Differential Geometry
Fall 2020
Marco Zambon
KU Leuven
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) Differential Geometry 1 / 68
Lectures
The first lecture on campus
Other lectures as screencasts on Toledo
Available starting on Mondays
Moreover:
Basics of differential geometry
Involves also some group theory, algebra...
Literature: books by Tu, Lee (on Toledo)
Also on Toledo: slides, notes, list of topics with references
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) Differential Geometry 2 / 68
Exercise sessions
On Wednesdays in room 200B 00.18, starts at 16:10
Starting on week 3
I will regularly be present, to answer questions about the lectures
Moreover:
Exercises available on Thursday before session
Solve them at home, so the exercise session can be interactive
Relevant for the final exam
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) Differential Geometry 3 / 68
Evaluation
2 Take home tasks: 30% of grade.
I List of problems to hand in.
I OK discuss the problems with each other, but write up solutions
individually.
Final exam: 70% of grade.
I Written exam, closed book.
I Consists of solving exercises, answering some questions about the
course material.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) Differential Geometry 4 / 68
Section 1
Differentiable manifolds
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1.0 Topological spaces
Definition (Topological space)
A topological space is (X , σ) where X is a set and σ a family of subsets of
X , called open sets, such that:
∅, X ∈ σ
S
Ui ∈ σ whenever Ui ∈ σ for all i
Ti∈I
i<n Ui ∈ σ whenever Ui ∈ σ for all i
Let (X , σ) be a topological space.
Definition (Open neighbourhood)
An open subset that contains p ∈ X is called a (open) neighbourhood of p.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 6 / 68
Definition (Subspace topology)
If Y ⊂ X then (Y , σY ) is a topological space, where
σY = {U ∩ Y | U ∈ σ}.
We call σY the subspace topology.
Example
Endowing R2 with the Euclidean topology, the subspace topology on
R × {0} ⊂ R2 is also the Euclidean topology.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 7 / 68
Definition (Quotient topology)
Let ∼ be an equivalence relation on X . Consider
π : X → X/ ∼ .
Then X / ∼ is a topological space, where the open sets are by definition
sets U such that π −1 (U) is open in X .
Definition (Continuous functions)
A function f : X1 → X2 is called continuous iff ∀U ∈ σ2 : f −1 (U) ∈ σ1 .
Definition (Hausdorff)
A topological space is called Hausdorff iff ∀x, y ∈ X , there exist
neighbourhoods U of x, V of y such that U ∩ V = ∅.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 8 / 68
Example
Endow R2 \ {0} with the equivalence relation given by the thick lines and
the two half lines in the following figure. That is:
(
0 0 x = x 0 if x 6= 0
(x, y ) ∼ (x , y ) ⇔
yy 0 > 0 if x = 0.
Then the quotient topology on (R2 \ {0})/ ∼ is not Hausdorff.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 9 / 68
X = R2 \ {0}
X
∼
Figure: Example of a topology which is not Hausdorff
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 10 / 68
Definition (Basis for a topology)
A basis for a topology is S ⊂ σ such that every open set of X is a union of
elements of S.
Definition (C2)
A space (X , σ) is second countable if there exists a countable basis.
Example
Rn is second countable. Indeed
{B 1 (x) | x ∈ Qn , m ∈ N}
m
is a countable basis for the topology. Here Br (x) is the open ball with
radius r around x.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 11 / 68
1.1 Differentiable manifolds
Definition (Topological manifold)
A topological manifold M of dimension m is a second countable, Hausdorff
topological space which is locally homeomorphic to Rm .
Remark
‘Locally homeomorphic to Rm ’ means that ∀p ∈ M, there exists a
neighborhood U of p and a homeomorphism φ : U → V ⊂ Rm . Recall
open
that homeomorphism means: bijective map that is continuous in both
directions.
Definition (Chart)
The pair (U, φ) is called a chart.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 12 / 68
Remark
Any subset of a Hausdorff space is Hausdorff
Any subset of a C2 space is C2.
Definition (Compatibility)
Two charts (U1 , φ1 ) and (U2 , φ2 ) are called smoothly compatible if
φ2 ◦ (φ1 )−1 |φ1 (U1 ∩U2 ) : φ1 (U1 ∩ U2 ) → φ2 (U1 ∩ U2 )
is a diffeomorphism (i.e. bijective, differentiable and inverse differentiable,
where “differentiable” means that all partial derivatives exist).
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 13 / 68
U2
U1
φ1
φ2
V1
Rm V2
Rm
φ2 ◦ φ−1
1
Figure: Compatible charts
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Definition (Smooth atlas)
S smooth atlas for M is called a collection of charts {(Uα , φα )} such that
A
α Uα = M and any two charts are smoothly compatible.
Definition (Maximal smooth atlas)
A smooth atlas A is maximal if: whenever B is a smooth atlas and A ⊂ B
then B = A.
Definition (Differentiable manifold )
A differentiable manifold (also called a smooth manifold) is a topological
manifold M together with a maximal smooth atlas.
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Remark
Given a smooth atlas A on a topological manifold M, there exists a unique
maximal smooth atlas containing it, namely
{(V , ψ) | (V , ψ) is smoothly compatible with all charts of A}.
Example
Let U ⊂ Rn be open. Then U is a smooth manifold: an atlas is {(U, Id)}.
Take the maximal smooth atlas containing it.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 16 / 68
Example
Let S n := {x ∈ Rn+1 | kxk = 1}. The sphere S n with the subspace
topology is Hausdorff and C2, simply because Rn+1 is. Two charts are given
by the stereographic projections from the Northpole N and Southpole S:
(x1 , . . . , xn )
φN : S n \ {N} → Rn : (x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) 7→
1 − xn+1
(x1 , . . . , xn )
φS : S n \ {S} → Rn : (x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) 7→ .
1 + xn+1
Now, φN and φS are homeomorphisms. Furthermore,
kφN (p)k · kφS (p)k = 1, which allows us to calculate the inverse of φN .
Hence
y
(φS ◦ φ−1 n n
N )|φN (S n \{N,S}) : R \ {0} → R \ {0} : y 7→ ,
ky k2
so φN and φS are smoothly compatible. Take the maximal smooth atlas
containing φN and φS .
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 17 / 68
Remark
We could have started with other points P, Q ∈ S n instead of N, S. The
smooth atlases {φP , φQ } and {φN , φS } would be different, but they define
the same maximal smooth atlas.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 18 / 68
1.2 Differentiable maps
Let M be a smooth manifold.
Definition (Smooth function)
A function f : M → R is differentiable (or smooth) at p ∈ M iff ∃ a chart
(U, φ) around p such that
f ◦ φ−1
is differentiable in φ(p).
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M
f
R
p U
φ(U)
Rn
Figure: Smooth function from M to R
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Remark
If f ◦ φ−1 is differentiable at φ(p) for a chart (U, φ), then f ◦ ψ −1 is also
differentiable at ψ(p), for any other chart (V , ψ) (in the maximal atlas of
M).
Proof.
We want to argue that f ◦ ψ −1 is smooth.
f ◦ ψ −1 = (f ◦ φ−1 ) ◦ (φ ◦ ψ −1 ) .
| {z } | {z }
C∞ C∞
Notation
We write C ∞ (M) to denote all smooth functions M → R.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 21 / 68
Definition (Smooth map)
f : M → N is differentiable at p ∈ M iff
it is continuous
there exists charts (UM , φM ) around p and (UN , φN ) around f (p) such
that φN ◦ f ◦ φ−1
M is differentiable at φM (p)
Remark
The map φN ◦ f ◦ φ−1 M is defined on φM (UM ∩ f
−1 (U )). The continuity of
N
f ensures that this is an open neighborhood of φM (p) in Rm , hence it
makes sense to talk about the differentiability of the above map at φM (p).
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M N
UM f UN
p f (p)
φM
φN
φN ◦ f ◦ φ−1
M
Rm Rn
Figure: Smooth function from M to N
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 23 / 68
Remark
A map f being a differentiable and a homeomorphism does not imply that
f is a diffeomorphism (which also include the differentiability of the
inverse). For instance,
f : R → R, x 7→ x 3
√
is not a diffeomorphism, because the inverse x 7→ 3 x is not differentiable
at zero.
Marco Zambon (KU Leuven) §1 Differentiable manifolds 24 / 68