source
2. Test the pH of the water
3. Cut open the plastic bottles and connect the flexible tubes to the bottles and place it into the bowl
4. Fill the transparent bowl with the pebbles and glue the plastic shrubs to the pebbles
5. Next fill the bowl of pebbles with water
6. Connect the electrical pumping system to the bottle to help force the water up and flowing back into
the bowl, hence, keeping the cycle repeated.

Project Format for Student Report:

1. Title Page
2. Introduction
3. Objectives
4. Materials and Method
5. Observations and Results
6. Prototypes or models of the water fountain system
7. Discussion and Analysis
8. Conclusion
9. Recommendations
10. References
11. Skills Developed: Scientific inquiry, model of the water fountain system and analysis, Reporting and
documentation, Problem-solving, Collaboration and presentation.

Entrepreneurial Skill: Small Scale Production and Sale of a small scale water fountain system.
Deliverables:
• A written project report or presentation
 • Diagrams or models of the water fountain system
• Water-quality test results
• Recommendations for sustainable water fountain management,

Assessment Rubric (Total = 20 Marks)

CRITERIA MARKS
Clarity of Objectives and Research Questions 3

Experimental Design and Execution 5

Analysis and Interpretation of Water-quality test 4

Results

Scientific Report and Documentation 4

Teamwork and Presentation 4

DEADLINE – WEEK 6.
 WEEK 1
TOPIC: TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this topic students should be able to;
• Define different types of skeletons, skeletal materials and supporting tissues.
• Identify the location and arrangement of skeletal and supporting tissues in animals.
• State the different supporting tissues (turgid parenchyma, collenchyma, xylem (wood) and
sclerenchyma) in plants, and the arrangement of these supporting tissues.
• Outline the functions of skeleton and supporting tissues in animals and plants and how these
functions are performed.
• Construct a working model of a human arm and explain how it functions.

Skeletons and supporting systems in animals

Skeleton is the bony frame work of the body. Skeletal materials includes chitin, cartilage and bone
Types of skeleton
There are three types of skeleton found in animals and they are;
1. Hydrostatic skeleton: This is a fluid filled in the cavity of some organisms that propels movement
and supports the organism (e.g. found in earthworms, jellyfish, sea anemone)
2. Exoskeleton: This is a rigid external covering made up of chitin or calcium carbonate material that
provides support and protection. (e.g. found in mostly arthropods like insect, cockroach crab, spider,
Mollusca like snails, clams)
3. Endoskeleton: This is an internal support structure made up of bone, cartilage and bone cells. (found
in humans, fish, birds, cow, lion)

Forms of Skeletal Materials.

1. Chitin: This is found in arthropod (such as insects and crustaceans). Chitinous exoskeleton limits the
size and weight of arthropods. Animals with skeleton made up of chitin can grow only by
MOULTING.
2. Cartilage: These are semi-rigid but flexible connective tissue, devoid of blood vessels and nerves.
They are found in cartilaginous fish and shark, pinna of the ear, some of prevents. It is also found in
several parts of adult human.
3. Bones: Found in vertebrates. Is made up of living and non-living materials such as calcium, phosphate
and calcium carbonate. Bones often replace cartilage but cartilages can’t replace bones. The hardening of
calcification of tissue into a bonelike mass OR the laying down of mineral substances in the bones in the
body of human.

NB: Bones are not the hardest substance in the body even though they appear hard. The hardest substance is
the ENAMEL OF THE TOOTH which is made up of collagen (a special protein), hydroxyapatite crytals (a
mineral that is also present in bones) and water.

Mammalian skeleton
The mammalian skeleton is made up of
a) Axial skeleton
b) Appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton
This is divided into;
A. Skull ( this consist of three parts that makes up the skull;

[Link] ( Bones that make up the cranium are frontal bone, temporal bone, occipital bone and parietal
bone )
[Link] skeleton
3. and jaws ( bones that make up the jaw are maxillae also known as upper jaw and mandibles aslo known
as lower jaw )

B. The vertebral column or backbone (cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae,
sacral vertebrae and caudal vertebrae)

REGION OF TYPES OF NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

THE BODY VERTEBRAE IN MAN IN RAT IN RABBIT
FOUND

NECK CERVICAL 7 7 7

CHEST OR THORACIC 12 13 12-13

THORAX
ABDOMEN LUMBAR 5 6 6-7
OR WAIST

HIP OR LOIN SACRAL 5 4 3-4

TAIL CAUDAL 4 27-30 16

TOTAL 33 57-60 44-47

c. Ribs.
d. Sternum or breastbone
FUN FACTS ABOUT THE BONE
➢ An adult human has a total of 206 bones in the body.
➢ A baby has 270 bones, many of which are fuse together as they grow.
➢ Longest Bone in the body THE FEMUR OR THIGH BONE
➢ Shortest Bone in the body THE STAPES ( A bone in the middle ear)
➢ BONE SRENGTH: Bone is stronger than steel but not harder than DENTINE OF THE
TOOTH. A bone can withstand forces of up to 30,000 pounds. but while bone is stronger than
steel in terms of “weight -to-strength ratio” it is not as dense or tough as steel. Hence are more
brittle and have the capacity to withstand bending or twisting.
➢ BONE MARROW: Bones are not entirely solid. They have spongy interior that contains bone
marrow. We have two; Red bone marrow (where red blood cells and white blood cells
produced). Yellow bone marrow (where fat is stored).

Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton is made up of;
a. The girdles ( pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle)
b. The limbs (forelimbs and hindlimbs)

A. Pectoral girdle: This consist of four bones;

[Link] or shoulder blade: This is a flat triangular shaped bone, that has one head-like end with two
projections called the coracoid and acromion and has a little deep / shallow part called glenoid cavity. In
mammals the scapular and coracoid are fused to form the “scapula-coracoid”.
NB; the round head of the humerus ( the bone of the upper arm) fits into the glenoid cavity to form a
ball and socket joint of the shoulder.
2. Clavicle or collar bone
3. Acromion
4 Glenoid cavity
B. Pelvic girdle/hip bone, innominate bone/coxal bone: This consist of the ;
a. Ilium
b. Ischium
c. Pubis
NB: The three bones are joined together at the pubic symphysis. The distal or far end of these bones
forms a cavity called the ACETABULUM into which the head of the femur fits to form ball and socket
hip joint.
NB; While the ischium and pubis are fuse on each side of the body as the in – nominate bone.
The limbs (forelimbs and hindlimbs)

1. The fore limb is made up of the

a. Humerus ( the bone of the upper arm)
b. The “Radius and Ulna” (the bone of the lower)
c. Carpels in the wrist and are 8 in number
d. Metacarpals in the palm are 5 in number in one hand
e. phalanges/ digits CORRECT ( they make up the bones of the fingers and toes) are 14 in number on each
hand and foot a total of 56. The thumb and large toe has the shortest which is only 2, while other fingers
and toes has three each.

2. The hind limb is made up of

a. femur (or thigh bone or bone of upper leg) and the
b. “ tibia and fibula” ( the bone of the lower leg)
c. Tarsals are the ankle bones which are 8 in number are arranged irregularly in 2 rows
d. Metatarsals are the foot bone and are 5 in number for one foot.
e. Phalanges bones of the digits or toes The thumb and large toe has the shortest which is only 2,
while other fingers and toes has three each.
Joints
Joint is a place where two or more bones meet or articulate.
Types of joints
a)Immovable, suture or fixed joints: This is mostly found in the suture joint in the skull and fused joint in
the sacrum . The bones at this joint are not held by any structure, that is the two bones are in close contact
but no movement can occur.
b) Gliding joints/ sliding : This permits movement in two planes ( double hinge joint ). The bones involved
are held together by discs of fibro – cartilage materials. E.g found in the carpals of the wrist( that is between
the small bones of the wrist.), tarsals of the ankel ( that is between the small bones of the ankel).

c) Ball and socket joint: Here one bone has a rounded head called ball and the other has a cavity called socket
and so can move in all directions E.g found in the shoulder ( the joint between the humerus (upper arm) and
the scapula (shoulder blade)). Found also in the hip( the joint between the femur (thigh bone) and the pelvis.
d)Hinge joint: This joint allows movement in one plane or direction only. E.g found elbow, knee,fingers and
the toe.
e)Pivot, rotating or swivel joint: Pivot joint allows nodding or rotation of one part of the body on another. E.g
found in the neck ( the joint between the first (atlas) and second cervical vertebrae ( axis) allowing the head
to turn side to side “ the NO MOVEMENT”). Found also at the lower forearm ( between the radius and ulna)

f)Saddle joint: This joint allow considerable bending and side to side movement. E.g found at the thumb,
allowing the thumb to move in various directions.

Structure of joint
The main parts of a joint consist of the following structures
• Ligaments: A tough, flexible band of connective tissue that connects bones to other bones, providing
stability to the joint.
• Tendons: A strong, fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscles to bones, enabling movement of
the joint.
• Articular cartilage: A smooth, slippery tissue that covers the ends of the bones in a joint, reducing
friction and absorbing shock during movement. It is known as the “ SHOCK ABSORBER” in the
bone.
• Synovial membrane: A thin layer of tissue that lines the inner surface of the joint capsule, producing
synovial fluid.
• Synovial fluid: A viscous fluid produced by the synovial membrane that lubricates the joint, reducing
friction and nourishing the articular cartilage.
Capsule: A fibrous envelope that surrounds and encloses the entire joint, providing support and protection.
Functions of skeleton in man
1. Support: Vertebral column, pelvis.
2. Protection: Skull (brain), rib cage ( heart and lungs),
3. Movement: Limbs, joints.
4. Mineral Storage : Long bones
5. Blood cell production : Bone marrow,
6. Shape: Overall skeleton structure.

HOME WORK (Non-Graded Assignment)

1. Read on -
• The Vertebrae ( cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacral vertebrae and caudal
vertebrae)
• Features of a typical vertebra
• Girdle ( Pectoral and Pelvic)
• Limbs ( Forelimb and Hindlimb)

2. Read on:
I internal structure of a dicot root and monocot root
II internal structure of a dicot stem and monocot stem

Supporting tissues in plants

They are the four in number;
1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma
4. Xylem (wood)
The internal structure of dicotyledonous root is made up of
Piliferous layer: It bears the root hairs
Cortex: It is wide and serve as a food store. located at the out
Endodermis: It separates the cortex from vascular cylinder and also controls the passage of substances in and
out of the vascular cylinder.
Pericycle: The pericycle is the outermost layer of the vascular cylinder

Phloem
Xylem } Vascular bundle cylinder
Cambium

The phloem is made up of parenchyma cells. It conducts food substances down

The xylem is responsible for the transportation of water around the plant.

Internal structure of a dicotyledonous stem

The stem consists of the following;
• Epidermis
 • Cortex (which comprises of collenchyma, parenchyma and starch sheath)
• Vascular bundle (comprises of pericycle fibre, primary phloem and primary xylem)
• Cambial ring (fascicular cambium, interfascicular and cambium)
• Medullary ray
• Pith
Internal structure of a monocot stem
In contrast to a dicot stem,
• There is no collenchyma tissue
• There are very many vascular bundles scattered all over
• There is no cambium hence, no secondary thickening.

EVALUATION

I. Recognise different skeletal and supporting tissues.

II. State the location and arrangement of skeletal and supporting tissues in animals.
III. State the different supporting tissues (turgid parenchyma, collenchyma, xylem (wood) and
sclerenchyma) in plants, and the arrangement of these supporting tissues.
IV. State the functions of skeleton and supporting tissues in animals and plants and how these functions
are performed.
V. Construct a working model of a human arm and explain how it functions.
 WEEK 2
TOPIC : PLANT NURITION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this topic, students should be able to;
➢ Define photosynthesis
➢ Explain the mechanism of photosynthesis
➢ State and explain the materials and conditions necessary for photosynthesis
➢ Demonstrate the necessary experiments on photosynthesis
➢ Discuss all elements required by plants for their growth and development.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is defined as the process by which green plants( autotrophs) manufacture their food (organic
compounds) making use of carbon dioxide and water in the presence of energy absorbed from the sunlight by
the chlorophyll to produce food ( glucose ) and give out oxygen as by-product. This process is carried out
with the help enzymes.
Photosynthesis is represented by chemical equation as:
6CO2 + 6H2O sunlight chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2
(carbon dioxide) (water) (glucose) (oxygen)

NB: The first stable product of photosynthesis is a simpler sugar (glucose).

The major site of a leaf where photosynthesis occur is the “Palisade mesophyll”, because it;
a. It contains more chloroplast than the spongy layer or other parts of the leaf.
b. Palisade cells are located just beneath the upper epidermis where the chlorophyll could absorb more
sunlight.

Adaptations of a leaf for photosynthesis

1. The lamina or leaf blade is a thin flat structure with large surface area. This flat structure allows a
large amount of chloroplast to be exposed to sunlight.
2. The leaf stalk usually holds the lamina in the best possible position.
3. Stomata allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf.
4. Palisade cells, it contains many chloroplast to absorb all the available light.
5. Xylem, this specialized tissue transports water into the leaves for photosynthesis.
6. Phloem, transports manufactured food to other parts of the plants.
7. Network of veins support the leaf and transports water and mineral ions and sugar
Mechanism of photosynthesis
The mechanism of photosynthesis involves series of enzymes present in the plant. Two reactions called light
(LIGHT DEPENDENT STAGE) and dark (LIGHT INDEPENDENT STAGE) are involved.

Light Reaction
It is called a light reaction because it occurs only in the light and is dependent on light.
In light reaction, four steps are involved;
• Step 1. Chlorophyll is energizes/ activated: The chlorophyll absorbs sunlight energy and become
energized.
• Step 2. Photolysis of water: The energy absorbed by the chlorophyll is used to split water molecules
into hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ion. Hydroxyl (OH-) ion gives up its negative electron
to the chlorophyll molecules and form water and oxygen.
• Hydrogen is transferred by NADP (Nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate) a coenzyme.
NADP when reduced becomes NADPH2 and serves as electron carrier of hydrogen ions.
• Formation of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate). Chloroplast contains ADP (Adenosine di-phosphate, an
energy carrier). The extra energy not used in the splitting of water molecules is released to ADP to
form ATP which is used in the dark reaction.

NB Light reaction stage takes place in the grana (granum are stacks of thylakoids, it is where
chlorophyll is stored). The conversion of glucose to starch during the day, principally enables leaves to
efficiently store the starch and use the energy they produce during photosynthesis. Starch is an
insoluble molecule that can be stored in plant organs like leaves, stems and root. Starch is a more
efficient way to store energy than glucose because it takes up less space while glucose is soluble and
can’t be stored for long because it can easily move around the plant.

Major products of light-dependent Importance of the product

stage of photosynthesis
1. ATP / Energy To generate energy for the dark
reaction.

[Link] ion Combines with NADP to form

NADPH2

3. Hydroxyl ion Forms water and oxygen gas which are

released as by - products

4. NADPH2 ( reduced NADP) a To generate hydrogen ion( 2 atoms of

coenzyme hydrogen generated by NADPH2) to
reduce carbondioxide in order to form
cabohydrate in the dark stage

5. Oxygen gas Given off into the atmosphere for

animals/other organism to use for
respiration
Dark Reaction (Calvin cycle)
It is called dark reaction because it does not require light energy. This reaction takes place in the stroma of
the chloroplast (This is the fluid filled sack in the chloroplast) and simple sugar is released as the by –
product. However, the production of glucose is not the end of photosynthetic activities. CO2 is reduced by
combining with 2 atoms of hydrogen provided by the coenzyme NADPH2 to form sugars after undergoing
series of reactions. Specific enzymes controls each step.
NB: The energy needed for the formation of sugar is provided by ATP from light reaction. LIGHT
REACTION TAKES PLACE IN THE STROMA OF THE CHLOROPLAST

Materials and Conditions necessary for photosynthesis

a. Carbon (iv) oxide
b. Water and mineral salt
c. Light energy
d. Optimum temperature ( 10 degree to 20 degree Celsius / 50 to 68 degree Fahrenheit)
e. Chlorophyll etc
f. Enzymes

Factors that affects the rate of photosynthesis; these factors are grouped into

1. External factors: light intensity/sunlight, internal concentration of carbon dioxide, concentration,

temperature, pollution (here air pollutant can damage the leaf cuticle of plant) and water

2. Internal factors: Hormones (like auxin), amount of chlorophyll, enzymes, number, size, age of leaves,
mesophyll cells and chloroplast

Evidence of Photosynthesis
The first, main and stable product of photosynthesis is GLUCOSE. It is immediately converted into
starch for storage. The presence of starch in leaves therefore shows that photosynthesis has occurred.
Some plants, especially monocotyledons do not change their sugar into starch. If such leaves are tested for
starch, a negative result will be obtained, in such plants, parts of the food synthesized are converted to
soluble forms and carried in the phloem vessels to storage organs through a process called Translocation
which occurs at night

Importance of photosynthesis
• Production of food
• Purification of the atmosphere
• Release of oxygen to the environment
• It serves as building block for other substances

Mineral requirement of plants

The soil is the major source of mineral salts while gaseous elements are mainly derived from the atmosphere.
These minerals are grouped into
a) Macro – nutrients (ESSENTIAL): These are those mineral salts or elements required in large
quantity by living organisms. Examples includes; nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium,
calcium, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, sulphur and iron.
b) Micro – nutrients (TRACE OR MINOR ELEMENT OR NONESSENTIAL): These are those
mineral salts or elements required in small quantity by living organisms. Examples includes; zinc,
copper, boron, molybdenum, cobalt, chlorine and manganese.
When plant lack any of these elements, it shows certain signs and the signs are called deficiency symptoms.

NB: A SOLUTION WHICH CONTAINS ALL THE REQUIRED ELEMENTS IN THEIR CORRECT
PROPORTION IS KNOWN AS A COMPLETE CULTURE SOLUTION. IT IS A DISTILLED WATER
CONTAINING ALL THE NECESSARY ELEMENTS IN THE CORRECT QUANTITIES. THIS METHOD
OF GROWING PLANTS IN A CULTURE SOLUTION IS KNOWN AS WATER CULTURE
(HYDROPONICS). THIS METHOD IS IDEAL FOR STUDYING THE EFFECTS OF THE
DEFICIENCY OF ELEMENTS ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS.

MICRONUTRIEINT FUNCTION IN PLANT DEFICIENCY

1 Iron formation of chlorophyll poor growth

formation of protein leaves turn yellow

2 Zinc activates some enzymes poor growth

play a role in the synthesis of
protein

3 Chlorine necessary for the release of may affect growth.

oxygen during photosynthesis,
because chlorine is involved in
the water splitting process of
photosynthesis
4 Boron _______ ______

5 Copper _________ _______

6 Cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, __________ ________

manganese,

MACRONUTRIEINT FUNCTION IN PLANT DEFICIENCY

1 Nitrogen Root development Stunted growth and

protein synthesis chlorosis (yellow
nucleic acid synthesis leaves.)
components of chlorophyll and Poor flower and friut
enzymes formation.

2 Phosphorus Formation of ATP, DNA and Stunted growth, poor

RNA. root development.
Stem and root formation.
coenzyme and protein
formation
3 Sulphur Protein synthesis Stunted growth,
chlorosis (yellowing of
plant tissue due reduced
or absence of
chlorophyll
4 Potassium cell membrane formation leaf margin turns yellow
protein synthesis and brown.
activate respiration and premature death
photosynthesis

5 Nitrogen synthesis of amino acids,protein Extremely stunted

nitrogenous bases and growth with very small
chlorophyll. yellow leaves.
 6 Magnesium Formation of chlorophyll poor growth
Activation of coenzymes and chlorosis
promotion of growth

7 Calcium formation of cell wall death of terminal bud

activation of so enzymes and poor root development
gives ridigity to plants

8 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, ________ __________

calcium

HOMEWORK

a. In four sentences briefly summarize the two reactions involved in photosynthesis.

b. Enumerate the conditions necessary for photosynthesis to take place
c. List four important mineral elements needs of a plant and their deficiency symptoms
d. Read on the following;
I Experiment to show that carbon (iv) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis
II Experiment to show that sunlight is required for photosynthesis
III Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

e. Read on :
I internal structure of a dicot root and monocot root
II internal structure of a dicot stem and monocot stem

Experiments on photosynthesis
1. Testing a leaf for starch
2. Experiment to show that carbon (iv) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis
3. Experiment to show that sunlight is required for photosynthesis
4. Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
5. Experiment to show that oxygen is released by green plants as a by-product of photosynthesis

Importance of photosynthesis
• Production of food
• Purification of the atmosphere
• Release of oxygen to the environment
• It serves as building block for other substances

EVALUATION

1. Define photosynthesis
2. Explain the mechanism of photosynthesis
3. State and explain the materials and conditions necessary for photosynthesis
4. Demonstrate the necessary experiments on photosynthesis
5. Discuss all elements required by plants for their growth and development.
 WEEK 3
TOPIC : ANIMAL NUTRITION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to:

❖ Define what food substances are.

❖ Outline the types of food substances and state what makes a balance diet.
❖ Explain the types of heterotrophic nutrition and feeding mechanisms in holozoic organisms.
❖ Identify the types of mammalian teeth and draw and label the structure of a mammalian tooth.
❖ State the dental formula and adaptations of dentition to mode of nutrition.
❖ Describe digestion in amoeba, earthworm, cockroach, grasshopper and birds.

Food
Food is defined as any substances eaten by animals to enable them to survive and for daily activities.
Classes of food substances
a) Carbohydrate
b) Protein
c) Fat and oil (Lipids)
d) Mineral salt
e) Vitamins
f) Water
Carbohydrate: They are composed carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Types of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides (simple sugar): They have only one simple sugar hence the name. They have the
general formular (CnH2nOn). Examples of them are glucose (C6H12O6), Fructose with same
formular as glucose and galactose.
2. Disaccharides: They have two simple sugars hence the name. They have the formular C12H22O11.
Examples sucrose, maltose and lactose ( maltose and fructose are called reducing sugar while
sucrose is a non-reducing sugar this is because it doesn’t have a free bond ketone group but
reducing sugars have the free ketone group).
NB; All monosaccharides and some disaccharides (lactose are maltose) are reducing sugars
3. Polysaccharides (complex sugar): They consist of more than two simple sugars hence the name.
they have the general formular (C6H10O5) n. Examples starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin.
FOOD TEST
Tests for carbohydrates:

I. To test for simple reducing sugar (e.g. glucose, galactose, fructose, maltose or lactose): Mix equal
amount of glucose and Fehling (or benedicts) solutions in a test tube and place the test tube in a boiling water
bath. After some time an orange red precipitate is formed. This confirms the presence of a reducing sugar.

II. To test for complex sugar or non- reducing sugar (e.g. sucrose): Add dilute hydrochloric acid to a
solution of a complex sugar in a test tube. Place the test tube in a boiling water bath The function of the acid
is that the acid hydrolyses the complex or non- reducing sugar to simple sugars. The Fehling’s test is then
carried out on the simple sugars that are formed. To do this, add a few drops of dilute caustic soda first to
neutralize the excess acid Then, add an equal amount of Fehling’s solution and place the test tube in a
boiling water bath, red precipitate is obtained. An orange- red precipitate is formed.
iii. To test for starch: A boiled starch (yam, potato) solution turns blue - black when a few drops of iodine
solutions are added to it to.

Test for Proteins

i. Biuret Test: To a small amount of albumen or meat extract in a test tube, add a few drops of water and for
of dilute solution hydroxide. Then carefully add 1% copper II sulphate solution, drop by drop, shaking the
solution thoroughly after each drop. A violet colour is produced by a protein solution and a pink colour by a
peptone solution.
ii. Millon's test: Add million's reagent to a colloidal solution of a protein in a test tube and heat it. A deep-
red colour or precipitate appears. This shows presence of protein.
iii Xanthoproteic reaction: To a protein solution, carefully add a few drops of concentrated nitric acid. A
white precipitate forms, which turns yellow on heating. Cool the contents and add a few drops of ammonia
solution. The colour of precipitate deepens to orange.

To Test for Fat

i. Sudan III test: Add a few drops of Sudan III solution to some oil or mashed food containing fats and oil A
red coloration is obtained. On boiling this, a black precipitate is formed.
ii. Translucent white paper test: This is the presence of a translucent spot a is placed positive text for the
presence old against a white paper anti spot when a drop of evil is placed of fat.

Balanced Diet
Balanced diet is a diet containing all the six classes or types of food in the right proportion to meet the
body’s requirement for growth, repair and maintenance.

Enzymes
Enzymes are biochemical catalyst which speed up or slow down the rate of metabolic reactions including
digestion.
Characteristics

1. Enzymes are soluble

2. Enzymes are protein. Some enzymes require a coenzyme to activate them (NB :coenzyme are non-
proteins)
3. An enzyme is specific in action.
 4. Enzymes are organic catalyst. They have the ability to speed up chemical reactions in the body, but
they cannot start a reaction.
5. Reactions catalyzed by enzymes are usually reversible, and the enzymes catalyzes the reaction in
either direction depending on the conditions.
6. An enzyme act best within a narrow range of temperature (35-40°C), optimum at 37°[Link] act
best at a particular narrow range of pH.

Classification of Enzymes
Most digestive enzymes hydrolyzing enzymes (that means it works by adding water to the food substances in
order to break it into two molecules or parts). Digestive enzymes are classified according to the type of food
(substrate) they digest or act on

Heterotrophic Nutrition
This is a type of nutrition carried out by organisms that are not capable of manufacturing their own food
from simple inorganic substances.
Types of heterotrophic nutrition
1. Holozoic Nutrition (found in animals) divided into three;
Herbivore
Carnivore and
 Omnivore.
2. Saprophytic Nutrition
3. Symbiotic Nutrition
4. Parasitic Nutrition
A. MECHANISMS OF FEEDING IN HOLOZOIC ORGANISMS
1. Absorbing mechanisms e.g. tape worm: The tapeworm is an endoparasite which carries out parasitic
feeding on its host i.e. man. It has no mouth but absorbs digested food from the intestine of its host using
the Hooks and suckers for strong attachment to the host intestine walls.
. The body of the tapeworm is modified and adapted for parasitic feeding as follows:
a. The alimentary canal is absent hence food is absorbed through its entire body surface.
b. The tape worm has hooks and suckers which are used for attachment to the intestine of the host to
void dislodgement.
c. The body has thick cuticle which resists digestive enzymes of the host.
d. The flat body surface of the tape worm provides a large surface area of the absorption of the already
digested food.
e. The cuticle of the body surface is used also for absorption of food.
2. Biting and chewing mechanisms e.g. grasshopper or cockroach:
a) The grasshopper or cockroach has mouth parts adapted for biting and chewing. These insects have
four mouth part which are:
b) Labrum or upper lip: This prevents the food from falling off the mouth.
c) Mandibles: The pair of mandibles are heavy toothed and jaw-like structure used for cutting and
chewing food materials.
d) Maxillae: The pair of maxillae are biting blades. The maxillae breaks down the food which the
mandible have chewed into the smaller particles.
e) Labium or lower lip prevent the wastage of food from the mouth.
3a. Sucking mechanisms (suction / siphon): Sucking mechanisms is observed in mosquito, butterflies, moths.
use these have different. Modification of mouth parts adapted for feeding on food through the mechanisms of
sucking
The butterfly mouthparts are modified for sucking as follows:
i. It possesses a long, coiled proboscis used for sucking nectars of flowers.
ii. It is capable of recoiling the long proboscis under its head when not in use.

3b) Piercing and Sucking : Mouth part of a mosquito

The mosquito possesses the following adaptation for sucking:
i. It possess a piercing mouth part called proboscis used for sucking the blood of man and animals. The
mouthparts altogether form a strong stylet capable of penetrating the skin to suck blood.
ii. The stylet except the labium is sharp and pointed to ease penetration into the skin. The mouth can
produce saliva to prevent clotting of blood while it is being sucked in.
iii. The labium can be folded easily so as to allow the stylet perform its work of penetration of the skin in
order suck blood.

4) Sponging and Lapping mechanism: found in flies design for liquid or semiliquid foods. e.g. house fly.
The act of sponging means the insect secrete saliva over the food and dissolved food is drawn up into the
into the mouth of the insect through the insect tongue (glossae) by licking? lapping.

[Link] Mechanism: This is common in mammals such as man, cattle, sheep, goat, horses, camel,
rabbit, elephant etc. These animals grind their food before swallowing. The grinding is aided by the
presence of hard and strong teeth made up of enamel and dentine. The grinding mechanism in these animals
include:
i Possession of different sets of teeth to grind food.
[Link] teeth are hard and strong to withstand biting, chewing or grinding and cracking of food. Iii They
possess incisors which are sharp with flat edges used for cutting off bits of food.
iii. They have pointed canine teeth which are used for tearing food.
iv. There is presence of premolars and molars with undulating and wide surfaces used for grinding of food.
iv. There is absence of front teeth (incisors) in sheep (a herbivores) this is a special adaptation which
helps to grip the grasses during feeding by animals.

6. Trapping and absorbing mechanism: This is common among the insectivorous or carnivorous plants
such as bladderworts and sundew. Bladderwort and sundew have structures which enable them to adapt to
this mode of feeding. This include:
i. Sundew undergoes nastic movement in response to touch from the body of insects thus trapping
insects.
ii. The sundew leaf has long hairs which carry digestive glands.
iii. Insects on landing on these hair causes other hairs to curl over the insect and cover it.
iv. The sundew is capable of secreting a fluid rich in enzyme to digest the insect externally.
v. The protein so synthesized is easily absorbed by the carnivorous plant into its body.

B. Feeding Mechanism/ Feeding Habit (II)

Different feeding habit can be found in various organisms, some of these includes:
1. Filter feeding
2. Fluid feeding
3. Insect feeding
 4. Parasitic feeding
5. Saprophytic feeding
Filter Feeding: Some aquatic animals feed on microscopic organisms called planktons. There are two types
of planktons, the zooplankton (microscopic animals) and the phytoplankton (microscopic plants) examples of
the filter feeders are mosquito larva and Tilapia
Filter feeding : in mosquito [Link] mouth part of mosquito larvae have jaws and two ciliated mouth
brushes. The larva use the mouth brushes to create current of water and sweep them to create current water.
The mouth brushes filter of the planktons and other particles from the water and sweep them into the mouth
to create current water from there to absorption into the alimentary canal for digestion and absorption into
the body.
Mammalian Teeth (Dentition)
Dentition refers to the number, arrangement and conformation of teeth in an organism.
Types of dentition
1. Homodont dentition: The organism has the same type of teeth; no set of teeth is special for any
function. Examples of animals with this type of dentition are amphibians, reptiles and fishes.
2. Heterodont dentition: The possesses teeth of different shapes, sizes and functions. Examples are
found in man, rabbit, dog, cattle’s.
Types of teeth
1. Incisors
2. Canines
3. Premolars
4. Molars

HOMEWORK (GRADED)
[Link] and label the structure of a tooth in your note and submit this.

[Link] ON DENTAL CARE

[Link] Detention: In this type of detention, the organisms have same type of teeth. No set of teeth is
special for any function. All the teeth are same shape, size and have same functions. Example of homodont
detention is found in fishes, amphibians and reptiles.
2. Heterodont Dentition: In this type of detention, the organism possesses teeth of different shapes, sizes and
functions. Example of organisms having heterodont dentition are mammals e.g rabbit, man, dog, cattle etc.
The mammals generally have four different types of teeth.
These are incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
Mammals again have different set of teeth. These are milk teeth and permanent teeth

Milk Teeth: This is the set of teeth possessed by the young ones that is children in the case of human and is
made up of the incisors, canine and premolar teeth (ie, without the molar). It is common among the young
ones and may number up to twenty (20). They later fall off, to be replaced by the permanent teeth.

Permanent Teeth: This is the set of teeth possessed by adult mammals and are usually four types. These are
incisors, canine, premolar and molar teeth. They remain till old age and may number up to 32 in man.
Types of teeth/adaptation to feeding.
There are four types of teeth in mammals, these are incisors, canine, premolars and molars.
1. Incisors: These are located in the front of the jaw. They are flat, chisel shaped with a sharp edge used
for cutting and holding to the prey so that they do not escape.
 2. Canine: Canine are found next to incisor. They are sharp and pointed at the tips. They are used for
tearing flesh and catching the prey.
3. Premolars: These are located next at the back of the jaw following the canines. They have large,
ridged flat
4. Molars the last for proper crushing and grinding of food.
Dental formula
The dental formular refers to the numbers and types of teeth present in the mouth of an animal.
Dental formula = i/i, c/c, pm/pm, m/m
Adaptation of Dentition to Mode of Nutrition
The number and types of teeth present in each jaw of an organism is a reflection of special adaptation of the
organism’s food type, mode of feeding/ teeth for nutrition.
1. Teeth of a human being
2. Teeth of a dog
3. Teeth of a rabbit.

HOME WORK I
1. READ ON STRUCTURAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOTH
2. STUDY THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE TOOTH ; CROWN, NECK AND ROOT
3. COMPOSITION OF THE ENAMEL

HOMEWORK II (GRADED)

 WRITE THE DENTAL FORMULAR OF THE FOLLOWING ORGANISMS:

 MAN
 RABBIT
 DOG
 WHAT IS A DIASTEMA?
 WHAT IS A CARNASSIAL TEETH AND WHERE IS IT FOUND, AND WHAT TYPE OF
TEETH IS IT MADE UP OF?

Digestion in :
❖ Amoeba
❖ Earthworm
❖ Cockroach
❖ Grasshopper
❖ Bird.

Digestive system or alimentary canals are the complex pathways developed by multicellular organisms to
break complex food into simpler forms.

The alimentary canal can be either a complete tract (has two openings to the outside; the mouth and the anus)
or an incomplete tract (has only one opening called the mouth to the outside)
Earthworm
In the earthworm and most other animals, the alimentary canal is a tube with two openings: the mouth
through which food enters and the anus through which undigested food leaves the body. With food moving
only in one direction, it is possible for different parts of the alimentary canal to become specialized and do
different functions in succession.
The alimentary canal of the earthworm is a long straight tube with the following parts;
❖ a mouth (peristomium) and a thin-walled buccal cavity for food to be ingested;
❖ a muscular thick-walled pharynx which acts as a suction pump enabling the mouth to suck in food. It
also has glandular cells that secretes mucus to lubricate food particles;
❖ a narrow tubular thin-walled oesophagus;
❖ a thin-walled crop for storing temporary food; it connects the oesophagus to the gizzard.
❖ a thick-walled muscular gizzard where food is ground against small stones taken in by the earthworm
to break it up. The gizzard connects the crop to the intestine.
❖ and a long straight intestine in which extracellular digestion occurs. The intestine is the largest
part in the alimentary canal and it ends in the anus. The walls of intestine has contains blood vessels
which aids in absorption and transportation of the digested food into the rest of the body.
An earthworm feeds mainly on the vegetable matter found in the soil that it swallows as it burrows. The
digested food diffuses through the intestinal wall into the surrounding blood capillaries. The blood then
transports the food to all parts of the body.

Bird
In birds, the jaws are drawn out to form a horny beak which does not have teeth. Birds use their beaks for
feeding. The beaks show adaptations according to the types of food the birds eat. In many birds, the feet also
show adaptations for feeding .The alimentary canal of the bird consists of the pharynx, oesophagus, crop,
stomach ( which has the first part called the proventriculus or glandular stomach and the second part of the
stomach is called the grindular stomach or gizzard), intestine, anus and cloaca. Birds swallow their food
whole and store it in the crop. Here, it is softened by secretions from the walls of the crop by some
fermenting bacteria. It then passes into the proventriculus that contains glands which secretes enzymes like
pepsinand amylase. The proventriculus leads to the gizzard, a strong muscular bag. The action of the muscles
of the gizzard and the gastric juice churn and break up the food into small pieces. Small stones (which the
bird swallows from time to time) in the gizzard also help to grind the food. Digestion is completed in the
small intestine by the action of the pancreatic juice and intestinal secretions. Absorption also takes place
here. In the rectum, most of the water is reabsorbed. Solid waste is egested through the anus into the cloaca
and out of the body. Body Waste from the kidneys, and eggs and sperm is also leave the body through the
cloaca.
 proventriculus

Insect
We have seen that insects have variously modified mouthparts according to the food they eat. However, the
alimentary canal of an insect consists basically of three parts: the foregut (mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, crop
and gizzard) midgut (stomach), and hindgut (intestine- ileum, caecum and rectum). An insect like the
grasshopper feeds on leaves. It uses its mouthparts to cut and crush the leaves. Saliva is also poured onto the
leaves from salivary glands that open into the mouth. The saliva helps to soften the leaves. The chewed food
is stored in the crop and broken up further into smaller pieces in the gizzard. At the junction of the foregut
and midgut finger-like projections or caeca. These secrete enzyme-rich digestive juices into the midgut.
Digestion and absorption of food occurs here. In the hindgut, absorption of water occurs. Water conservation
is important in insects. Only solid fecal pellets are egested from the anus. In addition, body waste is also
emptied into the hindgut through the opening of a collection of narrow tubules (Malpighian tubules) found at
the junction of the midgut and hindgut.

NB; THE TONGUE, DUODENUM AND PANCREAS ARE ABSENT IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
OF INSECT E.G GRASSHOPPERS AND COCKROACH BUT PRESENT IN BIRDS.

HOME WORK
READ ON THE DIGESTIVE MECHANISM OF AMOEBA AND DRAW THE STAGES OF THE
PROCESS OF DIGESTION OF THE AMOEBA.

EVALUATION
Define what food substances are.
List types of food substances and state what makes a balance diet.
List types of heterotrophic nutrition and feeding mechanisms in holozoic organisms.
List types of mammalian teeth and describe the structure of a mammalian tooth.
State the dental formula and adaptations of dentition to mode of nutrition.
Describe digestion in amoeba, earthworm, cockroach, grasshopper and birds.
 WEEK 4

TOPIC : BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to:

❖ Identify components of any ecosystem

❖ Measure or estimate sizes of some ecosystems
❖ Relate the dynamic nature of an ecosystem to its size
❖ Mention major local biotic communities
❖ Briefly describe different types of communities (major biomes of the world)
❖ Outline the ecological factors common to all habitats
❖ Discuss factors which affect water retentively of the soil, types and determine the amount of water
each soil type can hold.

MEANING OF ECOLOGY/ (ENVIROMENTAL BIOLOGY)

 Ecology is derived from a Greek word OIKES which means home or dwelling place.
 In order words it can be defined as the field of study which deals with the relationship of living
organisms with one another and with the environment in which they live.
 It is the study of plants and animals in relation to their environment.

Main Branches of Ecology

1 Autecology : concerned with the study of an individual organism or a single species of organism and
its environment
2 Synecology : concerned with the study of the inter-relationship between groups of organisms or
species of organisms living together in an area.

Organization Levels in Ecology

 Just as we have studied the levels of biological organization which are; cell, tissue, organ, system and
organism. We also have organization levels in ecology. Starting from the smallest to the largest levels
, they are
 Environment
 Habitat
 Niche or ecological niche
 Population
 Community
 Ecosystem
 Biomes (Terrestrial Ecosystem)
 biosphere
Ecological Concepts/ Terms
 Environment includes all the factors external and internal, living and non-living factors which
surrounds and affect an organism.
 Biosphere it is the part of the earth occupied by living organisms. It is divided into;
a. Hydrosphere is the liquid or aquatic part of the earth(sea, lakes, oceans, streams)
b. Lithosphere is the solid portion of the earth(farmland, forest etc)
c. Atmosphere is the gaseous portion of the earth
 Habitat is the place or home within an environment where an organism naturally lives. It is an area
occupied by a biotic community.
 Population is the number of organisms of a given species/ of the same kind living together in a
particular habitat. For Example, the mango trees in a school compound, Tilapia fish in a stream,
swarm of bees on a tree are all different examples of population. Total number of organisms of the
same species living together in a given area at a given time.
 Community. A community is made up of all the populations of living organisms that exist together in
a habitat. For example in a fresh water pond the community there includes the micro-organisms,
plants and animals in that pond. it is a group of plants and animals and micro-organisms that occupy a
given area and are adapted to the conditions of their environment.
 Biome; A biome is the largest naturally occurring terrestrial ecosystem.
it is any naturally occurring group of different terrestrial ecosystem ( forest, grassland and desert)
with their living and non-living factors present there, interacting with one another.
 climax community is established when a stable or unchanging community is attained in ecological
succession
 Ecological niche it is the role a particular organism or a particular population of organisms plays in
the habitat. It is the specific portion of a habitat which is occupied by a particular organism.
 Ecosystem is a natural self-supporting unit, made up of living organisms and their non-living
components interacting together to produce a stable system. or it is a community of plants and
animals functioning together with their non-living environment.
 NB: THE MOST IMPORTANT OF THESE INTERACTIONS IS SHOWN BY THEIR
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS.

Components of an ecosystem

• BIOTIC FACTORS : Living components (producers, consumers, and decomposers)

• ABIOTIC FACTORS : Non-living components( climatic factors, inorganic materials and nutrients)

Living components
 Producers are the autotrophs (green plants and some micro-organisms) which can manufacture their
own food from simple inorganic materials during the process of photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
 Consumers are the heterotrophs which cannot manufacture their own food but depend on plants
directly or indirectly for their food
 Decomposers are bacteria and some fungi which break down dead plants and animals in order to feed
on them and in the process, nutrients are released to the soil for use by the producers

Non-living components
 climatic factors like temperature, wind, humidity ,sunlight and rainfall
 inorganic materials and nutrients such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus
 Edaphic factors like soil, soil texture, topography, soil Ph etc.

Interactions among the components of ecosystem

  There is a unique interaction among the various components of an ecosystem.
 Green plants use the presence of water and carbon dioxide and chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight
to produce carbohydrate and starch (food).
 Animals feed on these carbohydrates or plants and release carbon dioxide for plants to take in.
 Micro-organisms and other decomposers break down dead plants and other organisms to release
nutrients to the soil. The nutrients are absorbed by plants for use in food production.
 Plant gives out oxygen during photosynthesis which is used by animals for normal respiration
repeats.

Interactions in a biotic community

Organisms in a community interact in various ways. Many of them enter into associations with other
organisms. Such association include:
Symbiosis or mutualism: association of two organisms of different species from which each benefits. e.g alga
and fungus
Predation: is a feeding relationship between a prey and a predator
Parasitism: association between a parasite and its host
Saprophytism: association a living organism and a dead – decaying organisms.

Biomes and local Biomes in Nigeria.

 Biomes are large natural terrestrial (land) ecosystems. It is the largest community of organisms
interacting with the non-living environment.
 Biomes are identified by their vegetation. Examples include forest, desert, savannas, etc.
 The type of vegetation is largely determined by climatic factors especially rainfall and temperature,
as such, regions in the world which have similar climates also have similar biomes.
 Local Biomes in Nigeria, this can be grouped into two major zones:
The forest zone
Savanna zone
 The forest zone: This is made up of vegetations having mainly trees, they include:
 (a) Mangrove swamp: A forest of tall woody trees with aerial roots. The rainfall is high and the soil
is water logged throughout the year. Plants here include the white and red mangroves, raffia palms
and coconut. Mangrove swamps are found in states like the Delta, Cross River, Bayelsa etc. The
climate is hot and wet throughout the year. Rainfall is heavy usually above 2500mm and the
average monthly temperature is around 26ºc for most months of the year.
 (b)Tropical Rainforest: Consists of tall trees with buttress roots, with evergreen and broad leaves.
The trees exist in canopies i.e. different layers, and prevent sunlight from reaching the forest floor,
thus the vegetation on the forest floor is sparse.
Epiphytes and climbers are common features in the trees. The climate is hot and wet throughout the year.
The mean annual temperature is 27ºc
➢ while the mean total annual rainfall is 2000mm.
➢ These forests are found in states like Oyo, Edo, Cross River, Ogun, Ondo, Imo and Rivers
State.

Savanna zone: This is made up mainly of grasses and includes;

a) Southern Guinea Savanna: Consists mainly of tall grasses, with a few tall trees with broad leaves. The
trees are scattered and deciduous.
Examples include the locust beans trees, shear-butter and [Link] has a moderate rainfall of between
100-150cm perannum.
They are located in Enugu, Kogi, Benue, Kwara, Osun, Oyo, Ebonyi, and Ekiti States.
(b) Northern Guinea Savanna (Sudan Savanna): This has short but numerous grasses. The trees are
scattered, short and deciduous. The trees have thorns while others have thick barks.
The trees include acacia, date palm, baobab and silk cotton [Link] rainfall is low, about 50-100cm per
annum.
They may be found in states like plateau, Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Taraba, Adamawa and Kano.

(c) Sahel Savanna: It has very short and scanty grasses. There are short and tough shrubs or trees. The
plants are mainly drought resistant and scattered examples include acacia, gum arabic and date palm.
The temperature is very high and rainfall is very low, below 50cm per annum.
It may be found in States like Bornu, Katsina, Sokoto, Yobe, Kebbi, Zamfara, Kano and Jigawa.

ASSIGNMENT
 Make a drawing of the map of Nigeria and outline the local biomes in your note

Major Biomes of the World

Zones of different biomes occur from the equator to the arctic and to the antarctic due to differences
in climate. In the equatorial and tropical areas where temperature and rainfall are high all year round,
tropical forests occur while in the cold arctic regions, treeless plains called tundra are found.
Climates change with distance from the equator and also with height above sea level, as such zones of
different biomes occur from the equator to the poles and on a mountain side.
Examples of Major Biomes of the World
 Tropical rain forests:These consist of dense forests with many types of trees, epiphytes and
climbers.
Rainfall is abundant throughout the year and an average temperature of 27ºc is recorded throughout
the year.
Located around the equator e.g. around coasts of West Africa, Amazon basin of South Africa, etc.

 Temperate forests: These consist of broad-leaved deciduous trees which shed their leaves during
winter. A lot of different plants grow at many levels from the ground as the trees are not densely
packed as in the tropical forest. It has a moderately wet climate and a dry or cold season.
Examples are found in North America, lowlands of North – West Europe (e.g. France), and Britain.
 Coniferous forest: These consist of needle leaved, evergreen conifers e.g. pines, fires and spruces.
Only a few types of tree are found in these forests. Other plants such as shrubs, ferns and mosses are
also present.
The temperature is cool and rainfall is light. There is also light snow.
Examples are found in Eurasia and North America.

 Desert: Consist of very sparse vegetation which are mainly succulent perennials with deep root
systems and annuals which exist mainly as seeds, germinate and grow rapidly, flower and produce
seeds during brief periods of rain.
Rainfall is very low and temperature is very high.
E.g. Sahara desert (North Africa), Arabian Desert (Arabia), e.t.c.
 Tundra: Consists of treeless marshy vegetation composed mainly of dwarf shrubs, grasses, sedges,
lichen and moss. The climate is clod with long icy winters and very short summers. The average
temperature is 10ºc.
 Examples are the coastal strip of Greenland, Northern Canada and Alaska, Arctic seaboard of
Eurasia.
 Mountain vegetation: Consist of evergreen rain forest occurring on the slopes of mountains. The
forests are less luxuriant than the tropical rain forest.
 The Afro-alpine vegetation occurs at height above 3000m on mountains. The vegetation consist
mainly of heaths, grasses and sedges.
In Africa it is found in Cameroon mountain, Kenya highland and Kilimanjaro mountain.
Temperature decrease with altitude. Rainfall is heavy on the windward side and less on the leeward
side of the mountains

EVALUATION
❑ List six biomes of the world
❑ Briefly discuss two biomes of the world.
❑ What is a biome and how can it be identified?
❑ Mention the two major biomes in Nigeria and the types.
❑ Identify components of any ecosystem
❑ Measure or estimate sizes of some ecosystems
❑ Relate the dynamic nature of an ecosystem to its size
❑ Mention major local biotic communities
❑ Briefly describe different types of communities (major biomes of the world)
❑ List the ecological factors common to all habitats
 WEEK 5

TOPIC: FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
• Define the term autotrophy and heterotrophy
• Explain that plants are the only producers that produce food for all living organisms
• Enumerate animals as primary, secondary and tertiary consumers
• State the aquatic examples of producers and consumers
• Identify the terrestrial examples of producers and consumers.

Autotrophy
Autotrophy simply refers to the process by which organisms (green plants and some bacteria) synthesise
their own food from simple inorganic substances by using light energy(phototrophy) or chemical energy
(chemotrophy). The organisms that perform the process of autotrophy is called autotrophs.

Heterotrophy
Heterotrophy is a process by which organisms (animals) depend directly or indirectly on green plants
(autotrophs) for their food. Organisms that perform the process of heterotrophy are called heterotrophs.

Producers
The autotrophs are also known as the producers.
A producer is an organism that is capable of producing complex organic substances from simple inorganic
substances through the process of photosynthesis (using light energy) or through chemosynthesis (using
chemical energy).
Types of producers
The producer are of two types – photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs
Photoautotrophs
The green plants trap sun energy with the help of either chlorophyll and change it into chemical energy of a
simple carbohydrate called glucose. This process is called photosynthesis.
Chemoautotrophs
The chemoautotrophs mainly consists of bacteria such as colourless sulphur bacteria and nitrifying bacteria.
Examples of producers in aquatic habitat – phytoplankton, algae (sea weed), sea grass and water hyacinth.
Examples of producers in terrestrial habitat – grasses, trees, herbs and shrubs.
Consumers
Consumers are organisms that generally obtains food by feeding on other organism or organic matter due to
its inability to manufacture its own food from inorganic sources.
Types of consumers
Consumers are categorised into the following types:
1. Primary consumers: animals that feed directly on plants or plant products. They are also known as
herbivores. Primary consumers are the key industry animals because they convert the plant material
into animal material. Examples – snail, tadpole, grasshopper, deer, cattle, tortoise, cattle, mosquito
larva, rat etc
2. Secondary consumer: Animals that feed on the herbivores. Secondary consumers eat the flesh of
herbivores and are known as carnivores.
 Examples – hydra, dragonfly larva, cat, dog, snake, water bug, frog, lizard, fox.
3. Tertiary Consumers: These are animals that feed on the flesh of carnivores (secondary consumers).
Examples – eagle, shark, man, hawk, wolf etc.
Decomposers: These are organisms that live saprophytically or feed on dead remains of plants and animals.
Examples include fungi and bacteria which obtain their food in the molecular form from the dead and
decaying organic matter of plants and animals.
FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB AND TROPHIC LEVEL
Food Chain
Food chain is defined as the linear feeding relationship between different living organisms in a particular
habitat. A food chain is straight and proceed in a progressive straight line. It always begins with green plants
(producers) and end with an animal (consumer).
Examples of food chain
1. Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake (Terrestrial food chain)
2. Spirogyra Mosquito larvae Tilapia fish Whales (Aquatic)

Food web
Food web is an interconnected network of food chains which links various species in an ecosystem. Food
web contains two or more food chains and therefore more organisms than food chain.

Trophic levels
The distinct sequential steps in the food chains are referred to as trophic levels.
It can also be called feeding levels. In other words, trophic level is the number of links by which food energy
is transferred from producers to final consumers.
Example
Guinea grass grasshopper toad lizard hawk
st
(1 trophic level) nd
(2 TL) rd
(3 TL) th
(4 TL) (5th TL)
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
They are a visual representation of the numbers/ biomass/energy present in different trophic levels in the
food chain. There are three types of ecological pyramid;
• Pyramid of numbers
• Pyramid of energy and
• Pyramid of biomass

Pyramid of Number
Pyramid of number refers to the number of individual organisms at each trophic level which decreases
progressively from the first to the last trophic level in a food chain. In a food chain or food web, there are a
relative number of organisms at different trophic levels. Producers form the base and the carnivores form the
apex.
Example

Hawks
Lizards number of
Decrease in
organism 1000 J

Grasshoppers
Grasses
Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of energy is defined as the amount of energy present in the living organisms at the different trophic
levels of a food chain. In other words, the pyramid of energy represents a progressive decrease in energy
from the first trophic level to the last trophic level in a food chain or web. Highest amount of energy is
available at the producer level in a pyramid of energy.

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

Pyramid of biomass represents the amount / mass of all living matter present in a trophic level like the
biomass of earthworms in the soil, plants in the rainforest etc.
NB: Biomass does not just give you the idea of the mass/weight but the size/ quantity of all the organism in
each trophic level gotten from the weighing the mass of one organism. That is why it is calculated as :

Mass of one living organism X total number of organisms in that same TL = BIOMASS
1 Rabbit mass is 12kg
Therefore the biomass in that T.L is
12 X 6 Rabbits = 72kg is the Biomass.

NB: The biomass in every TL is usually lesser than the TL below.

This pyramid makes it easy to compare the food value of a small number of large organisms to a large
number of small organisms.
The pyramid of biomass progressively decreases starting from the producers to the consumers at each trophic
level. In a terrestrial ecosystem, such as in the case of a tree, the pyramid of biomass is upright as it supports
a large number of birds and thus, this pyramid decreases from the producers.

NB: In an aquatic habitat the pyramid of biomass is inverted.

EAVLUATION

• Define the term autotrophy and heterotrophy

• Explain that plants are the only producers that produce food for all living organisms
• Enumerate animals as primary, secondary and tertiary consumers
• State the aquatic examples of producers and consumers
• State the terrestrial examples of producers and consumers.
 WEEK 7

TOPIC: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN NATURE

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
❖ Explain that only a small percentage of the radiant energy actually gets to plants.
❖ State the first and second law of thermodynamics and use them to explain ecological events such as
pyramid of energy, food chain and energy flow.
❖ Apply the knowledge of energy losses in the ecosystem to explain the pyramidal shape of feeding
relationship.

Energy exists in various forms. These forms of energy are inter – convertible, i.e., one form of energy can be
transformed into another form. Such energy transformation is governed by the law of thermodynamics.
In nature, energy transformation takes place due to various activities performed by the living organisms.
Their activities caused energy to flow through the ecosystems.
Energy transformation, also known as energy conversion is a change of energy from one form to another.

Energy loss in the Ecosystem

Energy loss is lost at each trophic level when a herbivore/primary consumer feeds on a plant/producer. Not
all parts of the plant is eaten, as a result, not all energy in the plant/producer is consumed.
Plants lose energy via respiration, and they do not utilise all the energy present in preceding members.
Energy is also lost in respiration, excretion, movement and other metabolic activities.
Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics deals with the relationship between heat and other forms of energy. How heat energy is
transformed into other forms of energy and vice – versa. These laws are called first and second law of
thermodynamics.
First law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, although it can be
changed from one form to another.
Second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that in any conversion of energy from one form to another, there is
always a decrease in the amount of useful energy.
In other words, the law states that no transformation of energy from one state to another is ever 100 percent
efficient.
Application of both laws to ecological phenomena or events
Ecological phenomena or event in which the law can be used to explain are food chain, pyramid of energy
and energy flow.
1. Food chain
(a) Using the first law: Energy is generated through the sun and is transferred from the producer to the
final consumers. In all, the total of the energy remains constant.
(b) Using the second law: Flow of energy cross different levels in a food chain. Therefore, transfer of
energy between trophic levels is not 100% completely efficient.
2. Pyramid of Energy
 (a) Using the first law: It is discovered that energy is transferred from one trophic level to another. The
energy of the producers at the base of the pyramid is higher and it is transformed gradually from one
stage of the trophic level to another. Despite the energy transformation, the sum of the energy is
constant.
(b) Using the second law: As energy is transformed from one trophic level to another, part of it is
converted into heat which is lost, causing a progressive drop in energy in successive trophic levels.
3. Energy Flow
(a) Using the first law: As the producers convert the solar energy to useful energy, this energy is
progressively transformed from one trophic level to the next and so on.
(b) Using the second law: The transfer of energy between trophic levels is not 100% or it is not
completely transferred. Successive levels have less of useful energy and support fewer organisms or
individual lives.

EVALUATION
• Use the knowledge of energy losses in the ecosystem to explain the pyramidal shape of feeding
relationship.
• State that only a small percentage of the radiant energy actually gets to plants
• State the first and second law of thermodynamics and use them to explain ecological events such as
pyramid of energy, food chain and energy flow.
 WEEK 8

TOPIC: RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
• Classify plants using botanical and agricultural techniques of classification.
• Describe the effect of various agricultural activities on ecological system.
• Identify the pests of certain crops and indicate their control.
• Describe some common diseases caused by pests and their control.
• Identify the factors that affect production of crops.
• Explain some methods of preserving and storing foodstuff.
• Outline the factors that (a) affect population growth. (b) affect the availability of man’s food.

Biology is closely related to agriculture as both deals with the plants and animals. So, Biology in many ways,
has relevance to agriculture.
Classification of Plants
Plants are generally classified into
1. Botanical classification
2. Agricultural classification
3. Classification based on life cycle
Botanical Classification
This is classification through the botanical method and the use of binomial system.
Plants are then generally classified into three brand groups:
Thallophytes (A)
Bryophytes (B)
Tracheophytes (C)
Tracheophytes are further grouped into pteridophytes (D) and spermatophytes (E). The Spermatophytes can
also be grouped into gymnosperms (F) and angiosperms (G). The angiosperms are subdivided into dicot (H)
and Monocot (I)
Agricultural classification
This is classification of plants based on the uses of plants. This includes
a. Cereal plants e.g. rice, millet, maize etc
b. Legumes (pulses) e.g. cowpea, soyabeans groundnut etc
c. Roots and tuber crop e.g. yam, sweet potato, beets, carrot etc
d. Vegetable crops e.g. okra, cauliflower, spinach etc
e) Fruit plants e.g. orange, banana, pineapple etc
f) Beverage and drug plants e.g. coffee, tea, kola etc
g) Spices e.g. ginger, pepper, onion etc
 h) Oils plants e.g. oil palm, groundnut, melon etc
i) Forage crops e.g. sorghum, Sudan grass, goosegrass, spring triticale, grains etc
j) Latex e.g. rubber
k) Fibre crops e.g. sisal, hemp, cotton etc
Classification of plants based on life cycle
Plants are grouped into three categories based on their life cycles or the life span or the number of years a
plants is able to grow, mature and produce fruits.
1. Ephemerals: These plants complete their life cycle and die within three or four months. They can
undergo two to three life cycles within a growing season. Examples are tomatoes some spp, desert
cacti etc
2. Annuals: Examples of annual plants are rice, maize, wheat, bean, flax, jute etc.
3. Biennials: Examples includes; ginger, carrot, pepper, onion, radish and turnip.
4. Perennials: Examples rubber, mango, orange, palm oil etc.
Effects of Agricultural Activities on Ecological System (pg. 462)
Agricultural activities involve both the growing of crops and rearing of livestock. These are some of the
agricultural activities and their effects.
1. Bush burning
2. Tillage
3. Fertilizer application
4. Overgrazing
5. Application of pesticides/herbicides
6. Deforestation
7. Clean or bush clearing
a. Bush Burning: Bush burning involves the setting of fire in the bush to clear out the vegetation.
Effects of bush burning include

– Destruction of the organic matter in the soil

– Many of the micro-organisms are killed

– exposes the soil to erosion and leaching

– Bush burning leads to the extinction of some animals

– The ash produced by bush burning gives the soil a slightly alkaline nature

b. Overgrazing: Overgrazing is a situation where more animals than what can be supported on a
particular pasture are put there to graze. It is a way of exceeding the carrying capacity of the soil.
Overgrazing

– removes the vegetative

_ exposes the soil to erosion

– destroys the soil structure

– More faeces are dropped on the soil which could improve the fertility of the soil.
c. Tillage: Tillage is defined as the working, digging or breaking up of the soil in preparation for the
planting of planting of crops. Tillage encourages leaching

– helps to loosen the soil.

_ it enhances proper aeration of the soil
– tillage exposes the soil organisms and may kill some
– it changes the structure and texture of the soil
– Intensive tillage can lead to loss of soil fertility.
– It exposes the soil to erosion.
Deforestation: Deforestation is the continuous removal of forest stand (trees) either by bush burning or
indiscriminate felling without replacing them. Deforestation
– It reduces water percolation due to absence of humus and dead leaves on the soil
– It reduces the amount of rainfall in the area
– Deforestation hinders micro-organisms activities in the soil
– It results in loss of nutrients through leaching and erosion
– It results in loss of nutrients through leaching and erosion
Application of pesticides/herbicides: Pesticides are chemical substances which are used to destroy or kill
pests while herbicides are also chemical substances in form of solution or gases capable of destroying weeds.
Effects of pesticides application include
– It causes pollution of the environment.
– It affects or destroys other useful plants and animals.

Effects of the different types of farming on ecological system

1. Monocropping
2. Continuous cropping
3. Shifting cultivation
4. Crop rotation

CROP ROTATION

This is a method of farming system which accommodates the division of land into sections and on a different
land, a different crop is planted on each section. The method reduces the risk of serious diseases infestations
and soil depletion. Legumes are very important in crop rotation as it is believed to restores the nitrogen
content of the soil or it adds nitrates to the soil. In crop rotation a surface feeder e.g. maize is planted along
with deep feeder e.g. cassava. A surface feeder is a plant which grows near the surface and a deep feeder is a
plant with firm root in the soil.

Benefit of crop rotation

– It allows the land to fallow

– It prevents erosion

– It increases the yield or crops

– It prevent disease infestation

– It adds nitrate to the soil

– Nutrients of the soil are not depleted

CROP ROTATION TABLE

1st plot 2nd plot 3rd plot 4th plot 5th plot
1st Year Maize Cassava Fallow Groundnut Yam
2nd Year Cassava Fallow Groundnut Yam Maize
3rd Year Fallow Groundnut Yam Maize Cassava
4th Year Groundnut Yam Maize Cassava Fallow
5th Year Yam Maize Cassava Fallow Groundnut

MIXED FARMING
This is the system of farming that integrate both animal production and crop production on same farm.
Benefits

– It allows the animals to convert plant products to high quality protein needed by man

– It allays the fear of single crop failure

– The system is economically viable as the farmer makes money from both crop and animals.
MIXED CROPPING

This is a system of farming whereby the farmer grows more than one type of crop on a piece of land at the
same time.

ADVERSE FARMING METHOD

CONTINUOUS CROPPING

This is a system of farming where a piece of land is permanently put under cultivation of crops

EFFECT

– The system leads of exhaustion of essential minerals in the soil

– Cost of clearing is reduced as only an area is prepared for production

_ Low productivity may be recorded after some years of using the land.

– There may be possibility of crop failure

MONOCULTURE OR MONOCROPPING:

This is the system of farming that involves practice of growing the same crop on the same piece of land
every year.
EFFECT
– It makes the environment unsuitable for many crops after few year

– The system encourages increased spread of both parasite and plant diseases

– The system can lead to crop failure which will affect the farmer financially

SHIFT CULTIVATION

This is a system of farming where a piece of land is cultivated for either two or more years until the farmer
notices low crop yield and abandons the farm land for another new piece of land.

EFFECT

– It leads to deforestation

– It leads to wastage of land

– it exposes the land to erosion

– It leads to migration of animals

Pests and diseases of agricultural importance

• Pests of crops: A pest is any organism capable of causing damage to crop plant.
i. Insects
ii. Birds
iii. Rodents
iv. Monkeys
v. Man
vi. Nematodes
• Diseases of crops: A plant disease simply means a deviation of the plant from the normal state of
health, presenting marked symptoms or outward visible signs.
Causes of diseases includes; viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes and nutrient deficiency.
Parasites of farm animals
A parasite is an organism living in or on another organism called the host.
They can be endoparasite and ectoparasite depending on where they live.
Endoparasites
a. Tapeworm (Taenia solium)
b. Liver fluke
c. Round worm (Ascaris lumbricoides)
Ectoparasites
a. Tick
b. Lice
Diseases of Animals
 1. Viruses e.g. Newcastle disease, rinderpest disease and foot & mouth disease.
2. Bacteria e.g. anthrax, brucellosis, tuberculosis
3. Fungal e.g. aspergilosis, ringworm
4. Protozoa e.g. trypanosomiasis, coccidiosis, red water fever(piroplasmosis)
Food production and storage
Food production can be discussed in three major ways.
These include:
(a) Role of government in agricultural production.
(b) Environmental factors required for food production
(c) Ways of improving crop production
Methods of preserving and storing food
1. Salting
2. Freezing/refrigeration
3. Drying/sun – drying
4. Smoking
5. Chemicals
6. Heating/ boiling/frying
7. Irradiation
8. Canning/bottling
9. Pasteurisation

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT (NON – GRADED)

1. Which of the following is not an example of classification of plants (a) Herbs and shrubs (b)
annual and perennials (c) Graminae and enphorbinosae (d) monocot and dicot

2. Plants can be classified based on all these except (a) botanical (b) size (c) agricultural use (d)
planting season

3. Fruits crops are rich in (a) Vitamin and Minerals (b) Vitamins and protein (c) Mineral and
carbohydrate (d) protein and carbohydrate

4. Spices include (a) Pepper and ginger (b) Palm oil and ginger (c) Lettuce and carrot (d) yam
and maize

5. Which of these does not have negative effect on the the ecological system (a) fertilizer
application (b) crop rotation (c) tillage (d) bush burning
EVALUATION

a. State three effects of fertilizer application, tillage and bush burning on the ecosystem.
b. Explain with reason the most ecologically friendly agricultural practice
c. Based on size, classify water leaf, hibiscus and oil palm
d. Differentiate between shrubs and trees
e. Discuss the botanical classification (using example where appropriate)
f. In what ways are fruits and vegetable crops similar
g. Differentiate between root and cereals crops