A LEVEL PURE MATHEMATICS

VOLUME 1 (L 6)

FINAL REVISED EDITION

~Prof Maibvise Brighton Smart.

INSPIRED BY SIR TROCKERS

COURTESY OF GOROMONZI HIGH MATHS

DEPARTMENT.

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Acknowledgements

Firstly I want to thank the Most High for he has made this possible.

Special appreciation to Goromonzi High School Maths Department

who always inspire me to continue with these kinds of
masterpieces:
• Mr Muzamwese
• Mr Matare
• Mr Madondo
• Mr Kubikwa

Special thanks to all my family and colleagues who supported me

and stood by me since day one.

Special Thanks to Blessings Nokutenda Mange for corrections in

the First Edition.

brightonmaibvise122@[Link]

078 488 1096 / 071 514 0193

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2
For easy navigation just click on
the topic you want to go to!!!!!
CONTENTS:
TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA .............................................................................................................. 5
Indices, Proportionality and Surds ................................................................................ 5
Polynomials ............................................................................................................................ 63
Logarithmic and Exponential Functions ...................................................................84
Partial Fractions ................................................................................................................ 118
Quadratics ............................................................................................................................ 151
Inequalities .......................................................................................................................... 163
Functions............................................................................................................................... 180
Rational Functions ............................................................................................................ 231
Graphs And Transformations ...................................................................................... 237
TOPIC 2:GEOMETRY AND VECTORS .................................................................... 258
Coordinate Geometry and Circles .............................................................................. 258
TOPIC 3:SERIES AND SEQUENCES ......................................................................... 303
Sequences ........................................................................................................................... 304
Series .................................................................................................................................... 332
Summations....................................................................................................................... 343
Method of Differences .................................................................................................. 359
TOPIC 4:TRIGONOMETRY .......................................................................................... 373
Plane Trigonometry ......................................................................................................... 373
Trigonometrical Functions ........................................................................................... 396
TOPIC 5: CALCULUS ....................................................................................................... 476
Differentiation .................................................................................................................... 476
Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series .................................................................................. 564
Errors, Small Changes and Rates of Change .......................................................... 587
Integration ............................................................................................................................ 638
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Ordinary Differential Equations ................................................................................. 755
TOPIC 6: NUMERICAL METHODS ........................................................................... 830

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 TOPIC 1: ALGEBRA

Indices, Proportionality and Surds

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• state the laws of indices

• use laws of indices to solve problems

• Solve problems involving direct, partial, joint and inverse variation.

5
Variation

• Variation is the description of relationship between variables

connected by a constant known as a constant of variation.

• We shall look at the following different types of variation:

(1) Direct Variation

(2) Inverse Variation

(3) Joint Variation

(4) Partial Variation

Direct Variation

• Two variables will be varying directly with each other i.e.𝑎 ∝ 𝑏.

• ∝ means “is proportional to”

• Therefore if 𝑎 ∝ 𝑏 the relationship between a and b is established as

𝑎 = 𝑘𝑏

• As 𝑎 increases 𝑏 also increases proportionally.

Examples of direct Variation in our daily lives

The pay of a worker varies directly with hours worked, the more the
number of hours worked, the more the pay.

6
A 20 kg load is heavier to carry than a 5 kg load because weight is directly
proportional to the mass.

For a student walking home at a constant speed, the distance travelled is

proportional to the time taken.

Example 1

If 𝑥 ∝ 𝑦 and 𝑥 = 30 when 𝑦 = [Link]

a. The formula connecting 𝑥 and 𝑦

b. 𝑥 when 𝑦 = 10

c. 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 14

Solution

a. 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦

To find the value of constant 𝑘

𝑥 = 30 When 𝑦 = 12

30 = 12𝑘

5
𝑘=
2

7
 5
∴𝑥 = 𝑦
2

5
b. 𝑥 = (10)
2

𝑥 = 25

5
c. 14 = 𝑦
2

5𝑦 = 28

28
𝑦=
5

Example 2

If 𝐷 ∝ 𝑆 and 𝐷 = 140 when𝑆 = 35, find

a. Relationship between D and S.

b. Value of S when 𝐷 = 176

Solution

a. 𝐷 = 𝑘𝑆

140 = 35𝑘

8
𝑘=4

𝐷 = 4𝑆

b. 176 = 4𝑆

176
𝑆=
4

𝑆 = 44

Example 3

The volume of water in a drum , 𝑉 in varies directly as the height, ℎ of the

drum. Given that when 𝑉 = 20 , ℎ = 0.5𝑚 Find

a. Relationship between V and ℎ

b. Volume when ℎ = 1.5𝑚

Solution

a. 𝑉 ∝ ℎ

𝑉 = 𝑘ℎ

20 = 0.5𝑘
9
 20
𝑘=
0.5

𝑘 = 40

𝑉 = 40ℎ

b. 𝑉 = 40(1.5)

𝑉 = 60

Inverse Variation

As one variable increases, the other variable decreases.

Examples of inverse variation in our daily lives

• At Professor’s Birthday party, as the number of people were

increasing, the smaller the size of cake each person was going to
receive.

• For a burning candle in a room, as the time increases, the smaller the
size of the candle.

How to show relationship in inverse variation

1
If P varies inversely as Q, this is written as 𝑃 ∝
𝑄

10
Example 1

Given that V varies inversely as the quantity 𝑥 , and when V = 20 , 𝑥 = 5

Find:

a. Relationship between 𝑉 and 𝑥

b. Value of 𝑉 when 𝑥 = 8

Solution

1
a. 𝑉 ∝
𝑥

𝑘
𝑉=
𝑥

𝑘
20 =
5

𝑘 = 100

100
𝑉=
𝑥

100
b. 𝑉 =
8

25
=
2

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Example 2

If 𝑥 varies inversely as the square root of 𝑦, and when 𝑥 = 5 , 𝑦 = 4.

Find

a. Relationship between 𝑥 and 𝑦

b. Find 𝑥 when 𝑦 is 25.

Solution

1
a. 𝑥 ∝
√𝑦

𝑘
𝑥=
√𝑦

𝑘
5=
√4

𝑘
5=
2

𝑘 = 10

10
𝑥=
√𝑦

10
b. 𝑥 =
√25

12
 10
𝑥=
5

𝑥=2

Joint Variation

When a variable varies with a combination of two or more variables.

This can be a combination of both inverse and direct variation.

𝑚
For example, given 𝑝 ∝ this means 𝑝 varies directly as 𝑚 and varies
𝑣
inversely as 𝑣

Examples of Joint Variation

The Volume of cylinder given by 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ varies directly as the square

of the radius and varies directly as the height of the cylinder.

𝑚
The density given by 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = varies directly as the mass , 𝑚 and
𝑣
varies inversely as the volume, 𝑣

Example 1

The variable 𝑥 varies directly as the product of 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧.

Given that 𝑥 = 10 when 𝑦 = 7 and 𝑧 = 3.

Find a. Relationship between 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧

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 𝑏. Value of 𝑧 when 𝑥 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 9

Solution

a. 𝑥 ∝ 𝑦𝑧

𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦𝑧

10 = 𝑘(7)(3)

21𝑘 = 10

10
𝑘=
21

10
𝑥= 𝑦𝑧
21

10
b. 5 = (9)𝑧
21

90𝑧
5=
21

105 = 90𝑧

105
𝑧=
90

14
 7
𝑧=
6

Example 2

The variable 𝑝 varies directly as 𝑞 and inversely as the square of 𝑟.

10
When 𝑝 = , 𝑞 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 3.
3

Find

a. Equation connecting 𝑝 , 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟.

b. Find 𝑝 when 𝑞 = 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 1.2

Solution

𝑞
a. 𝑝 ∝
𝑟2

𝑘𝑞
𝑝= 2
𝑟

10 5𝑘
=
3 9

15𝑘 = 90

𝑘=6

15
 6𝑞
𝑝= 2
𝑟

6(9)
b. 𝑝 = (
1.2)2

𝑝 = 37.5

Example 3

𝑦
Given that 𝑥 ∝ , 𝑥 = 27 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 2
𝑧

a. Find relationship between 𝑥 , 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧.

b. Find 𝑥 when 𝑦 = 14 and 𝑧 = 12

Solution

𝑘𝑦
a. 𝑥 =
𝑧

9𝑘
27 =
2

9𝑘 = 54

𝑘=6

6𝑦
𝑥=
𝑧
16
 6(14)
b. 𝑥 =
12

𝑥=7

Partial Variation

This is when the variable is partly constant and at partly varies as another
variable.

Let us look at the following example

When feeding a large number of people in a hotel, the total cost, F depends
on two factors:

a. Cost of overheads, 𝑐such as fuel, wages etc.

b. Number of people being fed, 𝑁.

The overheads remain partly constant but the number of people varies.

Thus, the Total Cost is partly constant and partly varies as the number of
people being fed.

This can be written as 𝐹 = 𝑐 + 𝑘𝑁

One must therefore be aware that partial variation involves formation and
solving of simultaneous equations.
17
Example 1

Variable 𝑥 is partly constant and partly varies as 𝑦.

When 𝑦 = 2 ; 𝑥 = 30 and when 𝑦 = 6 ; 𝑥 = 50.

a. Find relationship between 𝑥 and 𝑦

b. Find 𝑥 when 𝑦 = 3

Solution

a. 𝑥 = ℎ + 𝑘𝑦

30 = ℎ + 2𝑘 (1)

50 = ℎ + 6𝑘 (2)

Solving simultaneously by eliminating ℎ

−20 = −4𝑘

𝑘=5

50 = ℎ + 6(5)

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50 = ℎ + 30

ℎ = 20

𝑥 = 20 + 5𝑦

b. 𝑥 = 20 + 5(3)

𝑥 = 35

Example 2

The resistance to motion of a car is partly constant and partly varies as the
square of the speed.
At 40𝑘𝑚/ℎ the resistance is 530 N, and at 60 𝑘𝑚/ℎ it is 730 N.
What will be the resistance at 70 𝑘𝑚/ℎ.

Solution

Let 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

𝑅 = ℎ + 𝑘𝑣 2

530 = ℎ + 𝑘(40)2

730 = ℎ + 𝑘(60)2

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530 = ℎ + 1600𝑘 (1)

730 = ℎ + 3600𝑘 (2)

Eliminating ℎ

−200 = −2000𝑘

1
𝑘=
10

1
530 = ℎ + 1600 ( )
10

530 = ℎ + 160

ℎ = 530 − 160

ℎ = 370

1 2
𝑅 = 370 + 𝑣
10

At 70 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

1
𝑅 = 370 + (70)2
10

= 860 𝑁

20
Indices

We are just going to run through the laws of indices since

they were covered in previous classes.

𝒙𝒎 × 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒎+𝒏 𝒆𝒈. 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟐𝟕

𝒙𝒎 ÷ 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒎−𝒏 𝒆𝒈. 𝒚𝟓 ÷ 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚³

𝒙𝟎 = 𝟏 𝒆𝒈. 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏

−𝒂
𝟏 −𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒆𝒈. 𝟐 = =
𝒙 𝟐³ 𝟖

𝟏 𝟏
𝒏 𝟑
𝒙 = √𝒙
𝒏 𝒆𝒈. 𝟖 = √𝟖 = 𝟐
𝟑

𝒎 𝒎 𝟐 𝟐
𝒏 𝟑
𝒙 = ( √𝒙)
𝒏 𝒆𝒈. 𝟖 = ( √𝟖) = 𝟒
𝟑

(𝒙𝒂 )𝒃 = 𝒙𝒂𝒃 𝒆𝒈. (𝒙𝟐 )𝟑 = 𝒙𝟔

21
Examples

Simplify the following

√𝒙
a.
𝒙

𝟏
√𝒙 𝒙𝟐
=
𝒙 𝒙

𝟏
−𝟏
=𝒙 𝟐

𝟏
−
=𝒙 𝟐

𝟏
= 𝟏
𝒙𝟐

𝟏
=
√𝒙

𝒂𝟒 ×𝒂𝟑
b.
𝒂𝟏𝟏

22
 𝒂𝟒 ×𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟒+𝟑
=
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟏

𝒂𝟕
=
𝒂𝟏𝟏

= 𝒂𝟕−𝟏𝟏

= 𝒂−𝟒

𝟏
=
𝒂𝟒

c. √𝒙 × 𝒙𝟓

𝟏
√𝒙 × 𝒙𝟓 = 𝒙𝟐 × 𝒙𝟓

𝟏
+𝟓
=𝒙 𝟐

𝟏𝟏
=𝒙 𝟐

𝟖𝒙𝟓
d.
𝟒𝒙𝟐

23
𝟖𝒙𝟓 𝟓−𝟐
= 𝟐𝒙
𝟒𝒙𝟐

= 𝟐𝒙𝟑

𝟓 𝟐
e. (𝒙 ) = 𝒙𝟏𝟎

𝟐 −𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
f. ( ) =( )
𝟑 𝟐

𝟐𝟕
=
𝟖

24
Equations Involving Indices

Equations of type 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏

You are familiar with some of these from your previous

classes.

Examples

(1) 2𝑥 = 8

2𝑥 = 2³

Since bases are now equal this also means our powers are
equal.
∴𝑥 = 3

1
(2) 3𝑥 =
27

3𝑥 = 3−3

∴𝑥 = −3

(3) 2𝑥+5 = 32
25
2𝑥+5 = 25

𝑥+5=5

𝑥=0

(4) 52𝑥+1 = 1

52𝑥+1 = 50

2𝑥 + 1 = 0

2𝑥 = −1

1
𝑥= −2

1 1
(5) =
5𝑥−1 125

5−(𝑥−1) = 5−3

−(𝑥 − 1) = −3

−𝑥 + 1 = −3

𝑥 =1+3
26
𝑥=4

(6) 4𝑥−5 = 162𝑥

22(𝑥−5) = 24(2𝑥)

2(𝑥 − 5) = 8𝑥

2𝑥 − 10 = 8𝑥

−6𝑥 = 10

5
𝑥 = −3

Let us look at examples in which the bases cannot be equal.

(1) Solve the equation 2𝑥 = 7

2 and 7 can never be expressed as same bases.

So, you introduce logarithms both sides

(𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑠. )
27
𝐼𝑛2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛7

𝑥𝐼𝑛2 = 𝐼𝑛7

𝐼𝑛7
𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛2

𝑥 = 2.8 (1 𝑑. 𝑝)

(2) Solve the equation 52𝑥 = 3𝑥+1 giving your answer to

3 d.p.

𝐼𝑛52𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛3𝑥+1

2𝑥𝐼𝑛5 = (𝑥 + 1)𝐼𝑛3

2𝑥𝐼𝑛5 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛3 + 𝐼𝑛3

2𝑥𝐼𝑛5 − 𝑥𝐼𝑛3 = 𝐼𝑛3

𝑥(2𝐼𝑛5 − 𝐼𝑛3) = 𝐼𝑛 3

𝐼𝑛3
𝑥=
2𝐼𝑛5−𝐼𝑛3

28
 𝐼𝑛3
𝑥=
𝐼𝑛25−𝐼𝑛3

𝑥 = 0.5

(3) Solve the equation 42𝑥+1 = 32𝑥

22(2𝑥+1) = 32𝑥

24𝑥+2 = 32𝑥

𝐼𝑛24𝑥+2 = 𝐼𝑛32𝑥

(4𝑥 + 2)𝐼𝑛2 = (2𝑥 )𝐼𝑛3

4𝑥𝐼𝑛2 + 2𝐼𝑛2 = 2𝑥𝐼𝑛3

4𝑥𝐼𝑛2 − 2𝑥𝐼𝑛3 = −2𝐼𝑛2

2𝑥(2𝐼𝑛2 − 𝐼𝑛3) = −2𝐼𝑛2

−𝐼𝑛4
2𝑥 =
𝐼𝑛4−𝐼𝑛3

1 −𝐼𝑛4
𝑥= ( )
2 𝐼𝑛4−𝐼𝑛3

29
𝑥 = −2.41

(4) 53𝑥+6 = 78𝑥+4

𝐼𝑛53𝑥+6 = 𝐼𝑛78𝑥+4

(3𝑥 + 6)𝐼𝑛5 = (8𝑥 + 4)𝐼𝑛7

3𝑥𝐼𝑛5 + 6𝐼𝑛5 = 8𝑥𝐼𝑛7 + 4𝐼𝑛7

3𝑥𝐼𝑛5 − 8𝑥𝐼𝑛7 = 4𝐼𝑛7 − 6𝐼𝑛5

𝑥(3𝐼𝑛5 − 8𝐼𝑛7) = 4𝐼𝑛7 − 6𝐼𝑛5

4𝐼𝑛7−6𝐼𝑛5
𝑥=
3𝐼𝑛5−8𝐼𝑛7

𝑥 = 0.174

𝑥 2
(5) 3 = 3

2
𝐼𝑛3𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
3

30
 2
𝑥𝐼𝑛3 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
3

2
𝐼𝑛( )
3
𝑥=
𝐼𝑛3

𝑥 = −0.37 (2 𝑑. 𝑝)

(6) 𝑒 𝑥 = 5

𝐼𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5

𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛5

𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5

(7) 2𝑒 𝑥 = 9

𝑥 9
𝑒 =
2

𝑥 9
𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
2

9
𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
2

(8) 5𝑥−2 = 4𝑥
31
𝐼𝑛5𝑥−2 = 𝐼𝑛4𝑥

(𝑥 − 2)𝐼𝑛5 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛4

𝑥𝐼𝑛5 − 2𝐼𝑛5 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛4

𝑥𝐼𝑛5 − 𝑥𝐼𝑛4 = 2𝐼𝑛5

𝑥(𝐼𝑛5 − 𝐼𝑛4) = 𝐼𝑛25

𝐼𝑛25
𝑥= 5
𝐼𝑛( )
4

𝑥 = 14.43

(9) Solve the equation 𝑒 5𝑥 = 10

𝐼𝑛𝑒 5𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛10

5𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛10

5𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛10

𝐼𝑛10
𝑥=
5

32
𝑥 = 0.461

(10) Solve the equation 𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝐼𝑛5

𝑒 2𝑥 = 5

𝐼𝑛𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5

2𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛5

2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5

𝐼𝑛5
𝑥=
2

𝑥 = 0.805

33
Disguised Quadratic Equations

There are some equations which can be transformed into

quadratic equations.
These are what we call disguised quadratic equations.

Consider the following examples

(1) Solve the equation 𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 + 9 = 0

This can be written as (𝑥²)2 − 10𝑥 2 + 9 = 0

By introducing the substitution let 𝑦 = 𝑥² a quadratic

equation in terms of 𝑦 can be formed.

∴𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 + 9 = 0 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 9 = 0

Solving 𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 9 = 0

𝑦 2 − 9𝑦 − 𝑦 + 9 = 0

𝑦(𝑦 − 9) − 1(𝑦 − 9) = 0

(𝑦 − 9)(𝑦 − 1) = 0

34
∴𝑦 = 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 1
But 𝑦 = 𝑥²

∴𝑥 2 = 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 = 1

𝑥 = ±3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = ±1

(2) Solve the equation 3𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 = 0

This is written as 3(𝑒 𝑥 )2 + 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 = 0

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥

3𝑦 2 + 𝑦 − 2 = 0

3𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑦 − 2 = 0

3𝑦(𝑦 + 1) − 2(𝑦 + 1) = 0

(𝑦 + 1)(3𝑦 − 2) = 0

2
𝑦 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
3

But 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
35
 2
∴𝑒 𝑥 = −1 (𝑁/𝐴) 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 𝑥 =
3
𝑥 2
𝑒 =
3

𝑥 2
𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛
3

2
𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛 (𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 1)
3

2
𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛
3

(3) Solve the equation 9(32𝑥 ) + 26(3𝑥 ) − 3 = 0

This can be written as 9(3𝑥 )2 + 26(3𝑥 ) − 3 = 0

Let 𝑦 = 3𝑥

∴9𝑦 2 + 26𝑦 − 3 = 0

9𝑦 2 + 27𝑦 − 𝑦 − 3 = 0

9𝑦(𝑦 + 3) − 1(𝑦 + 3) = 0

(𝑦 + 3)(9𝑦 − 1) = 0

36
 1
𝑦 = −3 (𝑁/𝐴) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 =
9

𝑥 1
∴3 =
9

3𝑥 = 3−2

𝑥 = −2

(4) Solve the equation 𝑥 − 3√𝑥 + 2 = 0

1 2 1
(𝑥 ) − 3 (𝑥 ) + 2 = 0
2 2

1
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2

𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 + 2 = 0

𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0
𝑦(𝑦 − 2) − 1(𝑦 − 2) = 0

(𝑦 − 2)(𝑦 − 1) = 0

𝑦=2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 1

37
 1 1
∴𝑥 = 2
2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
2

1 2 1 2
(𝑥 ) = 2²
2 Or (𝑥 ) = (1)²
2

𝑥=4 Or 𝑥=1

(5) Show that if 𝑦 = 3𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3𝑥 − 3−𝑥 = 1 can be

written as a quadratic equation in 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦.

𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥 1
3 −3 = 1 Can be written as 3 − =1
3𝑥

Let 𝑦 = 3𝑥

1
𝑦− =1
𝑦

𝑦2 − 1 = 𝑦

𝑦2 − 𝑦 − 1 = 0

(6) Solve the equation 4𝑥 − 2𝑥+1 − 3 = 0

This can be written as (2𝑥 )2 − (2𝑥 )(2) − 3 = 0

38
 (𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2𝑥+1 = 2𝑥 × 2)

Let 𝑦 = 2𝑥

𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 3 = 0

(𝑦 − 3)(𝑦 + 1) = 0

𝑦 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = −1

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑦 = 2𝑥

2𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = −1 (𝐼𝑁𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐼𝐷 𝐴𝑆 𝐼𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 < 0)

𝐼𝑛2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛3

𝑥𝐼𝑛2 = 𝐼𝑛3

𝐼𝑛3
𝑥=
𝐼𝑛2

𝑥 = 1.58

(7) Show that 2(2−𝑥 ) + 2𝑥+2 = 10 can be written as a

quadratic equation in 𝑦

39
2 2( 𝑥 )
𝑥
+ 2 2 = 10
2

Let 𝑦 = 2𝑥

2
+ 4𝑦 = 10
𝑦

2 + 4𝑦 2 = 10𝑦

4𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 2 = 0

2𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 1 = 0 (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

(8) Given that 2𝑥 − 2−𝑥 = 4 solve the equation for 𝑥

𝑥
1
2 − 𝑥=4
2

Let 𝑦 = 2𝑥
40
 1
𝑦− =4
𝑦

𝑦 2 − 1 = 4𝑦

𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 − 1 = 0

Using Quadratic formula

−(−4) ± √(−4)2 − 4(1)(−1)

𝑦=
2(1)

4 ± √20
𝑦=
2

4 ± 2√5
𝑦=
2

𝑦 = 2 ± √5

But 𝑦 = 2𝑥

41
∴2𝑥 = 2 + √5 or 2𝑥 = 2 − √5

𝐼𝑛2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛(2 + √5) or 𝐼𝑛2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛(2 − √5)

𝑥𝐼𝑛2 = 𝐼𝑛(2 + √5) or 𝑥𝐼𝑛2 = 𝐼𝑛(2 − √5)

𝐼𝑛(2 + √5) 𝐼𝑛(2 − √5)

𝑥= 𝑜𝑟 𝑥= (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 )
𝐼𝑛2 𝐼𝑛2

𝑥 = 2.08 to 2 d. p

(9) Solve the equation 2(9𝑥 ) − 7(3𝑥 ) + 3 = 0 expressing

your answers for 𝑥 in terms of logarithms where
possible.

2(3𝑥 )2 − 7(3𝑥 ) + 3 = 0

Let 𝑦 = 3𝑥

2𝑦 2 − 7𝑦 + 3 = 0
42
2𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 − 𝑦 + 3 = 0

2𝑦(𝑦 − 3) − 1(𝑦 − 3) = 0

(𝑦 − 3)(2𝑦 − 1) = 0

1
𝑦=3 𝑜𝑟 𝑦=
2

But remember 𝑦 = 3𝑥

𝑥 𝑥
1
3 =3 𝑜𝑟 3 =
2

1
1 𝐼𝑛
𝑥=1 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛3𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 ⟹ 𝑥 = 2
2 𝐼𝑛3

𝐼𝑛2−1
=
𝐼𝑛3

−𝐼𝑛2
=
𝐼𝑛3

43
 (10) Solve the equation 3(7𝑥 ) − 2(7−𝑥 ) = 5

𝑥)
2
3(7 − 𝑥=5
7

Let 𝑦 = 7𝑥

2
3𝑦 − = 5
𝑦

3𝑦 2 − 2 = 5𝑦

3𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 − 2 = 0

3𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 𝑦 − 2 = 0

3𝑦(𝑦 − 2) + 1(𝑦 − 2) = 0

(𝑦 − 2)(3𝑦 + 1) = 0

1
𝑦=2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦=−
3
44
But 𝑦 = 7𝑥

𝑥 𝑥
1
7 =2 𝑜𝑟 7 =− (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 )
3

𝐼𝑛7𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛2

𝐼𝑛2
𝑥=
𝐼𝑛7

𝑥 = 0.36

(11) Solve the equation 3𝑥−1 + 3𝑥−2 = 12

𝑥
3
3𝑥 (3) + 2 = 12
3

Let 𝑦 = 3𝑥

𝑦
3𝑦 + = 12
9

45
27𝑦 + 𝑦 = 108

28𝑦 = 108

27
𝑦=
7

But 𝑦 = 3𝑥

𝑥
27
3 =
7

27
𝐼𝑛 ( )
𝑥= 7
𝐼𝑛3

𝑥 = 1.23

2 1
(12) Solve the equation 𝑦 − 5𝑦 + 6 = 0
3 3

1 2 1
(𝑦 3 ) − 5𝑦 3 +6=0

46
 1
Let 𝑥 = 𝑦 3

𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0

(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

𝑥=3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=2

1
But 𝑥 = 𝑦 3

1 1
𝑦3 =3 𝑜𝑟 𝑦3 =2

1 3 1 3
(𝑦 3 ) = 33 𝑜𝑟 (𝑦 3 ) = 23

𝑦 = 27 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 8

(13) Solve the equation 𝑒 2𝑥 − 7𝑒 𝑥 + 10 = 0

47
(𝑒 𝑥 )2 − 7𝑒 𝑥 + 10 = 0

Let 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑦 2 − 7𝑦 + 10 = 0

(𝑦 − 5)(𝑦 − 2) = 0

𝑦=5 𝑜𝑟 𝑦=2

But 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥

𝑒 2𝑥 = 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 2𝑥 = 2

𝐼𝑛𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛2

2𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛5 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛2

2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛2

𝐼𝑛5 𝐼𝑛2
𝑥= 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
2 2

48
𝑥 = 0.80 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0.35

SURDS

A surd is a nasty root in which the square root cannot be evaluated exactly
𝑒𝑔 √4 = 2 𝑏𝑢𝑡 √5 = 2.2360 … ..hence
√5 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑑

Rules for Irrational Numbers

1. √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 × √𝑏

Examples

√3 × √5 = √15

√7 × 3 = √21

√5 × 2 = √10

49
 2. 𝑎√𝑐 ± 𝑏√𝑐 = (𝑎 ± 𝑏)√𝑐

Examples

5√6 + 8√6 = (5 + 8)√6

= 13√6

8√3 − 4√3 = (8 − 4)√3

= 4√3

𝑎 √𝑎
3. √ =
𝑏 √𝑏

Examples

16 √16 4
√ = =
3 √3 √3

9 √9
√ =
4 √4

3
=
2
50
 2
4. (√𝑎) = 𝑎

2
(√5) = 5

2
(√6) = 6

5. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 ± √𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 ∓ √𝑏

𝑒𝑔. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 6 + √3 𝑖𝑠 6 − √3

𝑒𝑔. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 10 + √7 𝑖𝑠 10 − √7

EXAMPLES

Simplify the following

(a) √8

Note: Check if 8 has a highest factor which is a square number and it is 4.

∴ √8 = √4 × 2

= √4 × √2

51
 = 2√2

(b) √12

√12 = √4 × 3

=√4 × √3

= 2√3

(c) √200

√200 = √100 × 2

= √100 × √2

= 10√2

(d) √72

√72 = √36 × 2

= 6√2

(e) 2√3 − 7√3

= (2 − 7)√3
52
= −5√3

(f) 5√6 + √54

= 5√6 + √9 × 6

= 5√6 + 3√6

= 8√6

5 2
(g) +
√2 √8

5 2
= +
√2 2√2

10+2
=
2√2

12
=
2√2

6 √2
= ×
√2 √2

6√2
=
2

= 3√2

53
 (h) Express 5√5 as a number under one square root.

5√5 = √25 × 5

= √125

(i) Expand and simplify (2 − 3√3)(3 + 2√3)

= (2 − 3√3)(3 + 2√3) = 6 − 9√3 + 4√3 − 6(√3)²

= 6 − 5√3 − 6(3)

= 6 − 5√3 − 18

= −12 − 5√3

4 4
j. Given that = 3 − √5 , show that 𝑥 + = 6
𝑥 𝑥

4
= 3 − √5
𝑥

4
𝑥=
3 − √5

4 4
𝑥+ = + 3 − √5
𝑥 3 − √5

4 + (3 − √5)(3 − √5)
=
3 − √5

54
 4 + 9 − 3√5 − 3√5 + 5
=
3 − √5

18 − 6√5
=
3 − √5

6(3 − √5)
=
3 − √5

=6 (shown)

k. Given that 𝑎 = 2 − √2 and = 5 − √2 , find 𝑎𝑏

𝑎𝑏 = (2 − √2)(5 − √2)

= 10 − 5√2 − 2√2 + 2

= 10 − 7√2 + 2

= 12 − 7√2

l. Simplify √2 + 5√3 + √8

= √2 + √4 × 2 + 5√3

= √2 + 2√2 + 5√3

55
= 3√2 + 5√3

m. Evaluate 2√5 + 9√3 + 4√3 − √25

= 2√5 + (9 + 4)√3 − 5

= 2√5 + 13√3 − 5

n. Evaluate and simplify 7√7 − 3√2 + 5√7

= (7 + 5)√7 − 3√2

= 12√7 − 3√2

= 3(4√7 − √2)

Rationalizing the Denominator

The denominator of a fraction MUST NEVER OCCUR AS A SURD.

5 2 6
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 , ,
√2 √3 (1 + √3)
Must be corrected through rationalizing the denominator (making
denominator rational)

Methods for rationalizing the denominator

𝑎 𝑎 × √𝑏
(1) =
√𝑏 √𝑏 × √𝑏

56
Examples

Ex 1

3 3 × √6
=
√6 √6 × √6

3√6
=
6

√6
=
2

Ex 2

8 8 × √2
=
√2 √2 × √2

8√2
=
2

= 4√2

Ex 3

57
5 − √3 (5 − √3) × √7
=
√7 √7 × √7

5√7 − √21
=
7

5 1
= √7 − √21
7 7

Case 2:

𝑥 𝑥 (𝑎 − √𝑏)
= ×
(𝑎 + √𝑏) (𝑎 + √𝑏) (𝑎 − √𝑏)

(Multiply denominator and numerator with the conjugate)

Ex 1

5 5 (2 − √5)
= ×
2 + √5 (2 + √5) (2 − √5)

58
 5(2 − √5)
=
(2 + √5)(2 − √5)

10 − 5√5
=
−1

= −(10 − 5√5)

= 5√5 − 10

Ex 2

2 2 3 − √7
= ×
3 + √7 3 + √7 3 − √7

2(3 − √7)
=
(3 + √7)(3 − √7)

6 − 2√7
=
9−7

6 − 2√7
=
2

= 3 − √7

59
Worked Examples

Rationalize the denominators and simplify

3
(a)
√5

3 3 √5
= ×
√5 √5 √5

3√5
=
5

2
(b)
√32

2 2×√2
=
4√2 4√2×√2

2√2
=
8

√2
=
4

3
(c)
3+2√5

3 (3−2√5)
= ×
3+2√5 (3−2√5)

6√5−9
=
11

60
 2
(d)
√3+√5

2 (√3−√5)
= ×
√3+√5 (√3−√5)

2√3−2√5
=
−2

2√5−2√3
=
2

= √5 − √3

For Practice

1
(a) Simplify
2√3+√2

(b) Express 7√2 in the form √𝑎

(c) Simplify 5√6 − 2√6 + √36

(d) Simplify √2000

1
(e) Simplify
√10+2

61
 5
(f) Rationalize
√2+√3

62
Polynomials
Syllabus Objectives

• carry out polynomial operations of addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division

• use the remainder and factor theorems

63
DEFINITION OF POLYNOMIALS

• A polynomial is an expression written in order from the highest

term degree to the lowest term degree 𝑒𝑔. 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5

• When powers of 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 that is NOT a

1
polynomial 𝑒𝑔. √𝑥 + 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑥

Division of Polynomials

We use long division when carrying out division of polynomials.

𝐸𝑋𝐴𝑀𝑃𝐿𝐸 1

Divide 6𝑥 3 + 11𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 12 by 𝑥 − 1

6𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 12
𝑥 − 1 6𝑥 3 + 11𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 12
−(6𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 )
17𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 12
−(17𝑥 2 − 17𝑥)
12𝑥 − 12
−(12𝑥 − 12)
..
64
No remainder therefore this means 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of
6𝑥 3 + 11𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 12

EXAMPLE 2

Divide 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 by (𝑥 + 3)

𝑥+2
𝑥+3 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
−(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 0)
2𝑥 + 6
−(2𝑥 + 6)
..

Examples leaving a remainder

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 2𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 18 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 + 2

2𝑥 − 20
𝑥+2 2𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 18
−(2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 )
−20𝑥 + 18
−(−20𝑥 − 40)
58
65
Since 58 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 + 2 it therefore becomes our
remainder.

58
Therefore, our answer is (2𝑥 − 20) + 𝑥+2

Example 2

Find the remainder when 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1 is divided by

𝑥+3

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 8
𝑥+3 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1
−(𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 0 + 0)
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1
−(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 0)
−8𝑥 + 1
−(−8𝑥 − 24)
25

𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 25
For Practice

(1) Divide 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 4 by 𝑥 − 2

66
(2) Find the remainder when 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1 is divided by
𝑥+3

(3) Divide 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 by (𝑥 + 3)

𝑥 3 +5𝑥 2 +3𝑥+6
(4) Simplify 𝑥−1

(5) Find the remainder when 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 is divided by

𝑥−1

(6) 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 − 3

67
THE REMAINDER THEOREM

The REMAINDER THEOREM states that:

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑎) 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(−𝑎)

Example 1

Given that 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 2 is divided by 𝑥 + [Link] the

remainder.

The remainder is given by 𝑓(−2)

𝑓(−2) = (−2)5 + (−2)3 − 2(−2) + 2

= −34

∴ 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 − 34

Example 2
Find remainder when 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9 is divided by (𝑥 − 1)

68
Remainder is 𝑓(1)

𝑓(1) = (1)2 + 7 + 9
= 17

Example 3

Find the remainder when 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 is divided by

𝑥−1

Remainder is 𝑓(1)

𝑓 (1) = (1)4 − 3(1)2 + 3(1) − 4

𝑓 (1) = −3

Example 4

Find the remainder when 2𝑥2 − 16𝑥 + 18 is divided by

𝑥+2

Remainder is 𝑓(−2)

69
𝑓 (−2) = 2(−2)2 − 16(−2) + 18

= 58

THE FACTOR THEOEM

The FACTOR THEOREM states that:

𝐼𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑎) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑎) 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑓(−𝑎) = 0

Examples

(1) Find the value of p for which (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of

2𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1

If (𝑥 − 1) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 ) , 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓(1) = 0

𝑓(1) = 2(1)3 + 𝑝(1)2 − 5(1) + 1 = 0

2+𝑝−5+1=0

70
𝑝=2

(2) Show that (𝑥 + 2) is a factor of the polynomial

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 6

If (𝑥 + 2) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓(−2) = 0

𝑓(−2) = 2(−2)3 − 3(−2)2 − 11(−2) + 6

= −16 − 12 + 22 + 6

= −28 + 28

=0 (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛) Since 𝑓(−2) = 0

(3) Find the remainder when 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 4 is divided by 𝑥 − 2.

The remainder is 𝑓(2)

𝑓(2) = (2)3 − 3(2) + 4

=6

(4) Find the remainder when 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 4 is divided by 2𝑥 + 1.

1 1
The remainder is 𝑓 (− 2) ∗ 2𝑥 + 1 = 2(𝑥 + )
2

1 1 1
𝑓 (− 2) = (− 2) ³ − 3 (− 2) +4
71
 43
= 8

(5) Find the value of 𝑎 given that 𝑥 + 2 is a factor of

2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 − 6

If 𝑥 + 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(−2) = 0

𝑓(−2) = 2(−2)3 + 5(−2)2 + 𝑎(−2) − 6 = 0

∴ −16 + 20 − 2𝑎 − 6 = 0

𝑎 = −1

(6)The polynomial 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 6, where 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are

constants is denoted by 𝑃(𝑥 ).It is given that 𝑥 − 2
𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃(𝑥 ) and When 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 1) the
remainder is 4.
Find the values of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.

If (𝑥 − 2) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃(2) = 0
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑖𝑠 𝑃(1) ; ∴ 𝑃(1) = 4

(2)3 + 𝑎(2)2 + 𝑏(2) + 6 = 0

(1)3 + 𝑎(1)2 + 𝑏(1) + 6 = 4

4𝑎 + 2𝑏 = −14 (1)
𝑎 + 𝑏 = −3 (2)
72
Solve simultaneously to get 𝑏 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = −4

(7) If 𝑥 − 2 is a factor of 𝑎𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 4 find 𝑎

𝑓(2) = 0

𝑓(2) = 𝑎(2)2 − 12(2) + 4 = 0

4𝑎 − 24 + 4 = 0

4𝑎 = 20

∴𝑎=5

(8) 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2

𝑓(1) = 2(1) − 4(1) + 2

=2−4+2

=4−4

𝑓(1) = 0 (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

(9) Find the value of p for which (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of

2𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1
73
𝑓(1) = 0

𝑓(1) = 2(1)3 + 𝑝(1)2 − 5(1) + 1 = 0

2+𝑝−5+1=0

𝑝 = −2 + 5 − 1

𝑝=2

(10) Show that (𝑥 + 2) is a factor of the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥)

2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 6

𝑓(−2) = 2(−2)3 − 3(−2)2 − 11(−2) + 6

= −16 − 12 + 22 + 6

= −28 + 28

𝑓(−2) = 0 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

74
Question 11

When a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥 ) is divide by (𝑥 − 3) the remainder is −9 and

when divided by (2𝑥 − 1) , the remainder is −6.

Find the remainder when 𝑓(𝑥 ) is divided by (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1)

Remainders are in the form 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

Therefore

𝑓(3) = 3𝑎 + 𝑏 = −9

1 1
𝑓 ( ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 = −6
2 2

3𝑎 + 𝑏 = −9 (1)

1
𝑎 + 𝑏 = −6 (2)
2

Eliminating 𝑏

5
𝑎 = −3
2

75
 6
𝑎=−
5

6
3 (− ) + 𝑏 = −9
5

18
𝑏 = −9 +
5

27
𝑏=−
5

6 27
Therefore remainder is −5𝑥 − 5

Zimsec Past exam Questions

Question 1

One root of the equation 𝑥 4 + 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 12 = 0 is 2 and the

other root is −2.

Find

a) The values of 𝑎 and 𝑏

b) The other two roots using the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 in above.

76
Question 2

Given that (𝑥 − 1) and (𝑥 − 𝑏) are factors of the polynomial

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 1 , where 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0 , find the values of 𝑎
and 𝑏
[5 ]
Question 3

The polyniomials 𝑃(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 and 𝑄 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 − 10 leave the

same remainder when divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎

a. Find the possible values of 𝑎 [ 3]

b. Solve the inequality 𝑃(𝑥 ) > 𝑄(𝑥 ) [ 2]

Question 4

Given that (𝑥 + 𝑘 ) is a factor of 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6, where 𝑘 > 0,

Find

i. The value of 𝑘 [ 2]

ii. The exact roots of the equation 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6 = 0 [ 3]

Question 5
77
It is given that 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 4 has factors (𝑥 + 1)
and (𝑥 − 1).

i. Find The value of b and value of c.

ii. Factorise 𝑔(𝑥 ) completely.

Question 6

a. It is given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑝𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4

Find the set of values of 𝑝 for which 𝑓(𝑥 ) is positive for all
Real values of 𝑥 [2 ]

b. The remainder when 4𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 3 is divided by 𝑥 + 𝑏

is equal to the square of the remainder when 2𝑥 2 − 3 is divided by
𝑥 + 𝑏.

Calculate the possible values of b, correct to 2 decimal places.

Question 7

Use the factor theorem to find a linear factor of the polynomial

𝑃(𝑥 ) , were
𝑃(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
And hence express 𝑃(𝑥 ) as the product of three linear factors.

The polynomial 𝑄 (𝑥 ) is obtained from 𝑃(𝑥 ) by replacing 𝑥 by

78
 𝑥 + 1, so that
𝑄 (𝑥 ) = 𝑃(𝑥 + 1)

Express 𝑄 (𝑥 ) as the product of three linear factors.

Question 8

The polynomial 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 − 81, where p and q are constants, has factors

(𝑥 + 1) and (𝑥 − 3). Calculate the value of 𝑝 and the value of 𝑞. [4]

Question 9

Given that (𝑥 + 2) is a factor of

𝑥 4 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6

Find the value of 𝑎. [ 2]

Question 10

The polynomial 𝑃(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is divisible by 𝑥 − [Link] divided by

𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥 − 2 it leaves a remainder of 2 and 8 [Link] the values
of 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐. [ 6]

79
Question 11

When a polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 4 the remainder is

2𝑥 + [Link] 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑓 (𝑥 ), find the values of 𝑎, 𝑏 and c.
[5 ]

Question 12

Given that (𝑥 + 2) and (2𝑥 − 1) are factors of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 6 ,

find the value of a and the value of b. [ 5]

Hence find the third factor. [ 2]

Question 13

Find the value of 𝑎 for which (𝑥 − 2) is a factor of

3𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
[2]

Show that for this value of 𝑎, the cubic equation

3𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 has only one real root. [3]

Question 14

The polynomial 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 1, where 𝑘 is a

constant.

i. Use the factor theorem to obtain a linear factor of 𝑓(𝑥 ) [ 2]

Hence obtain a quadratic factor of (𝑥 ) , and find the set of values of k

for which all the roots of equation 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 are real. [ 5]
80
 ii. For the case 𝑘 = 3 , the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) is a transformation of the
graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 . Describe this transformation fully. [ 2]

Question 15
The polynomials 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 and
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2𝑏 have a common factor 𝑥 + 3.

Find

a. The value of a and value of b. [4]

b. A second common factor. [3]

Question 16

The expression 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 − 6 , is divisible by 𝑥 − 2 and

2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3

a. Find the values of a and b. [ 2]

b. When the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 have the values above, solve the equation
𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 − 6 = 0. [ 2]

c. Solve the inequality 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 − 6 < 0 [ 2]

Question 17

Given that 2𝑥 − 1 is a factor of the polynomial

8𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 − 1 find value of 𝑎. [ 2]
81
Hence or otherwise factorise the poynomial completely. [3 ]

Question 18

When a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥 ) is divide by (𝑥 − 3) the remainder is −9 and when

divided by (2𝑥 − 1) , the remainder is −6.

Find the remainder when 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is divided by (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1) [4]

Question 19

The polynomial 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 + 12 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants is denoted

by 𝑓 (𝑥 ).The result of differentiating 𝑓 (𝑥 ) with respect to 𝑥 is denoted by
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) .
It is given that (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥 ) and when 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) is divided by
(𝑥 − 1) the remainder is −5.

i. Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏

ii. When 𝑎 and 𝑏 have these values in (𝑖), solve the equation
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0

82
83
Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Laws of logarithms

We are just going to have a reminder of the laws of

logarithms.

We will start with common logarithms.(𝑙𝑜𝑔)

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑀 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 (𝑀𝑁)

𝑀
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑀 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 ( )
𝑁

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑀

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 = 1

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 1

𝑙𝑜𝑔1 = 0

84
Also remember if 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑎

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑐
To change 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑐 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏

Practice Questions

(1) Express 3𝑙𝑜𝑔5 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔2 − 2 log 3 as a single logarithm.

= 𝑙𝑜𝑔53 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔22 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔32

= 𝑙𝑜𝑔125 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔9

125×4
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
9

500
=𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
9

85
 (2) Simplify 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 16

𝑙𝑜𝑔2 16 = 𝑥

2𝑥 = 16

2𝑥 = 24

𝑥=4

∴𝑙𝑜𝑔2 16 = 4

𝑙𝑜𝑔4
(3) Simplify
𝑙𝑜𝑔16

𝑙𝑜𝑔22
=
𝑙𝑜𝑔24

2𝑙𝑜𝑔2
=
4𝑙𝑜𝑔2

2
=
4

1
=
2
86
 (4) Solve the equation 𝑙𝑜𝑔(5𝑥 + 1) = 2

5𝑥 + 1 = 102

5𝑥 + 1 = 100

5𝑥 = 99

99
𝑥=
5

(5) Solve the equation log(2𝑥 + 1) − log(𝑥 − 3) = 1

2𝑥+1
𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )=1
𝑥−3

2𝑥+1
= 10 (Remember) if 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥−3

2𝑥 + 1 = 10(𝑥 − 3)

2𝑥 + 1 = 10𝑥 − 30

87
2𝑥 − 10𝑥 = −30 − 1

−8𝑥 = −31

31
𝑥=
8

(6) Solve 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (3𝑥 + 5)

𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (3𝑥 + 5) = 3

𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑥 )(3𝑥 + 5) = 3

𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 ) = 3

3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 23

3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 8 = 0

3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 8 = 0

𝑥 (3𝑥 + 8) − 1(3𝑥 + 8) = 0

(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 8) = 0

88
 3
𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −
8

(7) Solve the simultaneous equations

𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 0

2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = log (𝑦 + 1)

𝑥 + 𝑦 = 100
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑦 + 1)

𝑥+𝑦 =1 (1)
𝑥2 = 𝑦 + 1 (2)

Solving simultaneously by substitution

𝑥2 = 1 − 𝑥 + 1

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

𝑥 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=1

89
𝑦=3 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 0

𝑙𝑜𝑔4
(8) Show that 1 = −2
𝑙𝑜𝑔( )
2

𝑙𝑜𝑔22 2𝑙𝑜𝑔2
=
𝑙𝑜𝑔2−1 −1𝑙𝑜𝑔2

= −2 (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

(9) Solve the simultaneous equation 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑦 = 2 𝑥𝑦 = 8

𝑥2 = 𝑦 (1)

𝑥𝑦 = 8 (2)

8
𝑦=
𝑥

2 8
𝑥 =
𝑥

𝑥3 = 8

90
𝑥=2

𝑦=4

The Natural/Napierian Logarithms

Natural logarithms have a special base which is 𝑒

They are written as 𝐼𝑛𝑓(𝑥)

The same laws for common logarithms also apply to the

natural logarithms but the difference is just the base will
be 𝑒 for natural logarithms.

𝐼𝑛 𝑎 + 𝐼𝑛 𝑏 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑎𝑏)

𝑎
𝐼𝑛𝑎 − 𝐼𝑛𝑏 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
𝑏

𝐼𝑛𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑛𝐼𝑛𝑏

𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 1 = 𝑒

𝐼𝑛1 = 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 0 = 1

91
Examples

(1) Simplify 𝐼𝑛1 − 𝐼𝑛𝑒

=0 − 1

=−1

2𝑥+5
(2) Simplify 𝐼𝑛 ( 𝑥−1)
√

=𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 5) − 𝐼𝑛( √𝑥 − 1 )

1
=𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 5) − 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 1) 2

1
=𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 5) − 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 1)
2

(3) Evaluate 𝐼𝑛5 − 2𝐼𝑛4 + 𝐼𝑛2

=𝐼𝑛5 + 𝐼𝑛2 − 𝐼𝑛42

92
=𝐼𝑛10 − 𝐼𝑛16

10
=𝐼𝑛 ( )
16

5
=𝐼𝑛 ( )
8

(4) Solve the equation 𝐼𝑛(5 − 𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛5 − 𝐼𝑛𝑥 answer to 3s.f

𝐼𝑛(5 − 𝑥 ) + 𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5

𝐼𝑛(𝑥 )(5 − 𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛5

5𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = 5

𝑥 = 1.38 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3.62

(5) Evaluate 𝐼𝑛5 + 𝐼𝑛6 − 𝐼𝑛2

5×6
= 𝐼𝑛 ( )
2

=𝐼𝑛15

93
 (6) Write as a single logarithm 3𝐼𝑛3 + 3𝐼𝑛5

=𝐼𝑛33 + 𝐼𝑛53

33
=𝐼𝑛 ( 3)
5

27
=𝐼𝑛 ( )
125

(7) Solve the simultaneous equations

𝐼𝑛(3𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝐼𝑛2 + 𝐼𝑛4

𝑥+𝑦=4

𝐼𝑛(3𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝐼𝑛(2 × 4)

3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 8 (1)
𝑥+𝑦 =4 (1)

3(4 − 𝑦) − 𝑦 = 8

12 − 3𝑦 − 𝑦 = 8

94
12 − 4𝑦 = 8

4𝑦 = 12 − 8

𝑦=1 𝑥=3

1
(8) Show that 𝐼𝑛 (2𝑥+3) = −𝐼𝑛2𝑥 + 3

=𝐼𝑛1 − 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 3)

=0 − 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 3)

=−𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 3)

(9) Express as a single logarithm 𝐼𝑛28 − 𝐼𝑛7 + 𝐼𝑛2

=𝐼𝑛(28 × 2) − 𝐼𝑛7

56
=𝐼𝑛 ( )
7

=𝐼𝑛8

95
(10) Evaluate 𝐼𝑛3 + 𝐼𝑛27 − 𝐼𝑛√3

1
3
=𝐼𝑛3 + 𝐼𝑛3 − 𝐼𝑛3 2

1
=𝐼𝑛3 + 3𝐼𝑛3 − 𝐼𝑛3
2

1
=4𝐼𝑛3 − 𝐼𝑛3
2

7
= 𝐼𝑛3
2

96
Exponential Functions

An exponential function is a function in which the

exponent (𝑒) has been raised to the power of a variable
for example 𝑒 2𝑥

The same laws of indices that we know for indices also

apply for exponential functions.

𝑒 𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦

𝑒𝑥 𝑥−𝑦
= 𝑒
𝑒𝑦

𝑒0 = 1

−𝑥
1
𝑒 = 𝑥
𝑒

𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

97
Solving equations Involving Exponentials

You just introduce 𝐼𝑛 to both sides

Let us look at the following few examples

(1) 𝑒 𝑥 = 5

𝐼𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5

𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛5

𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5

(2) 2𝑒 𝑥 = 9

9
𝑒𝑥 =
2

𝑥 9
𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
2

9
𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
2

(3) 𝑒 𝑥−2 = 4𝑥

98
𝐼𝑛𝑒 𝑥−2 = 𝐼𝑛4𝑥

(𝑥 − 2)𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛4

𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 − 2𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛4

𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛4

𝑥 − 𝑥𝐼𝑛4 = 2

𝑥(1 − 𝐼𝑛4) = 2

2
𝑥= = −5.18
1−𝐼𝑛4

(4) Solve the equation 𝑒 5𝑥 = 10

𝐼𝑛𝑒 5𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛10

5𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛10

5𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛10

𝐼𝑛10
𝑥=
5

99
𝑥 = 0.461

(5) Solve the equation 𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝐼𝑛5

𝑒 2𝑥 = 5

𝐼𝑛𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5

2𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛5

2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛5

𝐼𝑛5
𝑥=
2

𝑥 = 0.805

100
101
102
103
104
Solutions

Q1

2𝑥 = 7

𝐼𝑛2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛7

𝑥𝐼𝑛2 = 𝐼𝑛7

𝑥 = 2.8

Q2

3𝑥 = 4

𝐼𝑛3𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛4

105
𝑥 = 1.26

Q3

𝐼𝑛2𝑥−1 = 𝐼𝑛5𝑥+3

(𝑥 − 1) 𝐼𝑛2 = (𝑥 + 3)In5

𝑥𝐼𝑛2 − 𝐼𝑛2 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛5 + 3𝐼𝑛5

𝑥𝐼𝑛2 − 𝑥𝐼𝑛5 = 3𝐼𝑛5 + 𝐼𝑛2

x(𝐼𝑛2 − 𝐼𝑛5) = 𝐼𝑛125 + 𝐼𝑛2

𝑥 = −6.03

Q4

72𝑥−1 = 2𝑥+8

𝐼𝑛72𝑥−1 = 𝐼𝑛2𝑥+8

106
(2𝑥 − 1) 𝐼𝑛7 = (𝑥 + 8)2

2𝑥𝐼𝑛7 − 𝐼𝑛7 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛2 + 8𝐼𝑛2

2𝑥𝐼𝑛7 − 𝑥𝐼𝑛2 = 8𝐼𝑛2 + 𝐼𝑛7

x(2𝐼𝑛7 − 𝐼𝑛2) = 8𝐼𝑛2 + 𝐼𝑛7

𝑥 = 2.34

Q5

52𝑥+1 = 6𝑥−1

𝐼𝑛52𝑥+1 = 𝐼𝑛6𝑥−1

(2𝑥 + 1) 𝐼𝑛5 = (𝑥 − 1) I𝑛6

2𝑥𝐼𝑛5 + 𝐼𝑛5 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛6 − 𝐼𝑛6

𝐼𝑛5 + 𝐼𝑛6 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛6 − 2𝑥𝐼𝑛5

𝑥(𝐼𝑛6 − 2𝐼𝑛5) = 𝐼𝑛30

107
𝑥 = −2.38

Q6

𝑥=0

Q7

0.2𝑥 = 0.9

𝐼𝑛0.2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛0.9
108
𝑥𝐼𝑛0.2 = 𝐼𝑛0.9

𝑥 = 0.07

Q8

𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (5𝑥 + 1) = 3

5𝑥 + 1 = 33

5𝑥 + 1 = 27

5𝑥 = 26

Q9

𝑙𝑜g (13𝑥 − 6) = 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔6

𝑙𝑜g (13𝑥 − 6) − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔6

109
𝑙𝑜g (13𝑥 − 6) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔6

6𝑥2 = 13𝑥 − 6

6𝑥2 − 13𝑥 + 6 = 0

6𝑥2 − 9𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6 = 0

3(2𝑥 − 3) − 2(2𝑥 − 3) = 0 (2𝑥 − 3) (3𝑥 − 2) = 0

2𝑥 = 3, 3𝑥 = 2

Q 10

𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3 + 𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10𝑥 + 2

110
3+ 𝑥
= 100
𝑥

3 + 𝑥 = 100𝑥

99𝑥 = 3

Q 11

𝐼n (5𝑥 − 2) = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛4

𝐼𝑛 (5𝑥 − 2) − 𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛4

5𝑥 − 2
= 4
𝑥

5𝑥 − 2 = 4𝑥

𝑥=2

111
Q 12

𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 3 − 𝐼n (𝑥 + 3)

𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 𝐼n (𝑥 + 3) = 3

𝐼n(𝑥) (𝑥 + 3) = 3

𝑥2 + 3𝑥 = 𝑒3

𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 𝑒3 = 0

𝑥 = 3.23

𝑥 = 3.23

Q 13

𝑙𝑜𝑔232 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔216

𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (512)

2𝑥 = 512
112
2 𝑥 = 29

𝑥=9

Q 14

𝑙𝑜𝑔16 (𝑥𝑦) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔16𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔16𝑦

Change bases

𝑙𝑜𝑔416 = 2

(𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

113
Let 𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4𝑦

𝑎 = −8𝑏 (1)

𝑎+𝑏=7 (2)

−8𝑏 + 𝑏 = 7

𝑏 = −1 a𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 8

But 𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4𝑥 𝑎𝑛d b = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4𝑦

𝑙𝑜𝑔4𝑥 = 8 𝑎𝑛d l𝑜𝑔4𝑦 = −1

114
Worksheet

Solve the equations:

(𝑎)𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (5𝑥 + 1) = 3 (𝑏)𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 3 − 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 3)

(1) Simplify 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 32 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 16

(2) Solve the equation 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 1) = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 1 giving your solution to 3

s.f

(3) Solve the equation 52𝑥+1 = 6𝑥−1

2 𝑥
(4) 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( ) = 1
3

1 1
(5) Show that 𝑙𝑜𝑔16 (𝑥𝑦) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑦
2 2

Hence or otherwise solve the simultaneous equations

1
𝑙𝑜𝑔16 𝑥𝑦 = 3
2
(𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑥 )
= −8
(𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑦)

(6) Find the exact value of 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 8√2

2𝑥
(7) Solve the equation 𝐼𝑛 ( )=1
𝑥−1

(8) Find the real values of 𝑥 for which 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 = 1

3𝐼𝑛36
(9) Simplify − 𝐼𝑛1
2𝐼𝑛6
115
(11) Solve the equation 𝐼𝑛(6 − 13𝑥 ) = 2𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛5

(12) Solve the equation 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (13𝑥 − 6) = 2𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 6

(13) Solve the equation 𝐼𝑛(17𝑥 − 6) = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛12

(14) Express as a single logarithm 3𝐼𝑛(2𝑥) − 𝐼𝑛8 + 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 3)

(15) Solve the equation 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (3 − 2𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 7

(16) Solve the equation 𝐼𝑛(5𝑥 − 2) = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛4

(17) Solve the equation 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3 + 𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 + 2

(18) Find the value of 𝑥 given 𝑒 3𝑥 = 5𝑥−3

100
(19) Simplify 𝑙𝑜𝑔 4
√10

(20) Solve to 2d.p 0.2𝑥 = 0.9

(21) Solve the following equations

2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
2𝑦 = 4𝑥

(22) Express 4𝑥 in terms of , where 𝑦 = 2𝑥

Solve the equation 6(4𝑥 ) − 5(2𝑥 ) + 1 = 0
Expressing your answer in terms of logarithms.

116
(23)
Solve the equation 𝑒 2𝑥 = 4𝑒 2−𝑥
(24)
Solve the equation 21+2𝑥 − 9(2𝑥 ) = −4
(25)
1 3
Solve the equation 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 (𝑥 − 2) = 3𝑙𝑜𝑔5 2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 (𝑥 − 2)
2 2
(26)
Solve 2𝑒 2𝑥 = 7𝑒 𝑥 − 3
(27)
Solve the equation 5𝑥−1 + 5𝑥−2 = 30
(28)
6
Express 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎 + 𝑏√𝑐 + 𝑑√𝑒
3+√5+√14

(29)
2
Express − √63 in form 𝑎 + 𝑏√𝑐
3−√7

(30)

Show that 𝑒 2𝑥 = 4𝑥+1 can be expressed in form (𝑘)𝑥 = 4 giving exact value of 𝑘

117
Partial Fractions

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• Distinguish between an equation and an identity

• Find unknown coefficients in polynomials using identities

• Decompose rational polynomials into partial fractions

• Use the discriminant to determine the number of real roots of

quadratic equations

• Solve problems involving the use of the discriminant

• solve inequalities

118
Identities

One must understand the difference between an equation and an identity.

Basically, an equation means that the LHS is equal to the RHS 𝑒𝑔. 2𝑥 = 8.

An identity now means the LHS is expressed in another form in the RHS
and an identity contains an identity sign (≡)

Introduction to Partial Fractions

I will illustrate the whole idea of partial fractions in the

following example.

Let us say you are to add two fractions

−1 1 4
+ =
𝑥+2 𝑥−2 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)

Now the idea of partial fractions is to decompose

4 −1 1
𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑜 +
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) 𝑥+2 𝑥−2

119
 4 −1 1
= +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2

𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

Type 1: Denominator with Linear factors

𝑇𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

120
Examples

2𝑥 + 3
(𝑎)𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

2𝑥+3 𝐴 𝐵
≡ (𝑥+1) + (𝑥+2) (Identity)
(𝑥+1)(𝑥+2)

Remove fractions
2𝑥 + 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵 (𝑥 + 1) (Equation)

To find values of A and B equate each bracket in identity to zero and

substitute in the equation.

(𝑥 + 1) = 0 (𝑥 + 2) = 0

𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = −1

2(−1) + 3 = 𝐴(−1 + 2) + 𝐵(−1 + 1)

−2 + 3 = 𝐴

∴𝐴=1

𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = −2
2(−2) + 3 = 𝐴(−2 + 2) = 𝐵(−2 + 1)
121
−4 + 3 = −𝐵

−1 = −𝐵

∴𝐵=1
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑤𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦

2𝑥 + 3 1 1
∴ ≡ +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)

2
(𝑏)𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)

2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
≡ + +
𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥) (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 2

2 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 )(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶(𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0

2 = 𝐴(0 − 1)(0 − 2)

2 = 2𝐴

∴𝐴=1

122
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 1

2 = 𝐵(1)(1 − 2)

2 = −𝐵

∴ 𝐵 = −2

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 2

2 = 𝐶(2)(2 − 1)

2 = 2𝐶

∴𝐶=1

2 1 −2 1
∴ = + +
𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2

𝑥+3
(𝑐)𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 20

𝑥+3 𝐴 𝐵
≡ +
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 + 5) (𝑥 − 4)

𝑥 + 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 4) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 5)

123
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 4

4 + 3 = 𝐵(4 + 5)

7 = 9𝐵

7
∴𝐵=
9

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −5

−5 + 3 = 𝐴(−5 − 4)

−2 = −9𝐴

2
∴𝐴=
9

𝑥+3 2 7
∴ ≡ +
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 4) 9(𝑥 + 5) 9(𝑥 − 4)

𝑥+5 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑑)𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 + 1)

𝑥+5 𝐴 𝐵
≡ +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 + 1)

124
𝑥 + 5 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −1

−1 + 5 = 𝐵(−1 − 3)

4 = −4𝐵

∴ 𝐵 = −1

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 3

3 + 5 = 𝐴(3 + 1)

8 = 4𝐴

∴𝐴=2

𝑥+5 2 −1
∴ ≡ +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 + 1)

3
(𝑒)𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 6

3 3
2
=
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 6 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)

125
 3 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 2)

3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −2

3 = 𝐵(−2 + 3)

∴𝐵=3

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −3

3 = 𝐴(−3 + 2)

3 = −𝐴

∴ 𝐴 = −3

3 −3 3
∴ ≡ +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 2)

Now partialize the following:

3 𝑥 𝑥−1
(1) (2) (3)
(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2) (𝑥−4)(𝑥−1) (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)

126
 5𝑥 7𝑥−6 3
(4) (5) (6)
( 𝑥−2)(𝑥−1)(𝑥−4) 𝑥(𝑥−2) 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6

𝑥 2 −1 3𝑥+4
(7) 2 (8)
𝑥 (2𝑥+1) 𝑥(𝑥+1)(𝑥−2)

𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 2: 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒:
𝑀𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)

𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠

Express
𝑥+2
2
𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 4)

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑

127
 𝑥+2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2
≡ + 2
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 + 4)

Remove fractions

𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 4)

𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 4

4 + 2 = 𝐴((4)2 + 4) + 0

6 = 20𝐴

3
∴𝐴=
10

Now that 𝑥 2 + 4 = 0 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0:

0 + 2 = 𝐴(0 + 4) + (𝐵 (0) + 𝐶 )(0 − 4)

2 = 4𝐴 + (𝐶)(−4)

128
2 = 4𝐴 − 4𝐶

3
2 = 4 ( ) − 4𝐶
10

12
2= − 4𝐶
10

2
∴𝐶=−
10

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 1:

1 + 2 = 𝐴(1 + 4) + (𝐵 (1) + 𝐶 )(1 − 4)

3 = 5𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶 )(−3)

3 = 5𝐴 − 3𝐵 − 3𝐶

3 1
3 = 5 ( ) − 3𝐵 − 3 (− )
10 5

3 3
3 = − 3𝐵 +
2 5

3 3
3𝐵 = + − 3
2 5

129
 3
∴𝐵=−
10

𝑥+2 3 (3𝑥 + 2)
∴ ≡ −
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4) 10(𝑥 − 4) 10(𝑥 2 + 4)
2

Example 2

Express
5𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 11
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 3)
in partial fractions.

5𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 11 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2
≡ + 2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 3

5𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 11 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 3) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 )(𝑥 − 2)

Put 𝑥 = 2:

5(2)2 − 5(2) + 11 = 𝐴(22 + 3) + 0

20 − 10 + 11 = 7𝐴

7𝐴 = 21
130
𝐴=3

Put 𝑥 = 0:

5(0)2 − 5(0) + 11 = 𝐴((0)2 + 3) + (𝐵(0) + 𝐶 )(0 − 2)

11 = 3𝐴 − 2𝐶

11 = 3(3) − 2𝐶

11 = 9 − 2𝐶

2𝐶 = −2

𝐶 = −1

Put 𝑥 = 1:

5(1)2 − 5(1) + 11 = 𝐴((1)2 + 3) + (𝐵(1) + 𝐶 )(1 − 2)

11 = 4𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐶

11 = 4(3) − 𝐵 − (−1)

131
11 = 12 − 𝐵 + 1

𝐵 = 12 − 11 + 1

𝐵=2

5𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 11 3 2𝑥 − 1
∴ 2
≡ + 2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 3

Example 3

Express
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 20
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 4)
In partial fractions.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 20 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2
≡ + 2
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 4) 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 4

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 20 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 )(2𝑥 − 1)

1
Put 𝑥 = :
2

132
 1 2 1 1 2
( ) + 2 ( ) + 20 = 𝐴 (( ) + 4)
2 2 2

85 17𝐴
=
4 4

68𝐴 = 340

𝐴=5

Put 𝑥 = 0:

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 20 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 )(2𝑥 − 1)

0 + 0 + 20 = 𝐴(0 + 4) + (0 + 𝐶 )(0 − 1)

20 = 4𝐴 − 𝐶

20 = 4(5) − 𝐶

𝐶=0

Put 𝑥 = 1:

133
(1)2 + 2(1) + 20 = 𝐴((1)2 + 4) + (𝐵(1) + 𝐶 )(2(1) − 1)

23 = 5𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶

23 = 5(5) + 𝐵 + 0

23 = 25 + 𝐵

𝐵 = −2

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 20 5 −2𝑥
2
≡ + 2
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 4) 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 4

134
Example 4

Express
15𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 + 2
(4 + 𝑥 )(2 + 5𝑥 2 )

In partial fractions

15𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 + 2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
≡ +
(4 + 𝑥 )(2 + 5𝑥 ) 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2
2

15𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴(2 + 5𝑥 2 ) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 )(4 + 𝑥 )

Put 𝑥 = −4:

15(−4)2 + 40(−4) + 2 = 𝐴(2 + 5(−4)2 )

240 − 160 + 2 = 82𝐴

82𝐴 = 82

𝐴=1

Put 𝑥 = 0:

15𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴(2 + 5𝑥 2 ) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 )(4 + 𝑥 )

135
0 + 0 + 2 = 𝐴(2 + 0) + (0 + 𝐶 )(4 + 0)

2 = 2𝐴 + 4𝐶

2 = 2(1) + 4𝐶

4𝐶 = 0

𝐶=0

Put 𝑥 = 1:

15(1)2 + 40(1) + 2 = 𝐴(2 + 5(1)2 ) + (𝐵 + 𝐶 )(4 + 1)

57 = 7𝐴 + 5𝐵 + 5𝐶

57 = 7(1) + 5𝐵 + 5(0)

57 = 7 + 5𝐵

5𝐵 = 50

𝐵 = 10

136
 15𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 + 2 1 10𝑥
≡ +
(4 + 𝑥 )(2 + 5𝑥 ) 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2
2

137
Type 3: Repeated factors

Example 1

Partialize

𝑥−4
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)2

𝑥−4 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
≡ + +
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2

𝑥 − 4 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝐵(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶 (2𝑥 + 1)

1
Put 𝑥 = − :
2

2
1 1
− − 4 = 𝐴 (− − 1)
2 2

9 9𝐴
− =
2 4

18𝐴 = −36

138
𝐴 = −2

Put 𝑥 = 1:

1 − 4 = 𝐴(1 − 1)2 + 𝐵(2 + 1)(1 − 1) + 𝐶 (2 + 1)

3𝐶 = −3

𝐶 = −1

Put 𝑥 = 0:

0 − 4 = 𝐴(0 − 1)2 + 𝐵(0 + 1)(0 − 1) + 𝐶 (0 + 1)

−4 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶

−4 = −2 − 𝐵 − 1

𝐵 = −3 + 4

𝐵=1

139
 𝑥−4 −2 1 −1
2
≡ + +
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2

Example 2

Partialise

7𝑥 + 4
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)2

7𝑥 + 4 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
≡ + +
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)2

7𝑥 + 4 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶 (2𝑥 + 1)

1
Put 𝑥 = − :
2

2
1 1
7 (− ) + 4 = 𝐴 (− + 1)
2 2

1 𝐴
=
2 4
140
2𝐴 = 4

𝐴=2

Put 𝑥 = −1:

−7 + 4 = 𝐴(−1 + 1)2 + 𝐵(−1 + 1)(−2 + 1) + 𝐶 (−2 + 1)

−3 = −𝐶

𝐶=3

Put𝑥 = 0:

0 + 4 = 𝐴(0 + 1)2 + 𝐵(0 + 1)(0 + 1) + 𝐶 (0 + 1)

4=𝐴+𝐵+𝐶

4=2+𝐵+3

4=𝐵+5

𝐵 = −1

141
 7𝑥 + 4 2 −1 3
2
≡ + +
(2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)2

Example 3

Partialise

𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 3)2

𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
≡ + +
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 + 5 𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 3)2

𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 3) + 𝐶 (𝑥 + 5)

Put 𝑥 = −5:

25 − 30 + 9 = 𝐴(−5 − 3)2

4 = 64𝐴

4
𝐴=
64
142
 1
𝐴=
16

Put 𝑥 = 3:

9 + 18 + 9 = 𝐴(3 − 3)2 + 𝐵(3 + 5)(3 − 3) + 𝐶 (3 + 5)

36 = 8𝐶

36
𝐶=
8

9
𝐶=
2

Put 𝑥 = 0:

0 + 0 + 9 = 𝐴(0 − 3)2 + 𝐵(0 + 5)(0 − 3) + 𝐶 (0 + 5)

9 = 9𝐴 − 15𝐵 + 5𝐶

1 9
9 = 9 ( ) − 15𝐵 + 5 ( )
16 2

143
 9 45
15𝐵 = + −9
16 2

225
15𝐵 =
16

15
𝐵=
16

𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 1 15 9
2
≡ + +
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 3) 16(𝑥 + 5) 16(𝑥 − 3) 2(𝑥 − 3)2

144
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒4: 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

In this type you should first make the fraction proper by

dividing.

Example 1

Resolve
3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 20
2
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑥 −4

The fraction is improper therefore make it proper first by long

division.

3𝑥 − 1
𝑥 2 − 4 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 20
−(3𝑥 3 + 0 − 12𝑥 + 0)
−𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 20
−(−𝑥 2 + 0 + 4)
−4𝑥 + 16

−4𝑥 + 16
= 3𝑥 − 1 +
𝑥2 − 4

145
Now partialise
−4𝑥 + 16
𝑥2 − 4

Separately

−4𝑥 + 16 𝐴 𝐵
≡ +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2

−4𝑥 + 16 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2)

Put 𝑥 = −2:

−4(−2) + 16 = 𝐴(−4)

−4𝐴 = 24

𝐴 = −6

Put 𝑥 = 2:

−8 + 16 = 𝐵(4)

4𝐵 = 8

146
𝐵=2

3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 20 −6 2
2
≡ 3𝑥 − 1 + +
𝑥 −4 (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 2

Example 2

Express
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2
𝑥2 + 𝑥
In partial fractions

𝑥+1
𝑥2 + 𝑥 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2
−(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 0 + 0)
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 2
−(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 0)
2

2
=𝑥+1+ 2
𝑥 +𝑥
2
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒 2
𝑥 +𝑥

147
 2 𝐴 𝐵
≡ +
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1

2 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝑥

Put 𝑥 = 0:

2 = 𝐴(0 + 1)

𝐴=2

Put 𝐵 = −1:

2 = 𝐵(−1)

𝐵 = −2

𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 2 −2
2
≡𝑥+1+ +
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1

Example 3

Express
148
 𝑥3
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
In partial fractions.

𝑥+5
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 𝑥 3
−(𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 )
5𝑥 2 − 6𝑥
−(5𝑥 2 − 25𝑥 + 30)
19𝑥 + 30

19𝑥 + 30
=𝑥+5+ 2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6

Partialise

19𝑥 + 30
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6

19𝑥 + 30 𝐴 𝐵
≡ +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 2

19𝑥 + 30 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)

When 𝑥 = 3:

57+30= 𝐴
149
𝐴 = 87

When 𝑥 = 2:

38 + 30 = −𝐵

𝐵 = −68

𝑥3 87 −68
2
≡𝑥+5+ +
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6 𝑥−3 𝑥−2

150
Quadratics

These are polynomials of form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 in which highest

power of 𝑥 is 2.

Properties of Quadratics

If 𝑎 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 min 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

If 𝑎 < 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 max 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

151
Types of roots

For one to understand about types of roots for quadratics we

must talk about the discriminant first.

THE DISCRIMINANT
If we have a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

DISCRIMINANT =𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐

This discriminant is the one we use to determine nature of the

roots of the quadratic equation.

• If 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 there are two distinct (different) real

roots.

• If 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 The roots are equal and real.

• If 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 The roots are imaginary (complex) or in

simple terms there are no real roots.

• If 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0 The roots are real

(𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)

Examples on Nature of roots

152
 (1) Determine the number of real roots of the following
equations:

(a) 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0

𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (5)2 − 4(1)(5)

= 25 − 20

=5

Since 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 (𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡) real

Roots

(b) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1

𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (2)2 − 4(1)(1)

=4−4

=0

Since 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 there are two equal roots

(c) 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 9 = 0

153
𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (5)2 − 4(1)(9)

= 25 − 36

= −11

Since 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠

(2) Find the set of values of 𝑎 for which the equation

𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 4 Has real roots.

Since there are real roots 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0

(𝑎)2 − 4(1)(4) ≥ 0

𝑎2 − 16 ≥ 0

(𝑎 + 4)(𝑎 − 4) ≥ 0

Critical Values:

𝑎 = −4 , 𝑎=4

154
 𝑎 ≤ −4 −4 ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 4 𝑎≥4
(𝑎 + 4) − + +
(𝑎 − 4) − − +
𝑓(𝑎) + − +

𝑎 ≤ −4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≥ 4

COMPLETING THE SQAURE

Trust me this is the simplest concept in Mathematics.

Notes on completing the square

• You can only complete the square of a quadratic

expression.

• The coefficient of 𝑥 2 should be 1 Always!!!

Steps:

If we want to complete the square

You say
155
 2 2
1 1
(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥) − ( 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥) + 𝑐
2 2

Examples

(1)Complete the square for 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6

4 2 4 2
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + ) − ( ) + 6
2 2

= (𝑥 + 2)2 − (2)2 + 6

= (𝑥 + 2)2 − 4 + 6

= (𝑥 + 2)2 + 2

(2) Express 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐

5 2 5 2
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + ) − ( ) + 6
2 2

5 2 25
= (𝑥 + ) − +6
2 4
156
 5 2 1
= (𝑥 + ) −
2 4

3 2 3 2
(3) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5 = (𝑥 + ) − ( ) + 5
2 2

3 2 9
= (𝑥 + ) − ( ) + 5
2 4

3 2 11
= (𝑥 + ) +
2 4

(4) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + 2)2 − (2)2 + 6

= (𝑥 + 2)2 − 4 + 6

= (𝑥 + 2)2 + 2

(5) 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3 = (𝑥 + 3)2 − (3)2 + 3

= (𝑥 + 3)2 − 9 + 3

= (𝑥 + 3)2 − 6

2 9 2 9 2
(6) 𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 5 = (𝑥 + ) − ( ) + 5
2 2

157
 9 2 61
= (𝑥 + ) −
2 4

∗When coefficient of 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 1

Complete the square for 3𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 2

First make sure 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 = 1 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 3 out

and then complete the square for what is in the bracket.

2 2 2
3𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 2 = 3 [𝑥 + 3𝑥 + ]
3

3 2 3 2 2
= 3 [(𝑥 + 2) − (2) + 3]

3 2 9 2
= 3 [(𝑥 + ) − + ]
2 4 3

3 2 19
= 3 [(𝑥 + ) − ]
2 12

∗Now this 3 outside must multiply what is in the bracket

which we have completed the square
3 2 19
= 3 (𝑥 + ) − 3 ( )
2 12
158
 3 2 19
= 3 (𝑥 + ) −
2 4

Express −𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 in form 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 +c

−𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 = −(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4)

2
−3 −3 2
= − [(𝑥 + ( )) − ( ) + 4]
2 2

3 2 9
= − [(𝑥 − ) − + 4]
2 4

3 2 7
= − [(𝑥 − ) + ]
2 4

3 2 7
= − (𝑥 − ) −
2 4

159
Using completing the Square to sketch Graph of a quadratic
function

We can use the idea of completing the square to sketch graphs

of quadratic functions.

One must understand that by sketching we don’t need a scale

or a graph paper we are just doing by hand.

Requirements to sketch a quadratic function:

To sketch the graph of a quadratic we need the following:

(a) 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑠 (𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)

(b) The turning Point

These two are enough so let us do the following example

Express 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 in the form 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐

Hence or otherwise sketch the graph of 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6

2 5 2 5 2
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + ) − ( ) + 6
2 2

5 2 1
= (𝑥 + ) −
2 4
160
Remember to sketch the graph we said we need where the
curve cuts 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 first.

When the curve cuts the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 0

∴𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0

(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2) = 0

𝑥 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2

When the curve cuts 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑥=0

𝑦 =0+0+6

𝑦=6

Now to find the coordinates of the turning point

Complete the square and equate bracket to zero to find the

𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 And corresponding 𝑦 next.

5 2 25
(𝑥 + 2) − 4
+6=0

161
 5 1
𝑥=− 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −
2 4

5 1
Therefore, coordinates of turning point are (− , − )
2 4

Using all this information to sketch the curve.

5
−3 − −2 0 𝑥
2

1
−
4

162
Inequalities

This is when a quadratic expression has an inequality symbol.

Let us do the following Example

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 < 0

Steps:

(1) Factorise first!!

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)

(2) Find Critical Values by equating each bracket to zero.

∴ 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 = −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 2

(3)Illustrate the regions represented by the Critical Values

on a number line.
𝑥 < −3 −3 < 𝑥 < −2 𝑥 > −2
𝑥
−3 −2

163
 (4)Use the regions to create a table testing whether for any
Value in a region we get a positive or negative value
For each bracket and for 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥 < −3 −3 < 𝑥 < −2 𝑥 > −2

(𝑥 + 3) − + +
(𝑥 + 2) − − +
𝑓(𝑥) + − +

∴ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 < 0 = −3 < 𝑥 < −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 0

∗ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6

Example 2
𝑥2 − 1 > 0

𝑥 2 − 1 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)

(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) > 0

Critical Values:𝑥 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1

Table:

164
 𝑥 < −1 −1 < 𝑥 < 1 𝑥>1
(𝑥 + 1) − + +
(𝑥 − 1) − − +
𝑓(𝑥) + − +

∴Our solution is 𝑥 < −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > −1

Example 3

Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + [Link] the set of values of 𝑥 for

which 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 0

(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 3) > 0

Critical Values:

𝑥 = −4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −3

165
 𝑥 < −4 −4 < 𝑥 < −3 𝑥 > −3
(𝑥 + 4) − + +
(𝑥 + 3) − − +
𝑓(𝑥 ) + − +

Therefore 𝑥 < −4 and 𝑥 > −3

Example 4

Find the set of values of 𝑥 for which 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 < 5

2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5 < 0

2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 5 < 0

𝑥 (2𝑥 − 5) + 1(2𝑥 − 5)

(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 5) < 0

Critical values:

166
 5
𝑥 = −1 , 𝑥 =
2

𝑥 < −1 5 5
−1 < 𝑥 < 𝑥>
2 2
(𝑥 + 1) − + +
(2𝑥 − 5) − − +
𝑓(𝑥 ) + − +

Therefore, solution set is

5
−1 < 𝑥 <
2

Example 5

Solve the inequality 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 20 < 0

(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 4) < 0

Critical Values:

𝑥 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −4

𝑥 < −4 −4 < 𝑥 < 5 𝑥>5

(𝑥 − 5) − − +
(𝑥 + 4) − + +
𝑓(𝑥) + − +

167
−4 < 𝑥 < 5

Rational Inequalities

Rational Inequalities involve inequalities having fractions.

One must know the following:

If the denominator can be positive or negative don’t cross

multiply!!
But if the denominator is always positive you can cross multiply.

2𝑥
For example, solving the inequality >𝑥
𝑥+1

Since the denominator 𝑥 + 1 can be positive or negative for

any values of 𝑥 we are not going to cross multiply.

2𝑥 2𝑥
<3 = −3<0
𝑥+1 𝑥+1

2𝑥 − 3(𝑥 + 1)
= <0
𝑥+1

168
 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 3
= <0
𝑥+1

−𝑥 − 3
= <0
𝑥+1

Our Critical Values become −𝑥 − 3 = 0 and 𝑥 + 1 = 0

𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −1

𝑥 < −3 −3 < 𝑥 < −1 𝑥 > −1

(−𝑥 − 3) + − −
(𝑥 + 1) − − +
𝑓(𝑥) − + −

Note:𝑂𝑢𝑟 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∴ 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑠 𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒

Dividing the brackets.

Since 𝑓(𝑥 ) < 0 therefore 𝑥 < −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > −1

169
(2) Solve the inequality
𝑥+6
>2
𝑥−2

𝑥+6
= −2>0
𝑥−2

𝑥 + 6 − 2(𝑥 − 2)
= >0
𝑥−2

𝑥 + 6 − 2𝑥 + 4
= >0
𝑥−2

−𝑥 + 10
= >0
𝑥−2

𝐶𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 2

170
 𝑥<2 2 < 𝑥 < 10 𝑥 > 10
(−𝑥 + 8) + + −
(𝑥 − 1) − + +
𝑓(𝑥) − + −

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 0 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 2 < 𝑥 < 10

Now let us look at this example

6𝑥
Solve the inequality >2
2+𝑥²

The Denominator 2 + 𝑥² is always positive therefore we

can cross multiply.

6𝑥
> 2 = 2(2 + 𝑥 2 ) > 6𝑥
2+𝑥²

⇒4 + 2𝑥 2 > 6𝑥

2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 4 > 0

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 > 0

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) > 0

171
Critical Values 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1

𝑥<1 1<𝑥<2 𝑥>2

(𝑥 − 2) − − +
(𝑥 − 1) − + +
𝑓(𝑥) + − +

∴Our solution is 𝑥 < 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 2

Example 4

Solve the inequality

3𝑥
>6
𝑥−2

3𝑥
−6>0
𝑥−2

3𝑥 − 6(𝑥 − 2)
= >0
𝑥−2

172
 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 12
= >0
𝑥−2

−3𝑥 + 12
= >0
𝑥−2

Critical values:

−3𝑥 + 12 = 0 𝑥−2=0

𝑥=4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥=2

𝑥<2 2<𝑥<4 𝑥>4

(−3𝑥 + 12) + + −
(𝑥 − 2) − + +
𝑓 (𝑥 ) − + −

2<𝑥<4

173
Coaching Point:
In your table your signs 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) should always be
alternating.
You should never have same signs following each other
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥)

Worksheet
Express the following in partial fractions

3 𝑥 𝑥−1
(1) (2) (3)
( 𝑥−1)(𝑥−2) (𝑥−4)(𝑥−1) (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)

5𝑥 7𝑥−6 3
(4) (5) (6)
( 𝑥−2)(𝑥−1)(𝑥−4) 𝑥(𝑥−2) 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6

𝑥 2 −1 𝑥 3 +3 3𝑥+4
(7) 2 (8) (9)
𝑥 (2𝑥+1) (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1) 𝑥(𝑥+1)(𝑥−2)

11𝑥 2 +8𝑥−7
(10)
(𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +3)

𝑥 2 +7𝑥−6 4𝑥 2𝑥+1
(11) (12) (13) ( )( )2
(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥+1) (𝑥+4)(𝑥 2 +3) 𝑥−2 𝑥+2

174
 3𝑥 2 +𝑥 7𝑥+4 3𝑥
(14) (15) (16)
(𝑥+2)(𝑥 2 +1) (2𝑥+1)(𝑥+1)2 (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)

𝑥2 𝑥 2 −2 9𝑥 2 +4
(17) (18) (19) (
(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) (𝑥+3)(𝑥−1) 2𝑥+1)(𝑥−2)2

2𝑥 3 +1 3𝑥 3 −4𝑥+2 𝑥 3 +1
(20)(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2) (21) (22) 𝑥 2(𝑥+1)
(𝑥−3)(𝑥−1)

(25) Solve the inequality 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 > 0

(26) Solve the simultaneous equations

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5

𝑦 2 − 𝑦𝑥 = 5

(27) Solve simultaneously

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5
2𝑥+2 − 3𝑦+1 = 13

(28)
Express 12𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 in form −(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 , where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are
constants to be found.

175
 (29) The least value of the function 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 is 3 and this
occurs when
𝑥 = −[Link] the values of 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞.

(30) Find the values of 𝑘 for which the equation

𝑥 2 + (3𝑘 − 7)𝑥 + 2𝑘 + 6 = 0 has real roots.

(31)
Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 13 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 express 𝑓(𝑥 ) in the form
𝑎 + 𝑏(𝑥 + 𝑐 )2
Hence or otherwise state the coordinates of the turning point
of curve
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 )

(33)
Express 1 − 10𝑥 + 𝑥 2 in form 𝐴(1 − 𝑥 )2 + 𝐵(1 + 𝑥 )2
2 (1+𝑥 )2 3
Given that 1 − 10𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0 show that ( =
1−𝑥 )2 2

(34)
Solve the inequality (0.8)𝑥 > 5

(35)

𝑥3 2)
Express 𝐼𝑛 ( 2
) in the form 𝑎𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝐼𝑛 ( 1 + 𝑥 where
√1+𝑥
𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants to be found.

176
(36)

The least value of function 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is −5 and this occurs

when 𝑥 = [Link] values of 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐.

(37)

Express 4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3 in form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐

Hence sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥)

Find set of values of 𝑥 taken for which 4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3 > 13

1
Find set of values taken by
4𝑥 2 +6𝑥+3

(38) Sketch the graphs of the following quadratic

polynomials:

(𝑎) 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)2 + 6 (𝑏) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1

(39) Find the set of values of 𝑎 for which 𝑎𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5 = 0

has no real roots.

177
 (40) Show that the equation 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 17 has no real roots.

(41) Solve the quadratic equation 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 3 = 0

(42) Express −3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 5 in the form 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐

(43) Find the set of values of 𝑘 for which 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 + 1 has

repeated roots.

(44) Find the value of 𝑘 if 2𝑥 2 − 𝑘𝑥 + 8 = 0 has equal roots.

(45) Find 𝑎 if 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0 has equal roots

(46) A quadratic equation has roots 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 .Find its

equation.

(47) Express 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 in the form 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐

Hence or otherwise sketch graph of 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1

(48) Given that the equation 2𝑥 2 − ℎ𝑥 + 2 = 0 has equal roots,

find the possible values of ℎ

(49) Find the set of values of 𝑏 for which

3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + (𝑏 + 1) = 0 has equal roots.

178
(50) Given 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5

(i) Express 𝑦 in form 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐

(ii) Sketch the graph of 𝑦

(51) Complete the square for 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1

(52) Show that 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 has real and distinct roots.

179
Functions

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• describe types of relations

• define a function
• distinguish among the following types of functions: one to
one/injective, bijective and surjective
• find the inverse of a given function
• illustrate in graphical terms the relation between a one-to-one
function and its inverse
• find composite functions

180
A function is a rule which maps a single number into another
number.

Domain And Range of A function

Domain refers to the set of inputs for the function for which
the function remains defined.
Usually, the domain is written in front of the function
𝑒𝑔. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3 , 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 4 , 𝑥 > 4

𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑥 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

𝑥 > 4 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 4 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

(a) Domain for logarithmic functions

Given (𝑥 ) , 𝑓(𝑥 ) should always be greater than zero.

For example, given 𝐼𝑛𝑥 domain becomes 𝑥 > 0

For 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 3) domain becomes 𝑥 − 3 > 0 to get 𝑥 > 3

5
For 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 − 5) domain becomes 2𝑥 − 5 > 0 to get 𝑥 > 2

(b) Domain for rational functions

181
For rational functions the denominator must never be equal to
zero.

1
For example, domain becomes 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥

3
Given domain becomes 𝑥 + 3 ≠ 0 to get 𝑥 ≠ −3
𝑥+3

4 5
Given 2𝑥+5 domain becomes 2𝑥 + 5 ≠ 0 to get 𝑥 ≠ − 2

Range

Range simply refers to the output values.

The range depends on the domain given.

Let us look at following examples that involve finding range

Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 5 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 find the range of 𝑓(𝑥 )

Take note that the set of inputs of 𝑥 are any value which is in
the set of real numbers therefore this also means our output
values will also be any value in the set of real numbers.

∴𝑓(𝑥 ) ∈ 𝑅 is our range

182
Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 + 5 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 find the range of
𝑓(𝑥 )

Take note that this time around the domain has been
restricted to values of 𝑥 between 0 and 3 therefore our range
will also be restricted.

So, by constructing a table of values you will observe that the

values of 𝑓(𝑥 ) will range from 5 to 17

∴range is 5 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ 17

Composite Functions

When dealing with composite functions we are just inserting a

function into another.
The composite function 𝑓𝑔 can also be written as 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 or
𝑓𝑔(𝑥)

Example 1

The functions f and 𝑔 are defined as follows:

𝑓: 𝑥 → 4𝑥 − 3 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

𝑔: 𝑥 → 𝑥 2 + 3 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
183
Find (𝑎) 𝑓𝑔(𝑥)

(b)𝑔𝑓(𝑥)

(c)𝑓²(𝑥)

(a) 𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 3)

= 4(𝑥 2 + 3) − 3

= 4𝑥 2 + 12 − 3

= 4𝑥 2 + 9 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

(b) 𝑔𝑓(𝑥 ) = (4𝑥 − 3)2 + 3

= 16𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 9 + 3

= 16𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 12 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

(c) 𝑓 2 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(4𝑥 − 3)

= 4(4𝑥 − 3) − 3

= 16𝑥 − 12 − 3
184
 = 16𝑥 − 15 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

Example 2

5
Given 𝑓: 𝑥 → 5𝑥 + 3 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔: 𝑥 → , 𝑥 ≠ 0 find
𝑥
(a)𝑓𝑔(𝑥)
(b)𝑔𝑓(𝑥)
(c)𝑓²(𝑥)

5
(𝑎) 𝑓𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 ( )
𝑥

5
= 5( ) + 3
𝑥

25
= +3 ,𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥

(b)𝑔𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑔(5𝑥 + 3)
5 3
= ,𝑥 ≠ −
5𝑥+3 5

(c)𝑓 2 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(5𝑥 + 3)

= 5(5𝑥 + 3) + 3

185
 = 25𝑥 + 15 + 3

= 25𝑥 + 18 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

Finding inverse Functions of Algebraic Functions (𝑓 −1 (𝑥))

Steps in finding 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) (𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒)

(1) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

(2) 𝑀𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

(3) 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥

Examples

3𝑥−5
𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓(𝑥 ) = , 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 )
6

3𝑥−5
𝑦=
6

𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

186
6𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 5

3𝑥 = 6𝑦 + 5

6𝑦+5
𝑥=
3

Replacing 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥

−1 ( 6𝑥+5
𝑓 𝑥) = 3
,𝑥 𝝐 𝑹

𝑥 1
(2)Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ,𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 ,𝑥 ≠ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
2𝑥−1 2

𝑥
𝑦=
2𝑥−1

𝑦(2𝑥 − 1) = 𝑥

2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑥

2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑦

𝑥(2𝑦 − 1) = 𝑦

187
 𝑦
𝑥=
2𝑦−1

−1 ( 𝑥 1
𝑓 𝑥) = ,𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 ,𝑥 ≠
2𝑥−1 2

Inverse of Exponential Functions

Example

Given 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 2𝑥+1 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥+1

𝐼𝑛 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑒 2𝑥+1

𝐼𝑛 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 1)𝐼𝑛𝑒

Since 𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 1

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1

2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛𝑦 − 1

𝐼𝑛𝑦−1
𝑥=
2

188
 𝐼𝑛𝑥−1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) = ,𝑥 > 0
2

Given 𝑦 = 𝑒 4𝑥+1 , 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅 find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

𝑇𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑒 4𝑥+1

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = (4𝑥 + 1)𝐼𝑛𝑒 (𝐼𝑛𝑒 = 1)

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 1

4𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛𝑦 − 1

1
𝑥 = (𝐼𝑛𝑦 − 1)
4

−1 ( 1
∴𝑓 𝑥 ) = (𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 1) , 𝑥 > 0
4

189
One−One Functions

NOT ALL FUNCTIONS HAVE INVERSES!!!

Only one−one functions have Inverses.

The Horizontal Line Test

The horizontal line test states that:

If a function is one−one any horizontal line cuts graph once
𝐸𝑔. 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑦
𝑓(𝑥)
Horizontal line cut 𝑓(𝑥) once

𝐸𝑔. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3

Graph of 𝑓(𝑥 ):

190
 𝑦
𝑓(𝑥)
Horizontal line

Since the horizontal line cut 𝑓(𝑥) once this means

𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒

Inverse of a Quadratic Function

A quadratic function can have an inverse function only and only if

the domain has been restricted.
Let us do the following example together.

Given that 𝑓: 𝑥 → 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 11 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
(𝑖)𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
(𝑖𝑖)𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓: 𝑥 → 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 11 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤
𝐴 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑓(𝑥 ) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖 )𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 , 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
(𝑖𝑣)𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

191
Solution

(𝑖)𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈

𝑅 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒

Illustration on graph of 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 11 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

𝑦
𝑓(𝑥)

11

𝑥
0 2
As you can see 𝑓(𝑥) is not 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

(𝑖𝑖)𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟

𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 ≤ 2 𝑜𝑟 ≥ 2

192
But since we want largest value of A for which it has inverse, we will
take the side 𝑥 ≤ 2 such that it becomes 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

11

𝑥
0 2

(𝑖𝑖𝑖 )𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 11

Making 𝑥 subject by completing the square

𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 2)2 + 3

2(𝑥 − 2)2 = 𝑦 − 3

𝑦−3
(𝑥 − 2)2 =
2

𝑦−3
𝑥−2= ±√ 2

193
 𝑦−3
𝑥 =2±√ 2

𝑥−3
𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) = 2 ± √ 2

This is the part where most people don’t understand.

One sign must be removed and we should have a
Positive or negative sign only remaining!!!

Increasing and Decreasing functions

An increasing function is one in which as values of 𝑥 increase

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 of 𝑓(𝑥) also increase
A decreasing function is one in which as values of 𝑥 increase 𝑓(𝑥) is
Decreasing.
If the function is an increasing function, we take the positive sign
If the function is a decreasing function take negative sign

From the graph you can see that 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing therefore take
Negative sign.

𝑥−3
∴𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) = 2 − √ 2

194
 • Sketching a function and its inverse on the same axis

One should know that when sketching a function and its inverse on
same axis there is going to be swapping of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 terms.
The relationship between the two is described as
𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 reflection of 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 which
passes through origin

Let us do the following together.

Given 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 1 , 𝑥 𝝐 𝑹 find 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙)

Hence sketch on the same axis the graph of 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

The table of values for𝑓(𝑥):

𝑥 0 1
−
2
𝑦 1 0

For 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑦

[𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑤𝑎𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)]

195
 𝑥 1 0
𝑦 0 1
−
2

Hence sketching 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Mirror line 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)

1 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

1
−2 0 1 𝑥
1
−2

Therefore, as you can see 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is a reflection of 𝑓(𝑥) along the

mirror line 𝑦 = 𝑥

196
So, to conclude functions let us look at following examples

(1) 𝑓: 𝑥 ⟶ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 , 𝑥 ≥ −1
𝑔: 𝑥 ⟶ 4𝑥 + 1 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 , −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
1
ℎ: 𝑥 ⟶ 𝑥∈𝑅 𝑥≠3
𝑥−3

Find (𝑎) 𝑔ℎ(𝑥 ) stating clearly its domain

(𝑏) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 )

1
(a) 𝑔ℎ(𝑥 ) = 𝑔 ( )
𝑥−3

1
= 4 (𝑥−3) + 1

4
= +1
𝑥−3

4+𝑥−3
= 𝑥−3

1+𝑥
= ; 𝑥≠3
𝑥−3

197
 (b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥

𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)2 − 1

(𝑥 + 1)2 = 𝑦 + 1

(𝑥 + 1) = ±√𝑦 + 1

𝑥 = −1 ± √𝑦 + 1

𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) = −1 ± √𝑥 + 1

Since 𝑓(𝑥 ) is increasing take positive

𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) = −1 + √𝑥 + 1

(2) (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

The functions 𝑓 , 𝑔 and ℎ are defined by

𝑥 3
𝑓: 𝑥 ⟶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅 , 𝑥 ≠
2𝑥 − 3 2

198
 1
𝑔: 𝑥 ⟶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅 , 𝑥 ≠ −1
𝑥+1

ℎ: 𝑥 ⟶ 3𝑥 + 1 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅

Find (a) ℎ𝑔(𝑥 )

(𝑏) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 )

1
(a) ℎ𝑔(𝑥 ) = ℎ ( )
𝑥+1

1
= 3( )+1
𝑥+1

3
= +1
𝑥+1

3+𝑥+1
=
𝑥+1

4+𝑥
= ; 𝑥 ≠ −1
𝑥+1

𝑥
(b) 𝑦 =
2𝑥−3

(2𝑥 − 3)𝑦 = 𝑥

2𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 = 𝑥
199
2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 = 3𝑦

𝑥 (2𝑦 − 1) = 3𝑦

3𝑦
𝑥=
2𝑦 − 1

−1 (
3𝑥 1
𝑓 𝑥) = ; 𝑥≠
2𝑥 − 1 2

QUESTION 3

The function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 3 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

Sketch on a single diagram the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) making

clear the relationships between the graphs

Making table of values of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3

𝑥 0 3
2
𝑦 −3 0

200
So, to find coordinates for 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) we are now swapping the coordinates

𝑥 −3 0

𝑦 0 3
2

Now sketching on same axis as follows:

QUESTION 4 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

The function ℎ(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 11 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅

Express
(a) ℎ(𝑥 ) in the form 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑐 where 𝑎 , 𝑏 and 𝑐 are constants

(b) Write down the range of ℎ(𝑥 )

(c) Explain why ℎ does not have an inverse

(d) Given that ℎ(𝑥 ) is defined for 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 find

(i) The largest value of A for which ℎ(𝑥 ) has an inverse

(ii) ℎ−1 (𝑥 ) for this value of A

201
 (a) ℎ(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 11

11
= 2 [𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + ]
2

3 2 3 2 11
= 2 [(𝑥 − ) − (− ) + ]
2 2 2

3 2 13
= 2 [(𝑥 − ) + ]
2 4

3 2 13
= 2 (𝑥 − ) +
2 2

13
(b) Range is ℎ(𝑥 ) ≥
2

(c) It is not 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 for the domain 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑅

3 3
(d) Turning point is at therefore 𝐴 =
2 2

3 2 13
𝑦 = 2 (𝑥 − ) +
2 2

3 2 13
2 (𝑥 − ) = 𝑦 −
2 2

3 2 1 13
(𝑥 − ) = 𝑦 −
2 2 4

202
 3 1 13
𝑥 − = ±√ 𝑦 −
2 2 4

3 1 13
𝑥 = ±√ 𝑦−
2 2 4

−1 (
3 1 13
𝑓 𝑥) = ± √ 𝑥 −
2 2 4

Since 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is decreasing we take negative sign

−1 (
3 1 13
𝑓 𝑥) = − √ 𝑥−
2 2 4

(5)

Functions ℎ(𝑥 ) and 𝑔(𝑥 ) are defined by:

ℎ(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 7 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

6
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥≠2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
2𝑥 − 4

Write in terms of 𝑥:
(i) ℎ−1 (𝑥 )

203
 (ii) 𝑔−1 (𝑥 ) stating the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑔−1 (𝑥 ) is not defined

(b) Sketch the graphs of ℎ(𝑥 ) and ℎ−1 (𝑥 ) on same axes making clear
relationship between ℎ(𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ−1 (𝑥 )

(i) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 7

3𝑥 = 𝑦 − 7

𝑦−7
𝑥=
3

−1 (
𝑥−7
ℎ 𝑥) =
3

6
(ii) 𝑦 =
2𝑥−4

2𝑥𝑦 − 4𝑦 = 6

2𝑥𝑦 = 6 + 4𝑦

6 + 4𝑦
𝑥=
2𝑦

2(3 + 2𝑦)
𝑥=
2𝑦

204
 3 + 2𝑦
𝑥=
𝑦

3+2𝑥
𝑔−1 (𝑥 ) = And not defined for 𝑥 = 0
𝑥

(b) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 7

𝑥 0 7
−
3
𝑦 7 0

7
Therefore, coordinates for 𝑓 −1 (
𝑥 ) become (7 ; 0) and (0 ; − )
3

𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑦=𝑥
7

𝑓 −1 (𝑥 )

7
− 0 7
3
7
−
3

𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) Is the reflection of 𝑓(𝑥 ) along the mirror line 𝑦 = 𝑥

205
QUESTION 6

Functions 𝑓 and ℎ are defined as

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 − 1 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

ℎ(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 5 , 𝑥∈ 𝑅

Find the value of 𝑥 for which 𝑓ℎ(𝑥 ) = 2ℎ𝑓(𝑥 )

3(2𝑥 + 5) − 1 = 2[2(3𝑥 − 1) + 5]

6𝑥 + 15 − 1 = 2(6𝑥 + 3)

6𝑥 + 14 = 12𝑥 + 6

6𝑥 = 8

4
𝑥=
3

206
 • REDUCTION TO LINEAR FORM

Background

You already know that we can only obtain a straight-line graph

when we are dealing with equations of form
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

So, what do we do then when we want to a straight-line graph from

other various equations.

This is when the concept of reduction to linear form comes in.

For example, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 has to be reduced to linear form

𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑐 for us to obtain a straight-line graph from it.

One must understand that when changing to the form 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑐

𝑌 : Represents what is going to the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑚 : Is the gradient
𝑋 ∶ What is going to the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑐 ∶ 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (Value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 0)

207
So, one should be able to convert various expressions to linear form
ad once they are done with that, they are home and dry.

So, we will look at some of the most common concepts:

(1) 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥

Given 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 this is how we can reduce it to the form

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

Introducing logarithms to both sides either natural or common

logarithms.

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑎𝑏 𝑥 )

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑎 + 𝐼𝑛𝑏 𝑥

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑎 + (𝐼𝑛𝑏)𝑥

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = (𝐼𝑛𝑏)𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛𝑎

Now do you see that it is in form 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑐

Where:
𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 is 𝑥
𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 is 𝐼𝑛𝑦
Gradient (𝑚) is 𝐼𝑛𝑏

208
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑐) is 𝐼𝑛𝑎

(2) 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑎𝑥 𝑏 )

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑎 + 𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑏

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝑏(𝐼𝑛𝑥) + 𝐼𝑛𝑎

This therefore means we have to plot the graph of 𝐼𝑛𝑦 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑥
to obtain a straight line with gradient being represented by 𝑏 and
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 being 𝐼𝑛𝑎

(3) 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 2

𝑦 = 𝑥 (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 )

𝑦
= 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎
𝑥

Therefore, this is now in form 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑐

𝑦
With 𝑥 to the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑥 to the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑏 gradient and 𝑎 is the
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡

𝑏
(4)𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑥

209
 1
𝑦=𝑎 + 𝑏 (𝑥 )

1
Where gradient is , to the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 having , 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑎 and to
𝑥
the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 having 𝑦

Let us look at the following few questions from ZIMSEC:

QUESTION 1

The variable quantities 𝑥 and 𝑦 are related by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 where

𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants.
When a graph is plotted showing values of 𝐼𝑛𝑦 on vertical axis and values
of 𝑥 on the horizontal axis, the points lie on a straight-line having gradient
0.8 and 𝑦 intercept at 3.3.

Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 correct to one decimal place

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑎 + 𝐼𝑛𝑏 𝑥

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = (𝐼𝑛𝑏)𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛𝑎

𝐼𝑛𝑏 = 0.8

𝑏 = 2.2

210
𝐼𝑛𝑎 = 3.3

𝑎 = 27.1

QUESTION 2

A mathematician working with an exponential relation 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 reduced it

to linear form and came out with the graph shown in the diagram below

(1 , 2.7)

(0 , 1.1)

(i) Label the axis

(ii) Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏

211
 (i) 𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑎 + (𝐼𝑛𝑏)𝑥

𝐼𝑛𝑦 to the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑥 to the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

2.7−1.1
(ii) 𝐼𝑛𝑏 =
1−0

𝑏 = 5.0

𝐼𝑛𝑎 = 1.1

𝑎 = 3.0

QUESTION 3

The variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are connected by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑏𝑥 , where 𝑎

and 𝑏 are constants.
When the values of 𝐼𝑛𝑦 are plotted against the values of 𝑥 , a straight line
is obtained passing through the points (0; 𝐼𝑛2) and (3; 𝐼𝑛5)
Calculate exact values of 𝑎 and 𝑏

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑎 + 𝐼𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑥

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
212
 𝐼𝑛5−𝐼𝑛2
𝑏=
3

5
𝐼𝑛( )
2
𝑏=
3

1 5
𝑏 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
3 2

𝐼𝑛𝑎 = 𝐼𝑛2

𝑎=2

QUESTION 4

Values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 are related by the equation 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑏 . State the type of

graph you would plot and what shape would confirm the relationship.

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝐴 + 𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑏

𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝑏(𝐼𝑛𝑥 ) + 𝐼𝑛𝐴

Graph of 𝐼𝑛𝑦 against 𝐼𝑛𝑥 to obtain a straight line.

213
Modulus Functions

When we talk about modulus functions, we are interested in the

magnitude only or the absolute value of a function irrespective of the sign.

For example, |−10| = 10 𝑜𝑟 |5| = 5

So, the first thing we are going to talk about is sketching the graphs of
modulus functions.

Example 1

Sketch the graph of |3𝑥 − 1|

So, the trick is that you sketch first graph of 3𝑥 − 1 and then any part
below the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 must be reflected and go above the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

To make your life easier you can use a pencil to show the area below
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and then rub it after reflecting it.
𝑦

1
𝑥
1
0
3

−1

214
The graph of 𝑦 = |3𝑥 − 1|

Example 2

Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥 2 − 2|

2
𝑥
0

−2

215
Example 3

Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 2|

𝑦

𝑥
0 2

−2

Modulus Inequalities and Equations

So let us now look at equations involving modulus functions:

Concepts to know

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 |𝑥 | = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −𝑎
⇒ 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2

Given |𝑥 | < 𝑎
⇒ −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎
216
⇒𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 < 𝑎2

Given |𝑥 | > 𝑎
⇒ 𝑥 > 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < −𝑎
⇒𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 > 𝑎2

Given |𝑥 | = |𝑎|
𝑥 2 = 𝑎²

So let us start with equations involving modulus functions

Example 1

Solve the equation |𝑥 + 2| = 1

Method 1:

𝑥+2=1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 2 = −1

𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3

217
Method 2:

(𝑥 + 2)2 = 12

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 1

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0

(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) = 0

𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3

Example 2:

Solve the equation |𝑥 − 1| = 2

Method 1:

𝑥−1=2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 1 = −2

𝑥=3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1

Method 2:

218
(𝑥 − 1)2 = 22

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 4

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0

(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0

𝑥=3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1

Example 3

Solve the equation |2𝑥 − 1| = |𝑥 + 2|

(2𝑥 − 1)2 = (𝑥 + 2)2

4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4

3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 3 = 0

219
(3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0

1
𝑥=− 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=3
3

Example 5

1−2𝑥
Solve the equation | |=2
3+𝑥

(1−2𝑥)2
(3+𝑥)2
= 22

(1 − 2𝑥 )2 = 4(3 + 𝑥 )2

1 − 4𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 = 4(9 + 6𝑥 + 𝑥²)

1 − 4𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 = 36 + 24𝑥 + 4𝑥 2

28𝑥 = 1 − 36

220
28𝑥 = −35

35
𝑥=−
28

5
𝑥=−
4

Example 6

Solve the equation |𝑥 + 1| = 2|𝑥 − 2|

(𝑥 + 1)2 = 22 (𝑥 − 2)2

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 4(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4)

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 4𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 16

3𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 15 = 0

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 = 0

(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

𝑥=5 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=1
221
Modulus Inequalities

So let us look at inequalities involving modulus functions

It is easier if we group these inequalities into categories:

(1) Modulus sign both sides

(2) Modulus sign on one side

Modulus sign on one side

When there is modulus sign on one side you can use two
methods either graphical method or using the general rules
|𝑥 | < 𝑎 = −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑥 | > 𝑎 = 𝑥 > 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < −𝑎

So, to make life easier we are going to use both the general
rules and then the graphical method.
Steps for graphical method:

• Sketch on the same axis the graphs of the functions

• The points of intersection are the critical values
• Find the region(s) satisfying the inequality

So let us do the following examples together:

222
Case of |𝑥 ± 𝑎| > 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑥 ± 𝑎| < 𝑏

Remember the general methods

|𝑥 | < 𝑎 = −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎

|𝑥 | > 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑥 > 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < −𝑎

Solve the inequality |𝑥 − 3| < 4

−4 < (𝑥 − 3) < 4

−4 < 𝑥 − 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥−3<4

−1 < 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥<7

−1 < 𝑥 < 7

Let us look at more examples

|2𝑥 − 8| < 10

−10 < 2𝑥 − 8 < 10

223
−10 < 2𝑥 − 8 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 − 8 < 10

−2 < 2𝑥 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 < 18

−1 < 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥<9

−1 < 𝑥 < 9

|3𝑥 − 5| < 6

−6 < 3𝑥 − 5 < 6

−6 < 3𝑥 − 5 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 − 5 < 6

1 11
− <𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥<
3 3

1 11
− <𝑥<
3 3

|2𝑥 − 5| > 1

2𝑥 − 5 > 1 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 − 5 < −1

𝑥>3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥<2

224
|3𝑥 − 54| > 27

3𝑥 − 54 > 27 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 − 54 < −27

3𝑥 > 81 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 < 27

3𝑥 > 34 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 < 33

𝑥>4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥<3

|2𝑥 − 8| ≤ 5

−5 ≤ 2𝑥 − 8 ≤ 5

−5 ≤ 2𝑥 − 8 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 − 8 ≤ 5

3 ≤ 2𝑥 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 ≤ 13

𝐼𝑛3 ≤ 𝐼𝑛2𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛2𝑥 ≤ 𝐼𝑛13

225
𝐼𝑛3 ≤ 𝑥𝐼𝑛2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝐼𝑛2 ≤ 𝐼𝑛13

𝐼𝑛3 𝐼𝑛13
≤ 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥≤
𝐼𝑛2 𝐼𝑛2

1.58 ≤ 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 3.7

1.58 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.7

Cases of |𝑥 ± 𝑎| < 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 |𝑥 ± 𝑎| > 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

This case is the one in which is best for applying the graphical
method.

Let us look at the following example:

Solve the inequality |2𝑥 + 2| > 1 − 4𝑥

226
So, we are going to sketch the graphs of 𝑦 = |2𝑥 + 2| and
𝑦 = 1 − 4𝑥 on same axis
𝑦
−(2𝑥 + 2) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2

1
−1 0
4
1
−
6
𝑦 = 1 − 4𝑥

So, we need to find the point of intersection which will be

representing the critical values.

2𝑥 + 2 = 1 − 4𝑥

6𝑥 = −1

227
 1
𝑥=−
6

This therefore means the graph has been divided into two
regions which is 𝑥 > −6 and 𝑥 < −6

So, we need to see which region satisfies the condition that

The graph of |2𝑥 + 2| is above that of 1 − 4𝑥

And as you can see it is 𝑥 > −6

Let us look at our second example

|𝑥 − 1| < 2𝑥 − 4
𝑦

0 1 2
3

−4

228
To find point of intersection

2𝑥 − 4 = 𝑥 − 1

𝑥=3

∴we have two regions 𝑥 > 3 and 𝑥 < 3 and we need the one in
which graph of |𝑥 − 1| is below that of 2𝑥 − 4

∴𝑥>3

So that was the case with modulus on one side so let us look at
cases where both sides have modulus

⟹When both sides have modulus, the best is to just square

both sides and solve.

Let us look at the following few examples

Solve the inequality |𝑥 − 3| < |𝑥 + 2|

Squaring both sides

229
(𝑥 − 3)2 < (𝑥 + 2)2

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 < 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4

−10𝑥 < −5

1
𝑥>
2

Solve the inequality |3 + 2𝑥 | ≥ |4 + 𝑥 |

(3 + 2𝑥 )2 ≥ (4 + 𝑥 )2

9 + 12𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 ≥ 16 + 8𝑥 + 𝑥 2

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7 ≥ 0

(3𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 − 1) ≥ 0

230
 7
Critical values are 𝑥 = − 3 and 𝑥 = 1

7 7
𝑥≤− − ≤𝑥≤1
3 3 𝑥≥1
(3𝑥 + 7) − + +
(𝑥 − 1) − − +
𝑓(𝑥 ) + − +

7
Therefore, our solution is 𝑥 ≤ − 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 1
3

Rational Functions

Graphs of rational functions

1
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 has two lines of asymptotes 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0
This means it will be nearing these lines but NEVER TOUCHES
THEM.

0 𝑥

231
So, we will discuss first how these lines of asymptote are obtained.

Steps in finding lines of Asymptote:

1. Remove fractions by cross multiplying

2. Expand brackets where necessary

3. Equate coefficients of 𝑥 to zero and similarly all

coefficients of 𝑦 to zero to get the two lines of asymptote.

4. The lines you get become the lines of asymptote.

Example 1

1
Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = , 𝑥≠0
𝑥

Solution

We need the lines of asymptote

𝑥𝑦 = 1

232
Coefficient of 𝑥 is y ∴𝑦 = 0

Coefficient of 𝑦 is 𝑥 ∴ 𝑥 = 0

Therefore, lines of asymptote are 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0

0 𝑥

Example 2

𝑥
Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = , 𝑥 ≠ −1
𝑥+1

233
Solution

𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥+1

(𝑥 + 1)𝑦 = 𝑥

𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝑥

𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 0

Coefficients of 𝑥:

𝑦=1

Coefficients of 𝑦:

𝑥+1=0

𝑥 = −1

Therefore, lines of asymptotes are 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑦 = 1

234
 𝑦

−1 0 𝑥

Example 3

2𝑥−1
Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = , 𝑥≠3
𝑥−3

Solution

(𝑥 − 3)𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1

𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1

𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0

Coefficients of 𝑥:

235
𝑦−2=0

𝑦=2

Coefficients of 𝑦:

𝑥−3=0

𝑥=3
𝑦

0 3

NOTE: The asymptotes of the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥 ) , 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 ) found by swapping

those of 𝑓(𝑥 ) such that 𝑦 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎.

236
Graphs And Transformations

So, before we look at transformations of graphs, we are first going

to sketch some common graphs one must understand which are
logarithms , exponential functions and rational functions.

Graphs of logarithms

So, to sketch graphs of logarithms, we must know the issue of line of

asymptote.

The line of asymptote is the line which is never going to be touched

because the function becomes undefined.

So let us sketch the graph of 𝐼𝑛𝑥

You already know that 𝑥 must always be greater than zero therefore
𝑥 = 0 Becomes the asymptote
Graph of 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥

237
 𝑦
At 𝑦 = 0 𝑥 = 1

𝑥
0 1

So let us sketch more graphs

Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 3)

Remember 𝑥 − 3 > 0 ∴ 𝑥 > 3 and 𝑥 = 3 is our line of asymptote

When 𝑦 = 0 𝑥 = 4

𝑥
0 3 4

238
Graph of 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 5)

𝑥
0 5 6

𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 2)

𝑥
0 2 3

239
Graphs of exponential functions

Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥

At 𝑥 = 0 𝑦 = 1
𝑦

1
𝑥
0

240
Since now we know the common types of graphs let us now see
different transformations that can take place.

To transform is to change in shape or position.

The three transformations we are going to deal with are:

• Translation
• Reflection
• Stretch

So, we are going to explain these three transformations as

follows:

(1) Translation along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎):

−𝑎
Translation along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with Translation Vector ( ) or simply
0
moving 𝑎 units to the left

𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎):

Translation along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with Translation Vector

𝑎
( )
0
or simply moving 𝑎 units to the right

241
𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑎:

Translation along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with Translation Vector

0
( ) or simply moving 𝑎 units upwards
𝑎

𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑎:

Translation along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with Translation Vector

0
( ) or simply moving 𝑎 units downwards.
−𝑎

(2) Reflections along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑓(−𝑥):

Reflection along the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 or simply multiply every

𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 by −1

−𝑓(𝑥 ):

Reflection along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 or simply multiply every

𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 by −1

242
(3) Stretch

𝑓(𝑎𝑥 ):

1
Stretch along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with factor or simply divide every
𝑎
1
𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 by 𝑎 or multiply every 𝑥 − Coordinate by
𝑎

𝑎𝑓(𝑥 ):

Stretch along the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with factor 𝑎 or simply multiply

every 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 by 𝑎

Summary of transformations
Translation along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎) Translation Vector (−𝑎 )
0
Translation along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with
𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎) Translation Vector ( )
𝑎
0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑎 Translation along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with translation
𝑜
vector ( )
𝑎
𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑎 Translation along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 with translation
𝑜
vector ( )
−𝑎

243
 𝑓(𝑎𝑥) 1
Stretch along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 scale factor 𝑎

𝑎𝑓(𝑥) Stretch along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 scale factor 𝑎

𝑓(−𝑥) Reflection in the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

−𝑓(𝑥) Reflection in the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

So let us do the following examples

Ex 1

(i) Dividing every 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 by 2

244
 1
𝐴(−1 , 0) ⟶ (− , 0)
2

𝐵 (0 , 1 ) ⟶ (0 , 1)

1
𝐶 (1 , 0) ⟶ ( , 0)
2

𝐵 (0 , 1)

𝑥
1 1
𝐴 (− , 0) 𝐶 ( , 0)
2 2

(ii) First multiplying 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 by −1 then adding 3 to

𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
To obtain:

𝐴(1 , 3)
245
𝐵 (0 , 4)

𝐶 (−1 , 3)

𝐵(0 , 4)

𝑥
𝐶 (−1 , 3) 𝐴(1 , 3)

(iii) Subtracting 1 from 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 and then multiply

𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 by 2 to obtain:

𝐴(−2 , 0)

𝐵 (−1 , 2)

𝐶 (0 , 0)

246
 𝐵(−1 , 2)

𝐴(−2 , 0) 𝐶 (0 , 0)

Ex 2

247
 (i) Adding 2 to the 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 to get

(−2 , 2)

(0 , 3)

(3 , 2)

𝑥
−2 0 3

(ii) Multiplying coordinates by 3 to obtain:

(−2 , 0)

(0 , 3)
248
(3 , 0)

−2 0 3

Ex 3

The function 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 2)

sketch graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (−𝑥 )

Graph of 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 2)

2 3
249
We have points (2 , 0) and (3 , 0)

multiplying 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 − 1 to get:

(−2 , 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−3 , 0)

Graph of 𝑓(−𝑥 )
𝑦

−3 −2

250
Ex 4

3𝑥−1 4
(a) By long division =3−
𝑥+1 𝑥+1

(b) In order:

−1
(1) Translation along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 Translation Vector ( )
0
(2) Stretch along the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 stretch factor 4
(3) Reflection along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
0
(4) Translation along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 Translation Vector ( )
3

251
Ex 5

2𝑥−1 5
(a) By long division =2+
𝑥−3 𝑥−3

(b) In order:

3
(1) Translation along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 Translation Vector ( )
0
(2) Stretch along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 Stretch factor 5
0
(3) Translation along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 Translation Vector ( )
2

5
(c) Graph of 𝑦 = 2 +
𝑥−3

1
You are now starting with and apply the transformations it went
𝑥
through.

252
 1
Recall graph of
𝑥
𝑦

0 𝑥

The lines of asymptotes 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0 are then transformed to

𝑥 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2

0 3

253
Ex 6

Describe the geometrical transformations which map 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 onto

𝑦 = 6𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − 𝜋)

In order:

𝜋
Translation along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 Translation Vector ( )
0
Stretch along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 stretch factor 6

Ex 7

Describe fully the transformation that transforms

𝑥 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 − 1)2

1
Translation along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 translation vector ( )
0

Ex 8
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has a maximum point at (4 , 1) .
Find the coordinates of the maximum point of the following graphs:

(a) 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥)
(b) 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥)
𝑥
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑓 ( )
3

254
 (d) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
(e) 𝑦 = 2𝑓(𝑥)
(f) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 3)
a. Original coordinates (4 ; 1)

Multiplying 𝑦 −coordinates by −1:

(4 ; −1)

b. Original coordinates (4 ; 1)

Multiplying 𝑥 −coordinates by −1:

(−4 ; 1)

c. Original coordinates (4 ; 1)

1
Dividing 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 by or multiplying by 3
3

(12 ; 1)

d. Original coordinates (4 ; 1)

Moving 1 unit to the left therefore subtracting 1 from 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

(3 ; 1)

e. Original coordinates (4 ; 1)

255
Multiplying 𝑦 −coordinates by 2

(4 ; 2)

f. Original coordinates (4 ; 1)

Moving 3 units to the right therefore adding 3 to 𝑥 −coordinates

(7 ; 1)

Worksheet

𝑥+3 𝑏
(1) Express in the form 𝑎 + . Hence or otherwise describe fully
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
1 𝑥+3
the order of transformations which transform 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 =
𝑥 𝑥+1

𝜋
(2) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + ). Describe fully the
4
𝜋
transformations which transform 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 to 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + )
4

(3) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 3) , 𝑥 > −[Link] same axis sketch
the graph of 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 2 and 𝑓(𝑥 − 3) and |𝑓(𝑥)|

(4) Describe fully the transformation that transforms 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 +

1

𝜋
(5) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 + )
4

(6) On the same axis sketch the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 2| and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3

256
(7) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3. Given that 𝑓(𝑥) is translated along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 by
−2
translation vector ( ) sketch the transformed 𝑓(𝑥)
0

257
 TOPIC 2:GEOMETRY

Coordinate Geometry and Circles

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• sketch graphs of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ), where 𝑓(𝑥 ) is a

quadratic or cubic polynomial
• locate solutions of equations and inequalities using
sketches of graphs
• find equations of parallel and perpendicular straight lines
• calculate the distance between two points

258
WE ARE GOING TO USE LINE AB to derive our formulas.
B(𝑥2; 𝑦2 )

A (𝑥1 ; 𝑦1 )

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
(1)𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝐵 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Examples

(1)Find gradient of the line passing through (2; 5) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4; 7)

7−5
Gradient =
4−2

2
=
2

=1

259
(2)Find gradient of the line passing through (3;8)
and (5;9)

9−8
Gradient=
5−3

1
=
2

(3) Find the gradient of the line passing through (5 , 7)

and (2 , 3)

3−7
Gradient=
2−5

−4
=
−3

4
=
3

𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
(2)𝑀𝑖𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝐵 = ( ; )
2 2
260
Examples

(1)Find the Midpoint (M) of line passing through (7 ; 5) and

(2; 3)

7+2 5+3
Midpoint (M) =( ; )
2 2

9
= ( ; 4)
2

(2)Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line passing

Through (7; 1) and (9 ; 4)

7+9 1+4
Midpoint (M) =( ; )
2 2

5
= (8 ; )
2

(3) The midpoint of line AB is represented by M. Given that

the coordinates of A and B are (3 , 1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1 ,6)
respectively find the coordinates of M

261
 3+1 1+6
M=( , )
2 2

7
= (2 , )
2

(3)𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 , |𝐴𝐵| = √(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )² + (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )²

Examples

(1) The line PQ passes through the points P (4;3)

And Q (2;0).
Find the length of the line PQ.

|𝑃𝑄| = √(0 − 3)2 + (2 − 4)²

= √9 + 4

= √13

(2) Find the magnitude of the line passing through origin

and
Point (5; 2)

262
Length of line =√(5 − 0)2 + (2 − 0)²

= √25 + 4

= √29

(3) Find the length of line joining (2 , 0) to midpoint of the

line which is passing through (5 , 1) and (2 , 2)

5+2 1+2
Midpoint= ( 2
, 2
)

7 3
=( , )
2 2

7 2 3 2
∴length= √(2 − ) + (0 − )
2 2

3 2 3 2
= √(− ) + (− )
2 2

9
=√
2

3√2
=
2

263
 (4)The Perpendicular bisector (Mediator)

The perpendicular bisector is the line which passes through

the Midpoint of a line and is perpendicular to that line.

A Perpendicular Bisector

Finding Cartesian Equation of A line

To find equation of a line we use the famous method

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Where: 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
: 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0)

264
 : 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠(𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

𝑒𝑔. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5 (𝑚 𝑖𝑠 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 5)

5 7 5 7
𝑒𝑔. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 7 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑖𝑠
2 2 2 2

One should know this as well:

• Parallel lines have Same Gradient

• If two lines Are Perpendicular product of their

gradients=−1

Perpendicular distance of point A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) from line with

equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

Is
𝑎(𝑥1 ) + 𝑏(𝑦1 ) + 𝑐
| |
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Examples

(1) Find equation of the line passing through point (3; 4)

with gradient 2.
265
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

Since we already have 𝑚 we need to find 𝑐

Since (3, 4) lies on the line ⇒𝑥 = 3 , 𝑦 = 4

4 = (2)(3) + 𝑐

4= 6 + 𝑐

𝑐 = −2

∴Equation of line is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2

(2) Find the equation of the line passing through (2;−3)

and
(4; 5)

Using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

5−(−3)
𝑚=
4−2

266
 8
=
2

𝑚=4

To find c:

(Take any point along the line either (2; −3) or (4; 5)) and
Substitute

Taking (4; 5) ⇒ 𝑥 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 5

5 = (4)(4) + 𝑐

5=16 + 𝑐

𝑐 = −11

∴Equation of line is 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 11

(3) Find the equation of the line parallel to the line

4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3 = 0 And passing through (1;2)

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
267
To find 𝑚:

∗Recall parallel lines have same gradients!! Therefore, the line

We want to find has same grad as 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3 = 0

3
2𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3 ⟹ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2 ∴𝑚=2

To find 𝑐:

Passing through (1; 2) ⟹𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2

2 = (2)(1) + 𝑐

𝑐=0

∴𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 2𝑥

(4) Find the equation of the line passing through (2;3) and
Perpendicular to the line 5𝑦 + 3𝑥 + 4 = 0.

Using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

268
To find 𝑚:

∗Recall if two lines are perpendicular product of their

gradientss=−1

3 4 3
5𝑦 + 3𝑥 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = − 𝑥 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −
5 5 5

Let the gradient we want to find be 𝑚

3
− 𝑚 = −1
5

−3𝑚 = −5

5
𝑚=
3

5
∴𝑚 =
3

To find 𝑐:

Passing through (2;3)⟹𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 3

5
3 = ( ) (2) + 𝑐
3

269
 1
∴𝑐=−
3

5 1
∴Equation of line is 𝑦 = 𝑥 − ⟹ 3𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 1
3 3

(5) The coordinates of P and Q are (4; −2) and (2; 1)

Respectively. Find the equation of the perpendicular
bisector of line PQ.

∗Recall perpendicular bisector passes through Mid− point and

is
Perpendicular to the line

Using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

To find where it passes through find mid−point of PQ.

4+2 −2+1
M=( 2
; 2
)

1
= (3; − )
2
1
∴ 𝑥 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = − 2
270
To find 𝑚:

1−(−2)
Gradient of PQ=
2−4

3
=−
2
Since they are perpendicular

3
− 2 𝑚 = −1

2
𝑚=
3

To find 𝑐:

1 2
− = ( ) (3) + 𝑐
2 3

5
𝑐=−
2

2 5
∴𝑦 = 3 𝑥 − 2

6𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 15

271
So let us look at some of the following questions from ZIMSEC:

(1)

The straight line 𝑙 has equation 2𝑦 − 𝑥 − 5 = 0.

Another straight line 𝑚 passes through the point 𝑃(−2,6) and is
perpendicular to 𝑙

Find the

(a) Equation of 𝑚 in the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

(b) co−orinates of the point of intersection of 𝑙 and 𝑚

SOLUTION

(a) 2𝑦 = 𝑥 + 5

1 5
𝑦= 𝑥+
2 2

1
𝑚 = −1
2

𝑚 = −2 ∴6 = (−2)(−2) + 𝑐 𝑐=2

∴𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 2

272
 (b) 2𝑦 − 𝑥 − 5 = 0 (1)
𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 2 (2)

2(−2𝑥 + 2) − 𝑥 − 5 = 0

−4𝑥 + 4 − 𝑥 − 5 = 0

−5𝑥 = 1

1 1
𝑥=− 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −2 (− ) + 2
5 5

1 12
𝑥=− 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
5 5

1 12
Coordinates are (− , )
5 5

(2)

The points A and B have coordinates (𝑚2 ; 2𝑚) and (3𝑚2 ; 6𝑚)
respectively.
Find the values of 𝑚 for which the midpoint of AB lies on the line
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 8
273
SOLUTION

𝑚2 +3𝑚2 2𝑚+6𝑚
Midpoint= ( ), ( )
2 2

= (2𝑚2 , 4𝑚)

Since midpoint lies on line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 8

4𝑚 = 2(2𝑚2 ) − 8

4𝑚2 − 4𝑚 − 8 = 0

𝑚2 − 𝑚 − 2 = 0
(𝑚 − 2)(𝑚 + 1) = 0

𝑚 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = −1

274
(3)

SOLUTION

At C 𝑥 = 0 ∴ 3𝑦 = 0 + 9 𝑦=3

B is intersection of 𝐴𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐵

Equation of DB:

20= (−3)(−9) + 𝑐

𝑦 = −3𝑥 − 7

275
3𝑦 = 𝑥 + 9 (1)
𝑦 = −3𝑥 − 7 (2)

3(−3𝑥 − 7) = 𝑥 + 9

−9𝑥 − 21 = 𝑥 + 9

−10𝑥 = 30

∴ 𝑥 = −3 𝑦=2

𝐵 (−3 , 2)

B is the midpoint of A and C

𝑥+0 𝑦+3
∴( ) = −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( )=2
2 2

𝑥 = −6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 1

∴𝐴(−6 , 1)

1
(c) Area= (𝐵 × 𝐻)
2

2
AC= √(0 − (−6)) + (3 − 1)2 = 2√10

2
BD= √(−9 − (−3)) + (20 − 2)2 = 6√10

276
 1
Area= (2√10)(6√10)
2

= 60 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2

(4)

The straight-line L passes through the point (4 ; −1) and is perpendicular

to a line with equation 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 10.

Find the equation of line L, leaving the answer in the form

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

SOLUTION

3𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 10

2 10
𝑦= 𝑥−
3 3

3
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿 = −
2

3
−1 = (− ) (4) + 𝑐
2

−1 = −6 + 𝑐

𝑐=5

277
 3
∴𝑦 =− 𝑥+5
2

2𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 10
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 10

(5)

5
The curve 𝑦 = 10 − and the line 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 6 intersect at two points P and
𝑥
Q.

Find the

(a) Coordinates of P and Q

(b) Coordinates of midpoint of PQ
(c) Equation of perpendicular bisector of the line with P and Q as end
points

SOLUTION

5
(a) 𝑦 = 10 − (1)
𝑥
𝑦+𝑥 =6 (2)

𝑦 =6−𝑥

5
6 − 𝑥 = 10 −
𝑥

278
5
−𝑥 =4
𝑥

5−𝑥 2
=4
𝑥

5 − 𝑥 2 = 4𝑥

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 = 0

(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

𝑥 = −5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1

5 5
𝑦 = 10 − ( = 11 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 10 − = 5
−5) 1

∴𝑃(−5 , 11) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (1 , 5)

−5+1 11+5
(b) 𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ( , )
2 2

= (−2 , 8)

(c) The perpendicular bisector passes through midpoint of PQ

5−11
𝑚(𝑃𝑄 ) =
1−(−5)

−6
=
6

279
 = −1

Gradient= 1

8 = 1(−2) + 𝑐

𝑦 = 𝑥 + 10

(6)

The points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 have coordinates (3, −1), (2 , 5), (8 ,3) respectively.

Find the equation of the straight-line joining P to the midpoint of QR.

SOLUTION

2+8 5+3
Midpoint of QR= ( , )
2 2

= (5 , 4)

4−(−1) 5
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = =
5−3 2

5
4 = ( ) (5) + 𝑐
2

25
4= +𝑐
2

280
 25
𝑐 =4−
2

17
𝑐=−
2

5 17
𝑦= 𝑥−
2 2

2𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 17

(7)

The line 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 0 intersects the curve 2𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 4 at the

points P and Q.

Find the

(a) Coordinates of P and Q

(b) Length of line PQ

SOLUTION

(i) 2𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 4 (1)
𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 0 (2)

281
𝑦 = −2𝑥

2𝑥 2 + (−2𝑥 )2 + 4𝑥 − 3(−2𝑥 ) = 4

6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 4 = 0

6𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 4 = 0

3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 = 0

3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0

(𝑥 + 2)(3𝑥 − 1) = 0

1
𝑥 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 =
3

2
𝑦=4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −
3
1 2
∴ 𝑃(−2 , 4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 ( , − )
3 3

2
1 2 2
(ii) 𝑃𝑄 = √(−2 − ) + (4 − (− ))
3 3

49 32
=√ +
9 9

= √9

282
 = 3 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

(8)

The equation of a straight line 𝑙1 is 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 33 = 0. The straight line 𝑙2 is

parallel to 𝑙1 and passes through 𝑃(3 ; 0)

(i) Find the equation of 𝑙2

(ii) Show that the line joining P to Q (6; 9) is perpendicular to 𝑙1
SOLUTION

(i) 3𝑦 = −𝑥 + 33

1
𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 11
3

Since lines are parallel therefore same gradient

1
0 = (− ) (3) + 𝑐
3
0 = −1 + 𝑐 𝑐=1

1
∴ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙2 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 1 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 3𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3
3

9−0
(ii) 𝑚(𝑃𝑄 ) = =3
6−3
283
If the line is perpendicular to 𝑙1 product of gradients= −1

1
3 × − = −1 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)
3

284
CIRCLES

Deriving the Cartesian Equation of a Circle

Let us consider a circle with center (𝑎 , 𝑏) and radius (𝑟).

The point 𝐵(𝑥 , 𝑦) is a general point on the circumference.

𝑦
B(𝑥 , 𝑦)
𝑟
C (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑦 − 𝑏)

(𝑎 , 𝑏)

0 𝑥

The radius of the circle(𝑟) is equal to the length of the

hypotenuse of the triangle with sides (𝑥 − 𝑎) and (𝑦 − 𝑏)
and 𝑟

285
∴The Cartesian Equation of a Circle is

𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − 𝑎 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏 )2
Where
𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎 , 𝑏) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟.

The Cartesian Equation of a Circle can also be written as

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

Where Center is (−𝑔 , −𝑓) and radius=√𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐

286
Let us do the following examples which involve finding the equation of
circle and finding radius and centers.

Ex 1

Find the equation of the circle with center (2 , 3) and

Radius 5 units.

Using (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 52

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 25

Ex 2

A circle has center (1 , 5) and radius 7 units. Find the

equation of the circle.

(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = 72

(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = 49

287
Ex 3

Find the equation of the circle with center (2 , 1) and radius 3 units.

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 32

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 9

Ex 4
A circle has center (3 , 8) and radius 5 units. Find the equation of the
circle.

(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 8)2 = 52

(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 8)2 = 25

Ex 5

A circle has equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 + 16𝑦 + 3 = 0 find the center and

radius of the circle.

Equating this to the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 and comparing

terms.

2𝑔 = 8 ∴𝑔 = 4

2𝑓 = 16 ∴𝑓 = 8

288
𝑐=3

Centre is (−4 , −8) and radius = √42 + 82 − 3 = √77

Ex 6

A circle has equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 1 = 0 find the centre and

radius of the circle.

2𝑔 = 12 ∴𝑔 = 6

7
2𝑓 = 7 ∴𝑓 =
2

𝑐=1

7 2 7 2 3√21
Centre is (−6 , − ) and radius= √6 + ( ) − 1 =
2 2 2

Ex 7

A circle has equation 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 3 = 0 find the centre and

radius of the circle.

3
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + = 0
2

2𝑔 = 4 ∴𝑔=2

289
2𝑓 = −2 ∴ 𝑓 = −1

3
𝑐=
2

3 √14
Center is (−2 , 1) and radius= √22 + (−1)2 − =
2 2

⇒If a point (𝑥 , 𝑦) lies inside a circle centre (𝑎 , 𝑏)

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝑟 2 (𝐿𝐻𝑆 < 𝑅𝐻𝑆)

⇒If a point (𝑥 , 𝑦) lies on a circle centre (𝑎 , 𝑏)

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 (𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆)

⇒If a point (𝑥 , 𝑦) lies outside a circle centre (𝑎 , 𝑏)

(𝑥 − 𝑎 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏 )2 > 𝑟 2 (𝐿𝐻𝑆 > 𝑅𝐻𝑆)

Ex 1

Show that the point (1 , 4) Lies on the circumference of the circle

with equation
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 4

If the point lies on circumference, it should satisfy the equation

(1 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2 = 4

290
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆

∴point lies on circumference

Ex 2

Show that the point (4 , 3) lies inside the circle with

equation (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 9

(4 − 2)2 + (3 − 3)2 < 9

4<9

𝐿𝐻𝑆 < 𝑅𝐻𝑆

∴The point lies inside the circle

Ex 3

Show that the point (3 , 8) lies outside the circle with

equation (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 5

(3 − 1)2 + (8 − 2)2 > 5

291
4 + 36 > 5

40 > 5

𝐿𝐻𝑆 > 𝑅𝐻𝑆

∴The point lies outside the circle

Finding Equation of a circle passing through points.

Let us say we have a circle passing through points A, B and

C.
Centre

C
A

292
The perpendicular bisector of any chord is directed
towards the centre therefore this means two
perpendicular bisectors of chords in the circle will
intersect at The Centre of that circle.

Let us do the following examples:

Ex 1

Find the equation of the circle passing through points

𝐴(3 , 1) 𝐵 (2 , 3) and 𝐶 (1 , 0)

So, we have two chords AB and BC

Equation of perpendicular bisector of AB:

3−1
𝑚(𝐴𝐵) = = −2
2−3

1
∴𝑚 =
2

3+2 1+3 5
Midpoint= ( , ) = ( , 2)
2 2 2

293
 1 5
2 = ( )( ) + 𝑐
2 2

5
2= +𝑐
4

3
𝑐=
4

1 3
𝑦= 𝑥+
2 4

4𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3

Equation of perpendicular bisector of BC:

0−3
𝑚(𝐵𝐶 ) = =3
1−2

1
∴𝑚 = −
3

2+1 3+0
Midpoint= ( , )
2 2

3 3
= ,
2 2

294
3 1 3
= (− ) ( ) + 𝑐
2 3 2

3 1
𝑐= +
2 2

𝑐=2

1
𝑦 =− 𝑥+2
3

3𝑦 = −𝑥 + 6

Solving simultaneously to find center coordinates

3𝑦 = −𝑥 + 6 (1)
4𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 (2)

𝑥 = 6 − 3𝑦

4𝑦 = 2(6 − 3𝑦) + 3

4𝑦 = 12 − 6𝑦 + 3

10𝑦 = 15

295
 15
𝑦=
10

3
𝑦=
2

3
𝑥 = 6 − 3( )
2

9
𝑥 =6−
2

3
𝑥=
2

3 3
∴Center is ( , )
2 2

To find radius use center and any coordinate on

Circumference

3 2 3 2
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = √( − 3) + ( − 1)
2 2

9 1
=√ +
4 4
296
 5
=√
2

Ex 2

Find the center and radius of the circle with equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 = 0

Find also the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line

𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3 = 0 And this circle.

SOLUTION

(i) This is identical to 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑔𝑥 − 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

−2𝑔 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 2𝑓 = −6

∴𝑔=0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 = 3

𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 (−𝑔 , −𝑓)

𝑟 = √(0)2 + (3)2 − (0) = √9 = 3

Center is (0 , −3)

(ii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 = 0
𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3 = 0
297
𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 3

(2𝑦 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 = 0

4𝑦 2 − 12𝑦 + 9 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 = 0

5𝑦 2 − 18𝑦 + 9 = 0

5𝑦 2 − 15𝑦 − 3𝑦 + 9 = 0

5𝑦(𝑦 − 3) − 3(𝑦 − 3) = 0

(𝑦 − 3)(5𝑦 − 3) = 0

3
𝑦=3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
5

9
𝑥=3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −
5

9 3
(3 , 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (− , )
5 5

Ex 3

Find the equation of the circle passing through the points

298
𝐴(−6 ; 3) , 𝐵 (10 ; −9) And 𝐶 (10 ; 3)

Finding equation of perpendicular bisector of line AB:

−9 − 3
𝑚(𝐴𝐵) =
10 − (−6)

−12
=
16

3
=−
4

4
Gradient of perpendicular bisector=
3

−6+10 3−9
Midpoint of AB= ( ; )
2 2

= (2 ; −3)

4
−3 = ( ) (2) + 𝑐
3

8
−3 = + 𝑐
3
299
 17
𝑐=−
3

4 17
𝑦= 𝑥−
3 3

3𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 17

Finding equation of perpendicular bisector of line BC:

3 − (−9) 12
𝑚(𝐵𝐶 ) = = (𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 )
10 − 10 0

Therefore, BC is a vertical line.

Since BC is vertical, the perpendicular bisector is

horizontal line passing through (10 ; −3) hence equation
is 𝑦 = −3𝑥

𝑦 = −3 (1)

3𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 17 (2)

300
3(−3) = 4𝑥 − 17

−9 = 4𝑥 − 17
4𝑥 = −9 + 17

4𝑥 = 8

𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = −3

Centre (2 ; −3)

Radius= √(2 + 6)2 + (−3 − 3)2

= √100

= 10

Equation of circle:(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 100

301
302
 TOPIC 3:SERIES AND SEQUENCES

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

Sequences:
Define a sequence
Use sequence definitions such as 𝑈𝑛 = 2𝑛 and 𝑈𝑛+1 = 2𝑈𝑛 to
calculate successive terms
Distinguish among periodic, oscillating, converging, and
diverging sequences
Define arithmetic and geometric progressions
Find the general terms and other terms of arithmetic and
geometric progressions
Solve problems involving sequences

Series:
𝑛
• Use 𝑛! , ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ notation
𝑟
• find the sum of given arithmetic and geometric terms
• find sum to infinity of given converging geometric series
• expand expressions of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 where n is a positive
integer
• Expansions of (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 , where n is a rational number and
|𝑥| < 1 solve problems involving series

303
Sequences

Definition: A sequence is a list of terms arranged in a certain order

following a certain rule.

Types of sequences

We have

(1) Convergent sequence

(2) Divergent sequence
(3) Oscillating sequence
(4) Constant sequence

Converging sequence

This is a sequence in which terms approach a finite value called the limit
of the sequence.

They will be tending towards a fixed value known as the limit of the
sequence.

1 1 1 1 1
For example, consider the sequence , , , , , … ..
2 5 8 11 14

The values are getting smaller and smaller as number of terms are
increasing and they are tending towards zero which becomes the limit of
the sequence.

Diverging sequence
304
This is a sequence in which the values get larger and larger as the
number of terms increase.

They increase without limit.

For example, consider the sequence

4 , 8 , 12 , 16 , … … ..

Periodic sequence

Sequence which forms a repeating pattern at some stage.

For example, 𝑐 ; 𝑑 ; 𝑒 ; 𝑐 ; 𝑑 ; 𝑒 … ….

Oscillating sequence

This is a sequence which oscillates between two values or between

positive and negative.

It is neither converging nor diverging.

Consider the sequence 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 , … ….

Constant sequence

305
As the name suggests this is a sequence whose terms remain
constant throughout.

Consider the sequence 3 , 3 , 3, 3 , … ….

So let us look at the following examples on the different natures of the

sequences

Example 1

The sequence 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , 𝑈3 is defined by 𝑈𝑛+1 = 𝑈𝑛2 − 1

(a) Describe the behavior of the sequence for each of the following cases
(𝑖 ) 𝑈1 = 0
(𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑈2 = 2
(𝑖 ) 𝑈1+1 = 𝑈12 − 1 𝑈1 = 0

𝑈2 = (0)2 − 1

𝑈2 = −1

𝑈3 = 𝑈22 − 1

𝑈3 = (−1)2 − 1

𝑈3 = 0

𝑈4 = 𝑈32 − 1
306
 𝑈4 = (0)2 − 1

𝑈4 = −1

∴Sequence is 0 , −1 , 0 , −1 , … …. Which is clearly an oscillating sequence

(ii) 𝑈2 = 2

𝑈2+1 = 𝑈22 − 1

𝑈3 = (2)2 − 1

𝑈3 = 3

𝑈3+1 = 𝑈32 − 1

𝑈4 = (3)2 − 1

𝑈4 = 8

𝑈4+1 = 𝑈42 − 1

𝑈5 = (8)2 − 1

𝑈5 = 63

307
∴We have a sequence 2 , 3 , 8 , 63 , … .. which is clearly diverging

EXAMPLE 2

A sequence 𝑈𝑛 is defined by 𝑈𝑛 = (−1)𝑛+1 + 2

(a) Find first three terms of the sequence

(b) State behavior of the sequence

(a) 𝑈1 = (−1)1+1 + 2

=3

𝑈2 = (−1)2+1 + 2

=1

𝑈3 = (−1)3+1 + 2

=3

(b)The sequence is 3 , 1 , 3 which is clearly oscillating

EXAMPLE 3

A sequence is defined by 𝑈𝑛+1 = 3𝑈𝑛 + 1

308
 (i) Write down first four terms of the sequence given that
𝑈1 = 0
(ii) Hence describe behavior of the sequence
(iii) Express 𝑈3 in terms of 𝑈1

(i) 𝑈1+1 = 3𝑈1 + 1

𝑈2 = 3(0) + 1

𝑈2 = 1

𝑈3 = 3(1) + 1

𝑈3 = 4

𝑈4 = 3(4) + 1

𝑈4 = 13

First four terms are 0 , 1 , 4 , 13

(ii) The sequence is clearly diverging

(iii) 𝑈3 = 3𝑈2 + 1
309
But 𝑈2 = 3𝑈1 + 1

∴𝑈3 = 3(3𝑈1 + 1) + 1

𝑈3 = 9𝑈1 + 3 + 1

𝑈3 = 9𝑈1 + 4

EXAMPLE 4

1
A sequence is defined by 𝑈𝑛+1 = with 𝑈1 = 𝑎 , 𝑎 ≠ 1
1−𝑈𝑛

Show that 𝑈2 = 𝑈5

1
𝑈1+1 =
1 − 𝑈1

1
𝑈2 =
1−𝑎

1
𝑈3 =
1 − 𝑈2

310
 1
𝑈3 =
1
1−(
1 − 𝑎)

𝑎−1
=
𝑎

1
𝑈4 =
𝑎−1
1−(
𝑎 )

𝑈4 = 𝑎

1
∴𝑈5 =
1−𝑎

𝑈2 = 𝑈5 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

EXAMPLE 5

A sequence 𝑈𝑛 is defined for real numbers by

𝑈𝑛
𝑈𝑛+1 =
2 + 𝑈𝑛
When 𝑈1 = 3 find

(𝑖 ) 𝑈2 , 𝑈3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈4
311
(𝑖𝑖 ) Hence describe behavior of the sequence as 𝑛 increases

3
(𝑖 ) 𝑈2 =
2+3

3
=
5

3
𝑈3 = 5
3
2+
5

3
=
13

3
𝑈4 = 13
3
2+
13

3
=
29

(ii) The sequence is clearly converging as 𝑛 increases

312
We also have other two important sequences we discuss about
known as the Arithmetic progression and geometric
progression.

Arithmetic Progression

• An Arithmetic Progression is a sequence where any term

differs from preceding term by a constant known as
common difference.

𝑒𝑔. 2; 4; 6; 8; … … … 𝑑 = 2

7 , 18 , 29 , … . . 𝑑 = 11

Points to discuss

(1) 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑇𝑛 )

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Where 𝑎 is the first term and d common difference.

Example
313
Find the ninth term of the Arithmetic Progression

5; 7; 9; 11; 13; … … …

𝑎=5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 2

∴𝑇9 = 5 + (9 − 1)(2)

=5+16

=21

(2) To find number of terms (n) in an AP

𝑙 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Where
𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 of 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

Example

Find the number of terms in the sequence 4 , 7 , 10 ,13 , .., 1000

Last term =1000
𝑎 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 3

314
∴1000 = 4 + (𝑛 − 1)(3)

1000=4+3𝑛 − 3

3𝑛 = 999

𝑛=333

∴Number of terms=333

(3) Using 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 to find 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑

Example

The eighth term of an AP is 11 and the 15th term is [Link] the

common difference, the first term and the nth term.

𝑇8 = 𝑎 + 7𝑑

𝑇15 = 𝑎 + 14𝑑

𝑎 + 7𝑑 = 11 (1)

315
𝑎 + 14𝑑 = 21 (2)

10
Solve simultaneously to get 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 1
7

10
∴The first term (𝑎) is 1 and common difference (𝑑) is
7

10
nth term (𝑇𝑛 ) =1 + (𝑛 − 1)
7
1
= (10𝑛 − 3)
7

(4) Sum of 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑃

𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ] or 𝑆𝑛 = 2 [𝑎 + 𝑙 ]

Where 𝑛 is number of terms, 𝑎 first term ,𝑙 last term and 𝑑

Common difference

Example

Find the sum of the first 10 terms of AP 4, 7, 10, 13,…….

316
 10
𝑆10 = [2(4) + (10 − 1)(3)]
2

=175

Find sum of the AP 20, 25, 30, 35, ……..100

Find number of terms first

100=20 + (𝑛 − 1)(5)

100=20+5𝑛 − 5

5𝑛 = 85

𝑛 =17

17
∴𝑆17 = [20 + 100]
2

= 1020

Geometric Progression

A sequence in which consecutive or successive terms have a

constant ratio known as a common ratio (r)
317
𝑒𝑔. 2; 4; 8; 16; … … …

4 8 16
= = ∴𝑟=2
2 4 2

1 1 1
𝑒𝑔. , , , … ..
2 4 8

1 1
4 8 1
1 = 1 ∴𝑟=
2
2 4

• Points to note for A Geometric Progression

𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

Where 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

Example

Find the ninth term of the G.P 1, 3 , 9 , 27 ,……..

𝑎=1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 3
∴𝑇9 = (1)(3)9−1

318
 =6561

1 1 1
Find the 10th term of the G.P , , ,…
2 4 8

1 1 10−1
𝑇10 = ( ) ( )
2 2

1
=
1024

(2)To find number of terms (𝑛) in a G.P

𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

Example

Find the number of terms in the sequence

1 1 1 1
1, , , ……..,
2 4 8 2048

1
𝑎=1 𝑟=
2

1 1 𝑛−1
∴ = (1) ( )
2048 2

319
 1 1 𝑛−1
=( )
2048 2

2−11 = (2−1 )𝑛−1

2−11 = 2−𝑛+1

−𝑛 + 1 = −11

𝑛 = 12

(3)Sum of n terms in a G.P

𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑖𝑓 𝑟 < 1 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟

𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑖𝑓 𝑟 > 1 𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1

Let us look at the following two examples

Find the sum of the first ten terms of the sequence

1 1 1
1, , , … … . .,
2 4 8

320
 1
𝑎=1 𝑟=
2

𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
Since 𝑟 < 1 use the formula 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟

1 10
1(1−( ) )
2
∴𝑆10 = 1
1−2

511
=1
512

Find the sum of the first 12 terms of the G.P 1, 3 , 9 , 27 ,……..

𝑎=1 𝑟=3

𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1)
Since 𝑟 > 1 use the formula 𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1

1(312 −1)
∴𝑆12 =
3−1

= 265720

321
 (4)Sum to infinity of A Geometric progression 𝑆∞

The sum to infinity of a geometric progression is given by

𝑎
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑆∞ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑟| < 1
1−𝑟

Where 𝑎 is the first term and 𝑟 is common ratio

It exists if −1 < 𝑟 < 1

Let us do the following example

Given the G.P

1 1
, , 1 , … find the sum to infinity of the G.P
9 3

1 1
𝑎= 𝑟=
9 3

1
9
∴𝑆∞ = 1
1−
3

1
=
6

322
So having discussed about the geometric progression and
arithmetic progression let us look at following examples:

EXAMPLE 1

Given an Arithmetic Progression with tenth term 82 and

twentieth term 172
Find Sum of first 20 terms

𝑇10 = 𝑎 + 9𝑑 = 82
𝑇20 = 𝑎 + 19𝑑 = 172

𝑎 + 9𝑑 = 82 (1)
𝑎 + 19𝑑 = 172 (2)

𝑎 = 82 − 9𝑑

82 − 9𝑑 + 19𝑑 = 172

82 + 10𝑑 = 172

10𝑑 = 90

𝑑=9

323
𝑎 = 82 − 9(9)

𝑎 = 82 − 81

𝑎=1

20
∴𝑆20 = [2(1) + 19](9)
2

= 1890

EXAMPLE 2

(i) An arithmetic progression has 10 terms. It has first

term 𝑎 and common difference 𝑑 where 𝑑 > 0
Given that its first, second and fifth terms are
consecutive terms of a geometric progression, find 𝑎 in
terms of 𝑑
(ii) Given further that the difference between the first and
the last term is 36, find the sum of the terms.

(i) 𝑎 ; 𝑎 + 𝑑 ; 𝑎 + 4𝑑

324
𝑎 + 𝑑 𝑎 + 4𝑑
=
𝑎 𝑎+𝑑

(𝑎 + 𝑑)2 = 𝑎(𝑎 + 4𝑑)

𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑑 + 𝑑2 = 𝑎2 + 4𝑎𝑑

2𝑎𝑑 = 𝑑2

𝑑
𝑎=
2

𝑑
(ii) 𝑎= (1)
2

𝑎 − (𝑎 + 4𝑑 ) = 36 (2)

−4𝑑 = 36

9
𝑑 = −9 𝑎=−
2

10 9
𝑆10 = [2 (− ) + (10 − 1)(−9)]
2 2

= −450

325
QUESTION 3

The first term of an arithmetic progression is −5 The sum of

the first three even numbered terms is equal to twice the sum
of the first three odd numbered terms, find the sum of the first
20 terms.

𝑎 = −5

𝑇2 + 𝑇4 + 𝑇6 = 2(𝑇1 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇5 )

𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 3𝑑 + 𝑎 + 5𝑑 = 2(𝑎 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 + 𝑎 + 4𝑑 )

𝑎 = −𝑑

−5 = −𝑑

𝑑=5
20
𝑆20 = [2(−5) + (20 − 1)(5)]
2

= 850

QUESTION 4:

326
The first and last terms of an arithmetic progression are −3 and 25
respectively, and sum of all the terms is 1837.
Find the number of terms and common difference.

𝑎 = −3

𝑙 = 25 𝑆 = 1837

𝑛
(−3 + 25) = 1837 (1)
2

25 = −3 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 (2)

𝑛
(22) = 1837
2

11𝑛 = 1837

𝑛 = 167

25 = −3 + (167 − 1)𝑑

25 = −3 + 166𝑑

14
𝑑=
83

QUESTION 5:

327
 (i) Given that the first two terms of a geometric progression are 4
and 6 respectively calculate the sum of the first 20 terms , giving
your answer correct to the nearest integer

(ii) The first term of an arithmetic progression is 6 and the sum of the
first 36 terms is 90. Find the common difference

(i) 𝑎=4 (1)

𝑎𝑟 = 6 (2)

4𝑟 = 6

6
𝑟=
4

3
𝑟=
2

3 20
4 (( ) − 1)
2
𝑆20 =
3
−1
2

= 26594

36
(ii) [2(6) + (36 − 1)𝑑] = 90
2

328
18[12 + 35𝑑 ] = 90

630𝑑 = −126

1
𝑑=−
5

QUESTION 6

Given that the sum of the first two terms of a geometric progression is 90
3
and the sum to infinity is 91 find the two possible values the common
7
ratio

𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 = 90 (1)

𝑎 640
= (2)
1−𝑟 7

𝑎(1 + 𝑟) = 90

90
𝑎=
1+𝑟

90
1 + 𝑟 = 640
1−𝑟 7

329
 90 640
2
=
1−𝑟 7

640 − 640𝑟 2 = 630

640𝑟 2 = 10

2
1
𝑟 =
64

1
𝑟 = ±√
64

1
𝑟=±
8

QUESTION 7

1 1
The third term and sixth term of a geometric progression are − and
3 81
respectively.

Find the

(a) Common ratio and first term

(b) Sum of the first 𝑛 terms of the progression
(c) Sum to infinity of the progression

330
 1
(a) 𝑎𝑟 5 = (1)
81

1
𝑎𝑟 2 = − (2)
3

Dividing (1) 𝑏𝑦 (2)

3
1
𝑟 =−
27

1
𝑟=−
3

1 2 1
𝑎 (− ) = −
3 3

1 1
𝑎=−
9 3

𝑎 = −3

1 𝑛
−3(1−(− ) )
3
(b) 𝑆𝑛 = 1
1−(− )
3

9 1 𝑛
= − (1 − (− ) )
4 3

331
 −3
(c) 𝑆∞ = 9
1−(− )
4

9
=−
4

Series

• The Binomial Theorem for expansion

The binomial theorem is used for expanding brackets of form

(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑔. (𝑥 + 2)5

𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−2 2 𝑛 𝑛−3 3

(𝑎 + 𝑏 )𝑛 = 𝑎 + ( ) 𝑎 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎 𝑏 +. . 𝑏𝑛
𝑛
1 2 3

Where n is a positive whole number.

NOTE:

n
( ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠
r
∶ ′n choose r' 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠
𝑐 𝑛 𝐶𝑟

One must understand that the binomial theorem holds only

when the power (𝑛) is A POSITIVE WHOLE NUMBER

332
Once the power becomes negative or fractional the Binomial
Theorem no longer applies.

So let us look at the following examples:

Expand (2𝑥 + 3)5 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥

𝑎 = 2𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 3

(2𝑥 + 3)5 = (2𝑥)5 + (51)(2𝑥 )5−1 (3) + (52)(2𝑥 )5−2 (3)2

+(53)(2𝑥 )5−3 (3)3 + (54)(2𝑥)5−4 (3)4 + (55)(3)5

= 32𝑥 5 + 240𝑥 4 + 720𝑥 3 + 1080𝑥 2 + 810𝑥 + 243

Find the first four terms of the expansion of (2 + 𝑥 )10

10 10−1 10 10−2 2 10 10−3 3

= 210 + ( ) 2 𝑥 + ( ) 2 𝑥 + ( )2 𝑥
1 2 3

= 1024 + 5120𝑥 + 11520𝑥 2 + 15360𝑥 3

333
Find in ascending powers of 𝑥, the first three terms in the
expansion of

(2 − 𝑥 )9

(2 − 𝑥 )9 = 29 + (9) 28 (−𝑥 ) + (9) 27 (−𝑥 )2

1 2

= 512 − 2304𝑥 + 4608𝑥 2

• Using the General Formula

𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟
𝑇𝑟+1 = ( )𝑎 𝑏
𝑟

Given (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 we can use the general formula shown above to

find:

(a) The 𝑛𝑡ℎ term in the expansion

(b) The coefficient of the given term

• Finding the nth term of an expansion

So let us look at the following example to illustrate this

concept

334
Find the 7th term in the expansion of (3 − 𝑥 )11

𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟
So, applying the General Formula 𝑇𝑟+1 = ( )𝑎 𝑏
𝑟

11 11−6
∴ 𝑇6+1 = ( )3 (−𝑥 )6
6

𝑇7 = 112266𝑥 6

Find the 4th term in the expansion of (2 + 5𝑥 )10

10 10−3
𝑇3+1 = ( )2 (5𝑥 )3
3

𝑇4 = 192000𝑥 3

335
 • Finding coefficient of a given term

To find the coefficient of a given term let us look at the

following example:

2 9
In the expansion of (𝑥 − 𝑥) find the coefficient of 𝑥 −3
2

𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟
So, using 𝑇𝑟+1 = ( ) 𝑎 𝑏 but we don’t know the position of
𝑟
the term therefore we have to find 𝑟 first

𝑟
9 ( 2 )9−𝑟 2
𝑇𝑟+1 =( ) 𝑥 (− )
𝑟 𝑥

So, to find the value of 𝑟 equate the powers of 𝑥 to −3

2(9 − 𝑟) − 𝑟 = −3

18 − 2𝑟 − 𝑟 = −3

18 − 3𝑟 = −3

3𝑟 = 21

𝑟=7

336
 9 ( 2 )9−7 2 7
∴𝑇7+1 =( ) 𝑥 (− 𝑥)
7

= −4608

• The Binomial Series

Before we look at the Binomial series let us first talk about

factorial notation

Factorial Notation 𝑛!

Let us say we have 5! This is read as "5 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙"

𝑛! = 𝑛 × 𝑛 − 1 × 𝑛 − 2 × 𝑛 − 3 × … . .× 1

𝑛! Means 𝑛 is multiplying the numbers below it up to 1

∴ 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1

= 120

6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1

= 720
337
The binomial series is used in expansion of brackets for which
the power (𝑛) is a fraction or a negative whole number

𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3

(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯.
2! 3!

And the expansion is valid for |𝑥 | < 1

NOTE:

This is what we use when the power 𝑛 is NOT A POSITIVE

WHOLE NUMBER THAT IS WHEN THE POWER IS A FRACTION
OR A NEGATIVE NUMBER

In some situations, they can work hand in hand but to avoid

confusion and to make life easy just get the concept that we
use Binomial Theorem when 𝑛 is a positive whole number and
we use Binomial Series when 𝑛 is a fraction or a negative
whole number

Write down the first four terms in the expansion of

338
(1 + 𝑥 )−2

(−2)(−2 − 1) 2 −2(−2 − 1)(−2 − 2) 3

(1 + 𝑥 )−2 = 1 + (−2)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +..
2! 3!

= 1 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3

5
Write down the first four terms in expansion of (1 + 2𝑥 ) 2

5 5 5 5 5
5 2 (2 − 1) 2 (2 − 1) (2 − 2)
= 1 + ( ) (2𝑥 ) + (2𝑥 )2 + (2𝑥 )3
2 2! 3!

15 5
= 1 + 5𝑥 + 2
𝑥 + 2 𝑥3
2

The following example is the one of the types which confuse

some

When you are not given 1 in a bracket!!

Write down the first three terms in expansion of

1
(4 + 3𝑥 ) 2

339
State the values of 𝑥 for which the expansion is valid

Take note that we need this in the form (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 to apply the

binomial series

1
3 2
So we factor out 4 to obtain 4 (1 + 𝑥)
4

Then be VERY CAREFUL here about the power. The power is

also affecting the 4 we factored out.

1
1
3 2
= 4 (1 + 𝑥)
2
4

1
3 2
= 2 (1 + 𝑥)
4

1 1
1 3 ( − 1) 3 2
= 2 [1 + ( ) ( 𝑥) + 2 2 ( ) ]
2 4 2! 4

3 9
= 2 [1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2]
8 128

3 9
=2+ 𝑥− 𝑥2
4 64
340
Then to find value of 𝑥 for which expansion of 𝑥 is valid

3
|4 𝑥| < 1

3𝑥
|4|<1

|3𝑥 | < 4

4
|𝑥 | <
3

Ex 2
1
−
Expand (8 + 𝑥 ) up to and including the term in 𝑥 3 and hence state
3

values of 𝑥 for which the expansion is valid

1
1 𝑥 −
− 3
(8 + 𝑥) 3 = 8 (1 + )
8

1
−
1
𝑥 −3
=8 3 (1 + )
8

1
1 𝑥 −3
= (1 + )
2 8

1 1 1 1 1
1 1 𝑥 (− )(− −1) 𝑥 2 (− )(− −1)(− −2) 𝑥 3
3 3 3 3 3
= [1 + (− ) ( ) + ( ) + ( ) ]
2 3 8 2! 8 3! 8

341
 1 𝑥 1 2 7
= [1 − + 𝑥 − 𝑥3]
2 24 288 20736

1 𝑥 1 2 7
= − + 𝑥 − 𝑥3
2 48 576 41472

𝑥
Expansion is valid for | | < 1 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 |𝑥 | < 8 = −8 < 𝑥 < 8
8

342
Summations

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

Use standard results for ∑ 𝑟 , ∑ 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑟 3 to find related sums

• THE SIGMA NOTATION

Let us first talk about sigma notation, Σ

The sigma notation is used to represent the sum of terms in a

sequence.

For example,
6

∑ 𝑟2
𝑟=1

Means terms of form 𝑟 2 were added starting from the term 𝑟 = 1 up

to the term 𝑟 = 6

∴
6

∑ 𝑟 2 = 1 + 22 + 3 2 + 42 + 52 + 62
𝑟=1

= 91

343
Let us do following examples about the sigma notation

Evaluate
5

∑ 2𝑟
𝑟=1

= 2(1) + 2(2) + 2(3) + 2(4) + 2(5)

= 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10

= 30

Evaluate
6
∑ (3𝑟 − 1)
𝑟=1

= 3(1) − 1 + 3(2) − 1 + 3(3) − 1 + 3(4) − 1 + 3(5) − 1 + 3(6) − 1

= 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17

= 57

Evaluate
344
 4
∑ 𝑟3
𝑟=1

= 1 + 23 + 33 + 43

= 100

WOOOOH that was so tiresome. So did you realize that if we

keep on evaluating summations that way it becomes tiresome
and boring.

Hence there are standard results used to evaluate these

summations
Here are the following standard results to be used:

345
 𝑛

∑ 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑟=1

𝑛
𝑛
∑ 𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1)
2
𝑟=1

𝑛
𝑛 2
∑ 𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
6
𝑟=1

𝑛
2
𝑛
∑ 𝑟 3 = (𝑛 + 1)2
4
𝑟=1

So now since we have these standard results let us now evaluate the
summations quickly and efficiently

Example 1

Evaluate
6

∑𝑟
𝑟=1

346
Since
𝑛
𝑛
∑ 𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1)
2
𝑟=1

6
6
∑ 𝑟 = (6 + 1)
2
𝑟=1

= 21

Example 2

Evaluate
5

∑ 𝑟2
𝑟=1

Since
𝑛
𝑛2
∑ 𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
6
𝑟=1

5
5 2
∴ ∑ 𝑟 = (5 + 1)(10 + 1)
6
𝑟=1

347
 = 55

Example 3

𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∑6
𝑟=1

Since
𝑛

∑ 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑟=1

∑ 6 = 8(6)
𝑟=1

= 48

Example 4

348
 10

𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∑ 𝑟 3
𝑟=1

Since
𝑛
2
𝑛
∑ 𝑟 3 = (𝑛 + 1)2
4
𝑟=1

10
2
10
∴ ∑ 𝑟3 = (10 + 1)2
4
𝑟=1

= 3025

• Combined Summations

Sometimes the summations can be combined and don’t worry

all you need to do is separate them.

Make sure wherever there is a constant take it outside.

Let us look at the following examples:

Evaluate
6

∑ 2𝑟 + 𝑟 3
𝑟=1
349
 6 6 6

∑ 2𝑟 + 𝑟 3 = 2 ∑ 𝑟 + ∑ 𝑟 3
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1

6 62
= 2 [2 (6 + 1)] + (6 + 1)2
4

= 483

Evaluate
8

∑ 𝑟 3 + 2𝑟 2 + 5𝑟
𝑟=1

8 8 8 8

∑ 𝑟 3 + 2𝑟 2 + 5𝑟 = ∑ 𝑟 3 + 2 ∑ 𝑟 2 + 5 ∑ 𝑟
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1

82 8 8
= (8 + 1 )2 + 2 [ (8 + 1)(16 + 1)] + 5 [ (8 + 1)]
4 6 2

= 1296 + 408 + 180

= 1884

350
Evaluate
6

∑ 2𝑟 + 𝑟 2 + 7
𝑟=1

6 6 6 6

∑ 2𝑟 + 𝑟 2 + 7 = 2 ∑ 𝑟 + ∑ 𝑟 2 + ∑ 7
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1

6 6
= 2 [ (6 + 1)] + (6 + 1)(12 + 1) + 7(6)
2 6

= 175

What happens if 𝑟 ≠ 1 ? ? ?

What happens when 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 1 for example let us say

we are given

∑ 𝑟3
𝑟=5

We know that our standard formulas work when we have

351
𝑟=1

This therefore means we have to play around with the

summation till it has 𝑟 = 1

So, to do that we use the following formula:

𝑛 𝑛 𝑥

∑ 𝑟 = ∑𝑟 −∑𝑟
𝑟=𝑥+1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1

Did you realize what happened??

Let us say we are given

8

∑ 𝑟2
𝑟=3

We need 𝑟 = 1 therefore we remove 2 and it becomes

8 8 2

∑ 𝑟2 = ∑ 𝑟2 − ∑ 𝑟2
𝑟=3 𝑟=1 𝑟=1

8 2
= 6 (8 + 1)(16 + 1) − 6 (2 + 1)(4 + 1)
352
 = 204 − 5

= 199

Evaluate
9

∑ 2𝑟 + 5
𝑟=5

9 9 9

∑ 2𝑟 + 5 = 2 ∑ 𝑟 + ∑ 5
𝑟=5 𝑟=5 𝑟=5

9 4 9 4

= 2 [∑ 𝑟 − ∑ 𝑟] + ∑ 5 − ∑ 5
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1

9 4
= 2 [ (9 + 1) − (4 + 1)] + 9(5) − 4(5)
2 2

= 95

So having done all the concepts let us look at following

examples:
353
EXAMPLE 1

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∑(2𝑟 − 3) = 255 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛

𝑟=1

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑(2𝑟 − 3) = 2 ∑ 𝑟 − ∑ 3
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1

𝑛
∴ 2 [ (𝑛 + 1)] − 3𝑛 = 255
2

𝑛(𝑛 + 1) − 3𝑛 = 255

𝑛2 + 𝑛 − 3𝑛 − 255 = 0

𝑛2 − 2𝑛 − 255 = 0

𝑛2 − 17𝑛 + 15𝑛 − 255 = 0

𝑛(𝑛 − 17) + 15(𝑛 − 17) = 0

(𝑛 − 17)(𝑛 + 15) = 0

354
𝑛 = 17 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −15

∴ 𝑛 = 17

EXAMPLE 2

3 𝑟 10
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∑ 3 ( ) 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 4
𝑟=1 4
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠

3 1 9
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 3 ( ) =
4 4

3 2 27
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 3 ( ) =
4 16

3 3 81
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 3 ( ) =
4 64

9
∴we have a geometric progression first term and common
4
3
ratio
4

9 3 10
4
(1−(4) )
∴ 𝑆10 = 3
1−
4

355
 = 8.493

EXAMPLE 3

Given that
10
∑ (5𝑎 + 4𝑟) = 3960
𝑟=1
Where 𝑎 is a constant. Find the value of 𝑎

Using the value of 𝑎 found, find an expression in terms of 𝑛 for

𝑛
∑ (5𝑎 + 4𝑟)
𝑟=5

EXAMPLE 4

Show that
16
𝑟
∑(√3) = 9840 + 3280√3
𝑟=1

𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = √3

356
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 3

𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 3√3

∴We have a geometric progression first term √3 and common

ratio √3

16
√3 ((√3) − 1)
𝑆16 =
√3 − 1

√3(6561 − 1)
=
√3 − 1

6560√3
=
√3 − 1

6560√3(√3 + 1)
=
2

19680 + 6560√3
=
2

357
= 9840 + 3280√3

358
Method of Differences

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

Use method of differences to obtain sum of finite series

BACKGROUND

The method of differences is a technique we use to find the formula that

gives the sum of terms in a series.

In most cases we will be dealing with a summation with general terms

which can be expressed in partial fractions.

All you need to do is identify the pattern that the sequence will be
following for values of 𝑟 = 1 , 2 , … . 𝑛 − 1 , 𝑛 where 𝑛 is the last value
and 𝑛 − 1 is the second from last

Let us go straight into the following examples:

1
Express in partial fractions.
𝑟 (𝑟+1)(𝑟+2)

Hence evaluate
𝑛
1
∑
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1

359
 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑟(𝑟+1)(𝑟+2) 𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2

1 = 𝐴(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑟)(𝑟 + 2) + 𝐶 (𝑟)(𝑟 + 1)

1 1
𝐴= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 =
2 2

Tip:When differencing sum of your numerators must be zero

𝑛 𝑛
1 1 1 1
∴∑ =∑ − +
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2𝑟 (𝑟 + 1) 2(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

To find the pattern now we use the partial fractions of the summation.

Remember we want to study the pattern from

𝑟 = 1 ,2 ,3 ,…..𝑛 − 1 ,𝑛

Let us see how it is done. If you are still trying to get the concept you can
put as many 𝑟 ′ 𝑠 as you want. So, I will put about 5 till we get to 𝑛 − 1 and
𝑛

360
 1 1 1
𝑟=1 − +
2 2 6

1 1 1
𝑟=2 − +
4 3 8

1 1 1
𝑟=3 − +
6 4 10

1 1 1
𝑟=4 − +
8 5 12

1 1 1
𝑟=5 − +
10 6 14
….
….
1 1 1
− + 𝑟 =𝑛−1
2𝑛−2 𝑛 2(𝑛+1)

1 1 1
− + 𝑟=𝑛
2𝑛 𝑛+1 2(𝑛+2)

So let us discuss about the pattern we observed and the gentlemen

in purple we need to know how they were left behind.

The black diagonals are representing those terms which if we add cancel
out.

361
 1 1 1 1 1 1
For example, − + = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − + =0
6 3 6 8 4 4

Now the gentlemen in purple were left behind simply because they could
not cancel according to the pattern.
1 1
Note that 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − cannot cancel each other since our terms are
2(𝑛+1) 𝑛+1
ending at 𝑟 = 𝑛 therefore we cannot assume that there are other terms

𝑛 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∴∑ = − + + − +
𝑟=1 𝑟 (𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2 2 4 2(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 + 1 2(𝑛 + 2)

1 1 1
= − +
4 2(𝑛+1 ) 2(𝑛+2)

Simple isn’t it

Example 2
Find
𝑛 1
∑
𝑟=1 𝑟 (𝑟 + 1)

1
Partializing first first
𝑟 (𝑟+1)

𝑛 1 𝑛 1 1
∑ =∑ −
𝑟=1 𝑟 (𝑟 + 1 ) 𝑟=1 𝑟 𝑟+1
Let us now study the pattern.

362
 1
𝑟=1 1−
2

1 1
𝑟=2 −
2 3

1 1
𝑟=3 −
3 4

1 1
𝑟=4 −
4 5

1 1
𝑟=5 −
5 6

1 1
𝑟 =𝑛−1 −
𝑛−1 𝑛

1 1
𝑟=𝑛 −
𝑛 𝑛+1

𝑛 1 1
∴∑ =1−
𝑟=1 𝑟 (𝑟 + 1 ) 𝑛+1

363
Example 3

Find
𝑛
𝑟
∑
(𝑟 + 2)(𝑟 + 3)(𝑟 + 4)
𝑟=1

𝑟 −1 3 2
First partialising ( to get +( −(
𝑟+2)(𝑟+3)(𝑟+4 ) 𝑟+2 𝑟+3 ) 𝑟+4)

𝑛 𝑛
𝑟 −1 3 2
∑ =∑ + −
(𝑟 + 2)(𝑟 + 3)(𝑟 + 4) 𝑟 + 2 (𝑟 + 3) 𝑟 + 4
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

Now to study the pattern

−1 3 2
𝑟=1 + −
3 4 5

−1 3 2
𝑟=2 + −
4 5 6

−1 3 2
𝑟=3 + −
5 6 7

−1 3 2
+ − 𝑟 =𝑛−1
𝑛+1 𝑛+2 𝑛+3

−1 3 2
+ − 𝑟=𝑛
𝑛+2 𝑛+3 𝑛+4

364
 𝑛
𝑟 −1 3 1 2 3 2
∴∑ = + − − + −
(𝑟 + 2)(𝑟 + 3)(𝑟 + 4) 3 4 4 𝑛+3 𝑛+3 𝑛+4
𝑟=1

1 1 2
= − −
6 𝑛+3 𝑛+4

Example 4

Find
𝑛
2−𝑟
∑
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1

Solution

1 3 2
First partialising to get − +
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2

𝑛
2−𝑟 1 3 2
∴∑ = − +
( )(
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2 ) 𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2
𝑟=1

To study pattern

365
 3 2
𝑟=1 1− +
2 3

1 3 2
𝑟=2 − +
2 3 4

1 3 2
𝑟=3 − +
3 4 5

1 3 2
𝑟 =𝑛−1 − +
𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛+1

1 3 2
𝑟=𝑛 − +
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+2

𝑛
2−𝑟 3 1 2 3 2
∴∑ =1− + + − +
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2 2 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛+2
𝑟=1

1 2
=− +
𝑛+1 𝑛+2

𝑛
=
(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)

Example 5
Find
𝑛
3𝑟 + 4
∑
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1

366
SOLUTION

3𝑟+4 2 1 1
Partialising first to get − −
𝑟 (𝑟+1)(𝑟+2) 𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2

𝑛 𝑛
3𝑟 + 4 2 1 1
∴∑ =∑ − −
( )(
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2 ) 𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

1 1
𝑟=1 2− −
2 3

2 1 1
𝑟=2 − −
2 3 4

2 1 1
𝑟=3 − −
3 4 5

2 1 1
𝑟 =𝑛−1 − −
𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛+1

2 1 1
𝑟=𝑛 − −
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+2

𝑛
3𝑟 + 4 1 2 1 1 1
∴∑ =2− + − − −
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2 2 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛+2
𝑟=1

5 2 1
= − −
2 𝑛+1 𝑛+2

Examples involving ∞

367
Let us look at examples including ∞

Before we do that one must appreciate that

1
=0
∞

So we are going to do the previous examples but this time with ∞ as upper
limit.

1
Express in partial fractions.
𝑟 (𝑟+1)(𝑟+2)

Hence deduce the value of

∞
1
∑
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1

To evaluate
∞
1
∑
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1

The procedures are just the same as evaluating

𝑛
1
∑
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1

368
The except part is that you will then have to substitute ∞ since 𝑛 → ∞

∞ ∞
1 1 1 1
∑ =∑ − +
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2𝑟 (𝑟 + 1) 2(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

1 1 1
𝑟=1 − +
2 2 6

1 1 1
𝑟=2 − +
4 3 8

1 1 1
𝑟=3 − +
6 4 10

1 1 1
𝑟=4 − +
8 5 12

1 1 1
𝑟=5 − +
10 6 14
….
….
1 1 1
− + 𝑟 =𝑛−1
2𝑛−2 𝑛 2(𝑛+1)

1 1 1
− + 𝑟=𝑛
2𝑛 𝑛+1 2(𝑛+2)

369
 ∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑ = − + + − +
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 2 2 4 2(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 + 1 2(𝑛 + 2)
𝑟=1

∞
1 1 1 1
∴∑ = lim ( − + )
( )(
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2 ) 𝑛→∞ (
4 2 𝑛+1 ) (
2 𝑛+2 )
𝑟=1

The except part now is that you have to substitute ∞

∞
1 1 1 1
∴∑ = − +
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 4 ∞ ∞
𝑟=1

Recall
1
=0
∞

∞
1 1
∴∑ =
𝑟(𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2) 4
𝑟=1

Let us do the same for example 2

Deduce the value of

∞ 1
∑
𝑟=1 𝑟 (𝑟 + 1)

370
 ∞ ∞
1 1 1
∑ =∑ −
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 𝑟 𝑟+1
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

Let us now study the pattern.

1
𝑟=1 1−
2

1 1
𝑟=2 −
2 3

1 1
𝑟=3 −
3 4

1 1
𝑟=4 −
4 5

1 1
𝑟=5 −
5 6

1 1
𝑟 =𝑛−1 −
𝑛−1 𝑛

1 1
𝑟=𝑛 −
𝑛 𝑛+1

∞ 1 1
∴∑ = lim (1 − )
𝑟=1 𝑟 (𝑟 + 1) 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1

1
=1−
∞+1

=1

371
Test yourself by doing examples 3 to 5 with ∞ as upper limit.

372
 TOPIC 4:TRIGONOMETRY

Plane Trigonometry

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• distinguish between radians and degrees

• convert degrees to radians and vice versa
• calculate arc length and sector area
• solve problems involving lengths of arcs, areas of sectors
and segments
• use small angle approximation for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

373
CIRCULAR MEASURE

Instead of using degrees we can also use what are called

RADIANS.
∴When dealing with radians make sure Calculator is in Radian
Mode.

𝜋
Converting from Degrees to Radians (× )
180°

180°
Converting from Radians to Degrees (× )
𝜋

Examples

𝜋
30° 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 30° ×
180°

𝜋
= 𝑟𝑎𝑑
6

𝜋
180° 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 180° × 180°

= 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑

5𝜋 5𝜋 180°
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 = ×
6 6 𝜋

374
 = 150°

180°
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 = 2𝜋 ×
𝜋

= 360°

• Length of Arc and Area of Sector

θ B
O

Sector OAB is the area enclosed by two radii

Arc AB is the part of the circumference subtending angle AOB.

If Angle AOB (𝜃) IS IN DEGREES

375
 𝜃
Length of arc AB = × 2𝜋𝑟
360°

𝜃
Area of sector AOB = 360 × 𝜋𝑟²

But now if Angle AOB (𝜃) IS IN RADIANS

𝜃
Length of arc = × 2𝜋𝑟 since 360° = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2𝜋

= 𝑟𝜃

𝜃
Area of sector= × 𝜋𝑟²
2𝜋

1
= 𝑟²𝜃
2

376
 • Area of Segment when 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

The area which is bounded by a chord and the circumference

is called a segment.
A chord divides the circle into major segment and minor
segment

major
O
𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑
r r
𝐴 𝐵
minor

From the diagram you will observe that

Area of minor segment=Area of sector OAB−Area of ∆OAB

1 2 1
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟 𝜃 − 𝑟²𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 2

377
 1
= 𝑟²(𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
2

Let us do the following examples

AB is an arc subtending an angle of 1.8 𝑟𝑎𝑑 at the center of a

circle of radius 5cm.

O B
1.8 rad

Calculate (i) Length of arc AB

(ii) Area of minor sector AOB
(iii) Perimeter of minor sector AOB

(i) Length of arc AB=5(1.8 𝑟𝑎𝑑)

= 9 𝑐𝑚
378
 1
(ii) Area of sector AOB= (5)²(1.8)
2

= 22.5 𝑐𝑚²

(iii) Perimeter of minor sector AOB=2𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃

=2(5) + 5(1.8)

= 10 + 9

= 19 𝑐𝑚

Ex 2
PQ is a chord subtending an angle of 1.4 radians at the
centre O of a circle with radius 8 cm.

Calculate (a) The Area of the minor segment (shaded)

(b) Perimeter of the sector OPQ

O
1.4 rad

P Q

379
 (a) Area of minor segment =Area of sector OPQ−∆𝑂𝑃𝑄

1 1
= (8 )2 (
1.4) − (8)²sin (1.4)
2 2

= 13.27 𝑐𝑚²

(b) Perimeter of the sector OPQ=2r+Arc PQ

= 2(8) + 8(1.4)

= 27.2 𝑐𝑚

Ex 1

380
1 2 1 1 1
𝑟 2𝜃 − 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = ( 𝑟 2 2𝜃)
2 2 3 2

1 2 1 1
𝑟 (2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 ) = 𝑟 2 ( 2𝜃)
2 2 3

1 2
Removing 𝑟
2

2𝜃
2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 =
3

6𝜃 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 2𝜃

4𝜃 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

4𝜃 = 3(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )

4𝜃 = 6𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2𝜃 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

381
QUESTION 2

1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑟 𝜃 = 2 [ 𝑟 (𝜋 − 𝜃 ) − 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃 )]
2 2 2

1 2
𝑟 𝜃 = 𝑟 2 (𝜋 − 𝜃 ) − 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃 )
2

1
𝜃 = 𝜋 − 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃 )
2

𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 2𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃 )

3𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃 )

3𝜃 = 2(𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃 ))

382
3𝜃 = 2[𝜋 − (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋)]

3𝜃 = 2[𝜋 − (+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)]

3𝜃 = 2[𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃]

QUESTION 3

Chord XY subtends an angle of 2𝜃 radians at the center of a circle radius 𝑟

and center 𝑂.
1
Given that the area of the minor segment is of the area of the major
6
2
segment, show that 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = (7𝜃 − 𝜋)
7

1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2
𝑟 2𝜃 − 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = [ 𝑟 (2𝜋 − 2𝜃 ) + 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃]
2 2 6 2 2

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑟 2𝜃 − 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑟 (2𝜋 − 2𝜃 ) + 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2 12 12

1 1 1 1
2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = (2𝜋 − 2𝜃 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2 12 12

1 1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝜃 − (2𝜋 − 2𝜃 )
12 2 12

7 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝜃 − (2)(𝜋 − 𝜃 )
12 12
383
7 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝜃 − (𝜋 − 𝜃 )
12 6

7𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 12𝜃 − 2(𝜋 − 𝜃 )

12 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝜃 − (𝜋 − 𝜃 )
7 7

12 2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝜃− 𝜋+ 𝜃
7 7 7

2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 2𝜃 − 𝜋
7
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = (7𝜃 − 𝜋)
7

QUESTION 4

384
Since perimeter= 10

2𝑡 + 3(2𝜃 ) = 10

2𝑡 + 6𝜃 = 10

2𝑡 = 10 − 6𝜃

𝑡 = 5 − 3𝜃 (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

To find 𝜃:

𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
3

−1
𝑡
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
3

−1
𝑡
∴ 𝑡 = 5 − 3𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
3

385
QUESTION 5

From the diagram show that 𝜃 = 𝜋 − 1

2𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃 = 𝑟(2𝜋 − 𝜃 )

2𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑟 − 𝑟𝜃

2𝑟𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑟 − 2𝑟

2𝑟𝜃 = 2𝑟(𝜋 − 1)

𝜃 = 𝜋 − 1 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

386
WORKSHEET

Q1

Q2

387
Q3

Q4

388
Q5

Q6

389
Q7

Q8

390
Q9

Q 10

391
Small Angles

Whenever an angle is smaller than 15° or in its equivalent radians range

we regard that angle small.

We are not going to derive the concepts but one must understand this:

If 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

If 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝜃2
If 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ≈ 1 − 2

Let us do the following examples together

Given that 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔:

(1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

Recall that if 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 ≈ 2𝜃

(2) 4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝜃

4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝜃 ≈ 4(5𝜃) ≈ 20𝜃

(3) 3𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃

392
Recall 𝑖𝑓 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
∴3𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 ≈3(2𝜃) ≈ 6𝜃

(4) 7𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝜃

7𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝜃 ≈ 7(4𝜃) ≈ 28𝜃

𝜃2
Recall if 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ≈ 1 − 2

(2𝜃 )2 4𝜃 2
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 ≈ 1 − 2 ≈1− ≈ 1 − 2𝜃 2
2

(6)5𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃

(3𝜃 )2 9𝜃 2 45𝜃 2
5𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 ≈ 5 (1 − ) ≈ 5 (1 − ) ≈5−
2 2 2

(7)𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 2𝜃 + 3𝜃 ≈ 5𝜃

(8)1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃

(3𝜃 )2 9𝜃 2 9𝜃 2
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 ≈ 1 + (1 − 2 ) ≈ 1 + (1 − 2 ) ≈2 − 2

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃+3
(9) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

393
 (2𝜃)2
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 3 (1 − 2 ) + 3 1 − 𝜃2 + 3 4 − 𝜃2
≈ ≈ ≈
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃

𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃+4𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃
(10)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃+4𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 2𝜃+12𝜃 14𝜃

≈ ≈ ≈ 14
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜃 𝜃

Find the approximations for the following when 𝜃 is considered

small.

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
(𝑎) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) (𝑏) (𝑐) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 2

𝜋 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃−𝜃
(𝑑) 1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 (𝑒) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( + 𝜃) (𝑓)
3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛6𝜃 𝜋 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃
(𝑔) (ℎ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + 𝜃) (𝑖)
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 1−2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(𝑗) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (𝑘) 3 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 (𝑙)
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃

394
395
Trigonometrical Functions

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• sketch the graphs of trigonometrical functions

• transform the graphs of trigonometrical functions
• sketch graphs of inverse trigonometrical relations
• solve trigonometrical equations
• prove trigonometrical identities
• solve problems using trigonometrical identities

396
 • Graphs of trigonometric functions

Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 360° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

𝜃
−360° − 270° − 180° − 90° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

−1

397
Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 for −360° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

−360° − 270° − 180° − 90° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

−1

398
Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝜃
−180° −90° 90° 180° 270°

• Notes on sketching the graphs of 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃

399
 Many struggle with sketching graphs of the inverse functions
but here are following concepts to master:

• The roots (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝜃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 0) become the lines of asymptotes and

the lines of asymptotes become roots (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎)
• The curve then opens up towards the lines of asymptotes.

So with these few notes let us sketch the graphs

• Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

−360 − 270° − 180° − 90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°

−1

400
 • Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃

𝜃
−360° − 270° − 180° − 90° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

401
 • Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

−360° − 270° − 180° − 90° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

−1

• Solving Basic trigonometrical equations

402
 There are various methods of solving trig equations but we are
going to use the General formulas which I think are more
convenient.

So, these are the following general formulas we will discuss

them one by one

For 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃:
𝜃 = 𝑃𝑉 + 360°𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = −1; 0,1, … ….
𝜃 = 𝑆𝑉 + 360°𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = −1; 0; 1; … ..

For 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃:

𝜃 = 360°𝑛 ± 𝑃𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = −1; 0; 1; … … ..

For 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃:

𝜃 = 180°𝑛 + 𝑃𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = −1; 0; 1; … ..

403
 • Solving for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Let us do the following examples:

1
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 sin 𝜃 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°
2

First find out about what we call the principal value and
Secondary Value (SV)

−1 1
𝑃𝑉 = sin (2) (SV=180°−PV)

∴ 𝑃𝑉 = 30° 𝑆𝑉 = 150°

Apply the general formula for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

(𝑅𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐸𝑅 𝑊𝐸 𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐷 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°)

For 𝑛 = −1

𝜃 = 30° + 360(−1) = −330° (𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑂𝐹 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸)

𝜃 = 150° + 360(−1) = −210° (𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑂𝐹 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸 )

404
For 𝑛 = 0

𝜃 = 30° + 360°(0) = 30° (𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸)

𝜃 = 150° + 360°(0) = 150° (𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸)

For 𝑛 = 1

𝜃 = 30° + 360°(1) = 390° (𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑂𝐹 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸)

𝜃 = 150° + 360°(1) = 510° (𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑂𝐹 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸 )

This shows us that from 𝑛 = 2 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 our solutions

will be out of range 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

∴ 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝜃 = 30° ; 150°

Our solutions are written in ascending order!!!

405
Example 2

2
Solve the equation 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = for 0° ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°
3

−1
2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
3

𝑃𝑉 = 41.81°

𝑆𝑉 = 180 − 𝑃𝑉

𝑆𝑉 = 138.19°

For 𝑛 = 0:

𝑥 = 41.81° + 360°(0) = 41.81°

𝑥 = 138.19° + 360°(0) = 138.19°

For 𝑛 = 1:

𝑥 = 41.81° + 360°(1) (𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)

𝑥 = 138.19° + 360°(1) (𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)

406
Therefore 𝑥 = 41.81° , 138.19°

Example 3

Solve the equation 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 3 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360

3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 =
5

−1
3
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
5

= 36.87°

𝑆𝑉 = 180 − 36.87 = 143.13°

𝑥 = 36.87° + 360°𝑛

𝑥 = 143.13° + 360°𝑛

For 𝑛 = 0:

𝑥 = 36.87 ; 143.13

407
Example 4

Solve the equation 2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 45°) = 1 for 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 45°) =
2

−1
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
2

𝑃𝑉 = 30°

𝑆𝑉 = 150°

𝜃 + 45° = 30° + 360°𝑛

𝜃 + 150° = 30° + 360°𝑛

𝜃 = 30° + 360°𝑛 − 45°

𝜃 = 30° + 360°𝑛 − 150°

408
𝜃 = 360°𝑛 − 15°

𝜃 = 360°𝑛 − 120°

For 𝑛 = 1:

𝜃 = 360° − 15° = 345°

𝜃 = 360° − 120° = 240°

𝜃 = 240 ; 345°

Example 5

Solve the equation 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 = 1 for 0° ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1)

𝑃𝑉 = 90 𝑆𝑉 = 90°

3𝑥 = 90° + 360°𝑛

409
𝑥 = 30° + 120𝑛

For 𝑛 = 0:

𝑥 = 30°

For 𝑛 = 1:

𝑥 = 150°

For 𝑛 = 2:

𝑥 = 30° + 240°

𝑥 = 270°

𝑥 = 30° ; 150° ; 270°

410
 (2) Solving for 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The General formula for 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is as follows:

𝜃 = 360°𝑛 ± 𝑃𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = −1; 0; 1; … … ..

∗Only sin 𝜃 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑉

Example 1

1
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 360° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°
2

−1
1
𝑃𝑉 = cos (− )
2

𝑃𝑉 = 120°

Applying the General Formula:

𝜃 = 360°𝑛 ± 𝑃𝑉

411
For 𝑛 = −1

𝜃 = 360°(−1) ± 120°

= (−360°) ± 120°

= −240° 𝑜𝑟 − 480°

= −240° (𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸) ∗−480° 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

For 𝑛 = 0

𝜃 = 360°(0) ± 120°

= 120° 𝑜𝑟 − 120° (𝐵𝑂𝑇𝐻 𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸)

For 𝑛 = 1

𝜃 = 360°(1) ± 120°

= 480° 𝑜𝑟 240°

= 240° (𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸)

412
Since for 𝑛 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 will be out of
range we end here and take all solutions within range in
ascending order.

∴ 𝜃 = −240°; −120°; 120°; 240°

Example 2

Solve the equation 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1 for 0° ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 =
2

−1
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
2

𝑃𝑉 = 60°

𝑥 = 360°𝑛 ± 60°

For 𝑛 = 0:

𝑥 = 60°

413
For 𝑛 = 1:

𝑥 = 300°

𝑥 = 60° ; 300°

Example 3

1
Solve the equation 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = for 0° ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°
2

−1
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
2

𝑃𝑉 = 60°

2𝑥 = 360°𝑛 ± 60°

𝑥 = 180°𝑛 ± 30°

For 𝑛 = 0:

𝑥 = 30°

414
For 𝑛 = 1:

𝑥 = 150° ; 210°

For 𝑛 = 2:

330°

𝑥 = 30° ; 150° ; 210 ; 330°

(3) Solving for 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

The General formula for tan 𝜃 is the simplest because it is

simply

𝜃 = 𝑃𝑉 + 180°𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = −1; 0; 1; … ..

Example 1

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

415
𝑃𝑉 = tan−1 (1)

= 45°

For 𝑛 = −1:

𝜃 = 180°(−1) + 45°

= −135° (𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑂𝐹 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸)

For 𝑛 = 0

𝜃 = 180°(0) + 45°

= 45° (𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸)

For 𝑛 = 1

𝜃 = 180°(1) + 45°

=225° (IN RANGE)

416
For 𝑛 = 2

𝜃 = 180°(2) + 45°

= 405° (𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑂𝐹 𝑅𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸)

∴ 𝜃 = 45°; 225°

Example 2

Solve the equation 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝑥 = −1 for 0° ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−1)

𝑃𝑉 = −45°

3𝑥 = −45° + 180°𝑛

𝑥 = −15° + 60°𝑛

For 𝑛 = 1:

𝑥 = −15° + 60°

417
𝑥 = 45°

For 𝑛 = 2:

𝑥 = −15° + 120°

𝑥 = 105°

For 𝑛 = 3:

𝑥 = −15° + 360°

𝑥 = 345°

𝑥 = 45° ; 105° ; 345°

Quadratic Trigonometric Equations

One must know these 3 Identities:

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1

418
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃

1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃

These are the identities we will also apply to form a quadratic

type of an equation in some examples.

Let us do the following Examples

(1) Solve the equation

2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0° ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°

Factorise 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 1 first to get

2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 1 = 0

2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1) − 1(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1)=0

(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1)(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1)=0 equate each bracket to zero

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 =
2

Solve the two equations separately to get 𝑥 = 30°; 90°; 150°

419
 (2) Solve the equation

3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°

(Recall 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1)∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝜃

Substitute 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑏𝑦 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝜃 to make a quadratic in 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

∴ 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1 = 0 ⟹ 3(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) − 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1=0

3 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1=0

3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 2 = 0 (NOW SOLVE THIS)

(3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)(cosθ+2)=0

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −2 (𝑁𝑂 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁)
3

𝜃 = 70.5°; 289.5°

420
Example 3

Solve the equation 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1 for 0° ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°

2(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 ) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 1 = 0

2 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 1 = 0

2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 1 = 0

2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 1 = 0

2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 1) − 1(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 1) = 0

(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 1)(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 1) = 0

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −1
2

Solve the two equations separately

421
Do these two

1. Solve the equation 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 3 = 0 for

0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°

2. 6𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 5 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

One must know this as they start trigonometry.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The inverse trig Identities

One must be able to take note of the ′𝐶 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ′𝑆′ relationship

between
Cosine and sine

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
422
 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The Pythagorean Identities

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1

From this we can derive other important identities.

Dividing throughout by 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

Dividing throughout by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

423
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 1
+ =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃

Compound Angle Identities

One must know the following

sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 ∓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴±𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
tan(𝐴 ± 𝐵) =
1∓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵

Double Angle Identities

Are derived from the compound Angle Identities

Let 𝐵 = 𝐴

sin(𝐴 − 𝐴) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 (𝑁𝑂 𝐼𝐷𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐼𝑇𝑌)

424
sin(𝐴 + 𝐴) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

∴𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

cos(𝐴 − 𝐴) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 (𝑁0 𝐼𝐷𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐼𝑇𝑌)

cos(𝐴 + 𝐴) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴

= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴)

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 1

∴𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 (1)

= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 (2)

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 1 (3)
425
tan(𝐴 − 𝐴) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛0 (𝑁𝑂 𝐼𝐷𝐸𝑁𝑇𝐼𝑇𝑌)

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐴) =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
∴𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝐴 =
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴

426
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1

1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 ± 𝐵) ≡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 ± 𝐵) ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 ∓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴±𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 ± 𝐵) ≡
1∓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵

𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴 ≡ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝐴 ≡
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 ≡ 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 ≡ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 1

427
Random Identities from different sources have been mixed.

Let us start with the few I borrowed from ZIMSEC

QUESTION 1

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Prove the identity − ≡ 2𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

SOLUTION

Attacking the LHS!!

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )

− = (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
=
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

QUESTION 2

428
 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Prove the identity √ ≡ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

SOLUTION

(a) Attacking the LHS!!! By multiplying numerator and denominator

with the conjugate of the denominator.

1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )2

√ × =√
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )2
=√
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= −
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

QUESTION 3

Prove the identity 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 ≡ 1

SOLUTION

Attacking the LHS:

429
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1 + ( ) (2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 1 +
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 1

= 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ) − 1

=2−1

= 1 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

QUESTION 4

Prove that 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 ≡ 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

SOLUTION

𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃 + 𝜃 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 )

= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

430
 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

= 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

QUESTION 5

2
Show that 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

SOLUTION

Attacking LHS

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

+ =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1 2
= ×
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2

2
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2
= (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

431
QUESTION 6

Prove the identity 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃 + 45°) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃 − 45°) ≡ 2𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃

SOLUTION

Attacking LHS!!!

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃+𝑡𝑎𝑛45° 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃−𝑡𝑎𝑛45°
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃 + 45°) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃 − 45°) = +
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛45° 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛45°

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃+1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃−1
= +
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃+1)2 +(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃−1)(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 )
= (1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 )(1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 )

𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃+2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃+1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃−1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

= (1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 )(1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 )

4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
=
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃

2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
= 2( )
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
Recall 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 =
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃

432
 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

QUESTION 7

1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴
Show that 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 ≡
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴

SOLUTION

(a) Attacking RHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴 1−( )
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴 1+( 2 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
( )
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴+𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝐴
( )
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴
( )
𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝐴
= 1
( 2 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴
= ×
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 1

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

QUESTION 8

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Prove that 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 ≡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

433
SOLUTION

Taking the LHS and Multiplying numerator and denominator with

conjugate.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= ×
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )2
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

1+𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
= +
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

QUESTION 9

Prove that 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝑥 ≡ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

434
SOLUTION

Attacking the LHS

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
= −
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

1−(1−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

QUESTION 10

Prove the identity

𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝜃
− ≡ 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

435
 𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝜃−𝜃)
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛2(2𝜃)
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

QUESTION 11

QUESTION 12

By first expanding 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 𝑥 ) , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

SOLUTION

436
𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 )

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥

= 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

QUESTION 13

Prove the identity

𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
≡ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

SOLUTION

Attacking LHS

2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
1+2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃−1

2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

437
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

QUESTION 14

Prove the identity 𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃 ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃

SOLUTION

Attacking LHS
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃−1
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 1
= −
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1
= −
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

= 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃

438
QUESTION 15

Prove the identity

1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 )2 ≡
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

Taking LHS

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2
=( + )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
= + 2( )+
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

1+2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 )2
=
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 )2
=(
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 )(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 )

1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
=
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

QUESTION 16
439
Prove the identity

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴+𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴−1
≡ 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

Attacking the LHS

1−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴+2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴−1
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴)
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

= 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴)

QUESTION 17

1−2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
Prove the identity ≡ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

440
Taking the LHS:

(2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥−1)
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
= − [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥]

= −[𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ]

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥

QUESTION 18

1
Prove that 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 )
8

441
Taking LHS:

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
= ( 2 )( 2 )

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃
= 4

1−(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 )2
= 4

(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃)
1− 2
= 4

2−1−𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃
2
= 4

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃
= 8

1
= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃)
8

QUESTION 19

𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 3

Taking the LHS:

442
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(2𝜃 ) + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

= (2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 − 1) + 4(2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1)

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 − 1 + 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 4

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 + 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 5

= 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 )2 + 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 5

= 2(2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1)2 + 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 5

= 2(4𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 1) + 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 5

= 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2 + 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 5

= 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 3

QUESTION 20

Prove the identity

1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 2
2
= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

Taking LHS:

443
 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
1− 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
1+ 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

= 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

QUESTION 21

Prove the identity

1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 2
+ =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

Taking LHS:

(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

444
 1+2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

1+2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+1
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

2+2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

2(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

2
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

QUESTION 22

Prove the identity

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
− = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
= (1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
= 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
445
 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

= 2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

QUESTION 23

Prove the identity

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ

Taking LHS:

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
= +
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1+2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃−1
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

446
 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

= 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃

QUESTION 24

Prove the identity

(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥

Taking RHS:

= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)3 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)3

𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑏)

= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )

= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )

447
QUESTION 25

Prove the identity

𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

QUESTION 26

Prove the identity

1 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

Taking LHS:

448
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= +
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

1
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

QUESTION 28

Prove the identity

(2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1)2 2
4 4
≡ 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

Taking LHS:

(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)2
=( 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)

(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 )2
=
(𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)

449
 (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 )2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

QUESTION 29

Prove the identity

1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 1
≡ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 2

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
2

450
QUESTION 31

𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

Taking LHS:

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= +
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

QUESTION 32

𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 2

451
Taking the LHS:

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 2

QUESTION 33

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
≡
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
= ×
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴)
=
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴)
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

452
QUESTION 34

2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 ≡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
= +
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

1 2
= ×
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 2

2
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

2
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴

453
QUESTION 35

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 )2 ≡ 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Taking LHS:

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 2
=( + )
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1
=( ) + 2( )+
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1
= + +
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃+2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+1
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+1)2
=
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+1)2
=(
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

454
QUESTION 36

𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 ≡ 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

Taking LHS:

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃 + 𝜃)

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

= 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

QUESTION 37

455
 sin (𝐴 − 𝐵)
≡ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
= −
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵

QUESTION 38

456
 𝜋 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 4 + 𝐴) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 4 − 𝐴) ≡ √2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

Taking LHS:

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴

√2 √2 √2 √2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴
2 2 2 2

√2 √2
= 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

= √2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

QUESTION 39

sin (𝐴+𝐵)
≡ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
= +
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
457
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵

QUESTION 40

𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 ≡ 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 − 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 1

Taking LHS:

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 2𝑥 )

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

= (2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1)(2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1) − (2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )

= 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 1 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

= 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 ) + 1

= 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 + 1

= 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 − 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 1

458
QUESTION 41

2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 ≡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1 2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 2

2
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

QUESTION 42

459
 𝜋 𝑥
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ≡ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 4 + 2)

QUESTION 43

1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 )2 ≡ 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

Taking LHS:

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2
=( + )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
= +2 +
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

1+2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+1)²
=
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+1)2
=(
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

460
 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
=
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

QUESTION 44

3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥−𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝑥 ≡ 1−3𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

Taking LHS:

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛(2𝑥 + 𝑥 )

𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
=
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
= 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
1−( )𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝑥)
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
= 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥−2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

461
 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝑥)
=
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥−2𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
=
1−3𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

QUESTION 45

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 ≡ 1

Taking LHS:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= (1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) + (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) (2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )

2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= (1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (1−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 )+2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

=1

462
Expressions of form 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 + 𝛼 ) and 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 𝛼 )

𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ± 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ± 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 can be expressed in the form

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 ± 𝛼 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 ± 𝛼 )

This is what we call harmonic form.

Let us look at the following examples:

Ex 1

Express 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 in the form 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝛼 )

4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝛼 )

4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝑅 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼]

4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

Equating coefficients of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 2 (1)
463
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 4 (2)

Dividing (1) 𝑏𝑦 (2)

𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
=4

1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
2

−1 1
𝛼= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
2

𝛼 = 26.6°

Then to find R one must know that 𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2

𝑅 = √42 + 22

= √20

∴4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = √20𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 26.6°)

464
Ex 2

Express 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 in the form 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 𝛼 )

4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ≡ 𝑅 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼]

4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ≡ 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 3 (1)

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 4 (2)

3
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
4

𝛼 = 36.9°

𝑅 = √42 + 32

= √25

=5

∴4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 5𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 36.9°)

465
Ex 3

Express 12𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 in the form 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝛼 )

𝑅 = √122 + 52

= 13

12𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝑅 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 ]

12𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 5

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 12

𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 5
=
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 12

5
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 12

𝛼 = 22.6°

∴= 13𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 22.6°)

466
Ex 4

Express 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 in the form 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 + 𝛼 ) , where 𝑅 > 0

and
0° < 𝛼 < 90°

Hence solve the equation 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 4 solutions in

interval
0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

𝑅 = √52 + (−1)2

= √26

5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝑅[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 ]

5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

−𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = −1

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 5

−𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 −1
=
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 5

467
 1
−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = −
5

1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
5

−1 1
𝛼= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (5)

𝛼 = 11.31°

∴5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = √26𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 + 11.31°)

5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 4

√26𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 + 11.31°) = 4

4
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 + 11.31°) =
√26

𝑃𝑉 = 38.33

𝜃 + 11.33° = ±38.33° + 360°𝑛 where 𝑛 = −1 , 0 , 1 , … ….

𝜃 = 27.0° , 310.4°

468
Ex 5

Express 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 12𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 in the form (𝑥 + 𝛼 ) , where

𝑅 > 0 and 0° < 𝛼 < 90°
Hence solve the equation 5𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 12𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 11 giving all
solutions in the interval 0° < 𝜃 < 180°

𝑅 = √52 + 122

= 13

5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 12𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ≡ 𝑅[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 ]

5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 12𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ≡ 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 12

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 5

𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 12
=
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 5

12
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
5

𝛼 = 67.38°

469
∴5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 12𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 13𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 67.38°)

5𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 12𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 11

13𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃 + 67.38°) = 11

11
𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃 + 67.38°) =
13

𝑃𝑉 = 57.8°
𝑆𝑉 = 122.2°

2𝜃 + 67.38° = 57.8° + 360°𝑛

2𝜃 + 67.38° = 122.2° + 360°𝑛

𝜃 = 27.31° , 175.21°

Ex 6

Express 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 in form 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 𝛼 )

Hence solve the equation 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 3 for 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑅 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 ]

470
4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 2 (1)
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 4 (2)

1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
2

𝛼 = 26.6°

𝑅 = √42 + 22

= 2√5

∴= 2√5𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 26.6°)

2√5𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 26.6°) = 3

3
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 26.6°) =
2√5

−1
3
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
2√5

𝑃𝑉 = 42.13°

𝜃 = 𝑃𝑉 + 360°𝑛
𝜃 = 𝑆𝑉 + 360𝑛
471
Where 𝑛 = −1 , 0 , 1 , …
𝑆𝑉 = 180° − 42.13°

= 137.9°

Final solutions are 15.5° , 111.3°

ZIMSEC

(a) 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑅 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)

4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = −3
−𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 4

472
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = −4
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = −3

4
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
3

4
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
3

= 53.13°

𝑅 = √(4)2 + (−3)2 = 5

= 5𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 − 53.13°)

(b) 5𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 − 53.13°) = 3

3
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 − 53.13°) = 5

3
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) = 36.87° 𝑆𝑉 = 143.13°
5

𝜃 − 53.13° = 36.87° + 180°𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 − 53.13° = 143.13° + 180°𝑛

Where 𝑛 = −1 , 0 ,1 ….

𝜃 = 16.26° , 270°
473
 1
(c)
5𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃−53.13°)+9

Maximum value of 5𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 − 53.13°) + 9 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓

1
5𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃−53.13°)+9

= 14

Worksheet

(1) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋

1
(2) Prove the identity 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 ≡ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 )
8

(3) Sketch and label same diagram, graphs of 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋

(4) The function 𝑓: 𝑥 → 5𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 is defined for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋

Express 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 , 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏
Hence find values of 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 7𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)

(5) Show that the equation 𝑡𝑎𝑛(45° + 𝑥 ) = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛(45° − 𝑥 ) can be

written in form 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 − 6𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 1 = 0
Hence solve the equation tan(45° + 𝑥 ) = 2 tan(45° − 𝑥 ) for
0° < 𝑥 < 90°
474
(6) Show that the equation 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) can be
expressed as 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 3

(7) Prove the identity 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 ≡ 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 3

(ii)Hence solve 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

(8) Solve the equation 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 3 = 0 for

0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°

475
 TOPIC 5: CALCULUS

Differentiation

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• First principles differentiation

• Polynomials, rational functions, natural logarithms,

exponentials, trigonometrical functions

• Sums, differences, products, quotients and composites

• Implicit and parametric

• Gradient, tangents, normals, rates of change and stationary

points

476
Introduction to Differentiation

Differentiation is all about measuring rates of change.

Various notation is used for the first derivative which is our
answer after differentiating once.
The first derivative can be represented by
𝑑𝑦
𝑓´(𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦´ 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠

When using differentiation from first principles all you have to

do is keep this formula in mind:
The derivation has been skipped.

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim [ ]
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

How to use the formula

𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡

𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 ℎ 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℎ 𝑖𝑠
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

477
 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝑇𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) 𝑝𝑢𝑡( 𝑥 + ℎ )𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑖𝑠 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑒𝑔. 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥 + ℎ) + 3

𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 1

(1)𝑓(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 + 7 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓´(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 + 7

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 5(𝑥 + ℎ) + 7

5(𝑥+ℎ)+7−(5𝑥+7)
∴ 𝑓´(𝑥 ) = lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

5𝑥+5ℎ+7−5𝑥−7
= lim [ ℎ
]
ℎ→0

5ℎ
= lim [ ]
ℎ
ℎ→0

= lim [5] (𝑁𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 ℎ 𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 5)

ℎ→0

∴ 𝑓´(𝑥 ) = 5
478
 2 𝑑𝑦
(2)𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥²
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ)²

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
∴ = lim [ ]
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

(𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑥²
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 − 𝑥²
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ²
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ)
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim [2𝑥 + ℎ]
ℎ→0
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

479
 𝑑𝑦
∴ = 2𝑥 + 0
𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(3)𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
𝑑𝑥

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 2(𝑥 + ℎ) + 3

𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 2(𝑥 + ℎ) + 3 − (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)
∴ = lim [ ]
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑥 2 +2ℎ𝑥+ℎ2 +2𝑥+2ℎ+3−𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3

= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

2ℎ𝑥+2ℎ
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ(2𝑥+2)
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim [2𝑥 + 2]
ℎ→0

𝑑𝑦
∴ = 2𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑥

Example 4
480
 2 𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5 find from first principles
𝑑𝑥

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 + 5

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 5

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
= lim [ ]
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

2(𝑥+ℎ)2 +5−(2𝑥 2 +5)

= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

2(𝑥 2 +2ℎ𝑥+ℎ2 )+5−2𝑥 2 −5

= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

2𝑥 2 +4ℎ𝑥+2ℎ2 −2𝑥 2
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

4ℎ𝑥+2ℎ2
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ(4𝑥+2ℎ)
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim [4𝑥 + 2ℎ]

ℎ→0

481
= 4𝑥

Example 5

3 𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 3 find from first principles
𝑑𝑥

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 3

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥 + ℎ)3 + 5(𝑥 + ℎ) + 3

𝑑𝑦 2(𝑥 + ℎ)3 + 5(𝑥 + ℎ) + 3 − (2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 3)

= lim [ ]
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

2(𝑥 3 +3ℎ𝑥 2 +3ℎ2 𝑥+ℎ3 )+5𝑥+5ℎ+3−2𝑥 3 −5𝑥−3

= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

2𝑥 3 +6ℎ𝑥 2 +6ℎ2 𝑥+2ℎ3 +5𝑥+5ℎ+3−2𝑥 3 −5𝑥−3

= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

6ℎ𝑥 2 +6ℎ2 𝑥+2ℎ3 +5ℎ

= lim [ ℎ
]
ℎ→0

ℎ(6𝑥 2 +6ℎ𝑥+2ℎ2 +5)

= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

482
 = lim [6𝑥 2 + 6ℎ𝑥 + 2ℎ2 + 5]
ℎ→0

= 6𝑥 2 + 6(0)𝑥 + 2(0)2 + 5

= 6𝑥 2 + 5

Example 6

2 𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 8 find
𝑑𝑥

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 8

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 4(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 3(𝑥 + ℎ) + 8

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )
= lim [ ]
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑑𝑦 4(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 3(𝑥 + ℎ) + 8 − (4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 8)

= lim [ ]
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

4𝑥 2 +8ℎ𝑥+4ℎ2 +3𝑥+3ℎ+8−4𝑥 2 −3𝑥−8

= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

8ℎ𝑥+4ℎ2 +3ℎ
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

483
 ℎ(8𝑥+4ℎ+3)
= lim [ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim [8𝑥 + 4ℎ + 3]
ℎ→0

= 8𝑥 + 3

But do you see that Differentiation from first principles can be

so long.
Hence let us look at the following concepts to make life easier.

Here are concepts we are going to use

𝑛 𝑑𝑦
(1) 𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

Examples

(1) Differentiate the following with respect to 𝑥

1
3 5 1
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 (𝑏 ) 𝑦 = 𝑥 (𝑐 ) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 (𝑑 ) 𝑦 =
𝑥³

484
 1
(e) 𝑦 = (𝑓) 𝑦 = 𝑥 6
√𝑥

1 1
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 4 𝑑𝑦 1 −1 1 −
(a) = 3𝑥 (𝑏) = 5𝑥 (𝑐 ) = 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2

1 3
𝑑𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 1 −2−1 1 −2
(d) = −3𝑥 −3−1 = − (e) =− 𝑥 =− 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥4 𝑑𝑥 2 2

𝑑𝑦
(f) = 6𝑥 5
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(2) 𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) =0
𝑑𝑥

Examples

𝑑𝑦
(1)𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 100 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(2)𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 687826 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(3)𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 30𝜋 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(4)if 𝑦 = 234𝜋 =0
𝑑𝑥

485
 𝑑𝑦
(3) 𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

5
𝑑𝑦
𝑒𝑔. 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 2𝑥 = 10𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥

Examples

Differentiate the following with respect to 𝑥

(a) 3𝑥 3 (𝑏) 5𝑥 6 (𝑐 )4√𝑥 (𝑑)5𝑥 4

(e) 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7

4 6
(f) 5𝑥 + + 3𝑥
√𝑥

(g) 2𝑥 + 3

SOLUTIONS

𝑑
(a) (3𝑥³) = 9𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
(b) (5𝑥 6 ) = 30𝑥 5
𝑑𝑥

486
 1 1
𝑑 − 2
(c) (4𝑥 ) = 2𝑥
2 2 =
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥

𝑑
(d) (5𝑥 4 ) = 20𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
(e) (2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7) = 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑥

3
𝑑 4 6 3 −2
(f) (5𝑥 + + 3𝑥) = 20𝑥 − 3𝑥 +3
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥

𝑑
(g) (2𝑥 + 3) = 𝑥²
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(4) 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = (𝑓(𝑥) )𝑛 = 𝑛 × 𝑓′(𝑥) × (𝑓(𝑥))𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑒𝑔. 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 5 )6 = 2(6)(2𝑥 + 5)5
𝑑𝑥

= 12(2𝑥 + 5)5

Examples

Differentiate the following 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥

487
(a) 𝑦 = (5𝑥 + 6)³

(b) 𝑦 = (4𝑥 2 − 8)7

(c) 𝑦 = √1 − 3𝑥²

(d) 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)²

1
2 −
(e) = 2(5 + 𝑥 ) 2
√5+𝑥

SOLUTIONS

𝑑𝑦
(a) = 15(5𝑥 + 6)²
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(b) = 56𝑥(4𝑥 2 − 8)6
𝑑𝑥

1
𝑑𝑦 1 −
(c) = (−6𝑥) ( ) (1 − 3𝑥²) 2
𝑑𝑥 2

−3𝑥
= 1
(1−3𝑥²)2

𝑑𝑦
(d) = 2(𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑥

488
 3
𝑑𝑦 1 −
(e) = 2 [− (5 + 𝑥) ] 2
𝑑𝑥 2

3
−
= −(5 + 𝑥 ) 2

Gradient of A curve

The gradient of a curve is not constant like that of a line.

This means gradient at point A on a curve is different from that
at B.

Let us do the following Example:

489
A curve has equation 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 Find gradient of the
curve at:
(i) (2;6)

(ii) (3; 4)

𝑑𝑦
∗ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑥

At (2 , 6)

𝑑𝑦
= 6(2) + 5 = 17
𝑑𝑥

At (3;4)

𝑑𝑦
= 6(3) + 4
𝑑𝑥

= 22

(2) A curve has equation 𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 2 find the

gradient of the curve at point (3;7)

490
 𝑑𝑦
= 9𝑥 2 − 10𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
At (3;7) = 9(3)2 − 10(3)
𝑑𝑥
= 51

(3) Find the gradient of the curve with equation

𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 + 5 at point P with coordinates 𝑃(2 , 5)

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 − 4 ∴ = 6(2)2 − 4 = 20
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(4) Find the gradient of the curve with equation
𝑦 = 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7 at the points (1 , 0) and (2 , 1)

𝑑𝑦
= 10𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
At (1 , 0) = 8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 (2 , 1) = 18
𝑑𝑥

Tangents And Normals

A tangent is a line that touches the curve only once at a certain

point.
The Normal is perpendicular to the tangent at a point.

491
 A Tangent at A

Normal at A

To Note:

• THE GRADIENT OF THE CURVE AT A POINT IS ALSO THE

GRADIENT OF THE TANGENT AT THAT SAME POINT!!!

• SINCE THE NORMAL IS PERPENDICULAR TO THE

TANGENT
PRODUCT OF THEIR GRADIENTS =−1

Example

A curve has equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1. Find equation

of the tangent and normal to the curve at point (2; 5).

We will first find that of the tangent:

∗Recall 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒‼‼)

492
To find gradient (𝑚) of the tangent at (2;5) find that of curve
at (2;5)
∗Grad of tangent at a point=Gradient of curve at that point

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
𝑑𝑥

Grad of curve at (2;5) =3(2)2 − 4(2) + 3

= 12 − 8 + 3

=7

∴Gradient of Tangent (𝑚)=7

To find 𝑐:

At (2; 5) ⟹ 𝑥 = 2 𝑦 = 5

5= (7)(2) + 𝑐

𝑐 = −9

∴Equation of the tangent is 𝑦 = 7𝑥 − 9

493
To find Equation of the normal:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
To find 𝑚:

Since perpendicular to tangent, product of grads=−1

7𝑚 = −1

1
𝑚=−
7

To find 𝑐:

At (2 ; 5) ⟹ 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 5

1
5=(− ) (2) + 𝑐
7

37
𝑐=
7

1 37
∴Equation of the normal is 𝑦 = − 𝑥 +
7 7
7𝑦 = −𝑥 + 37

494
Example 2

Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 at the point (3 , 1)

𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 + 4
𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 (3 , 1) = 4(3) + 4

= 16

Using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

1 = 16(3) + 𝑐

𝑐 = −47

∴ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 16𝑥 − 47

Remember Normal is perpendicular to the tangent therefore

product of gradients must give us 1

1
16𝑚 = −1 ∴𝑚=−
16

Using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
495
 1
1=− (3) + 𝑐
16

19
𝑐=
16

1 19
∴ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = − 𝑥+
16 16

16𝑦 = −𝑥 + 19

Example 3

Find the equation of the normal to the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 1 at

the point (2 , 1)

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥²
𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 (2 , 1) = 24

Since the normal is perpendicular to the tangent gradient of

1
normal is −
24

Using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

496
 1
1= (2) + 𝑐
24

1
𝑐 =1−
12

11
𝑐 = 12

1 11
∴𝑦=− 𝑥+
24 12

Example 4

A curve has equation 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 find the equation of

the tangent and normal to curve at point (1 ,1 )

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 6𝑥 + 6

Gradient of curve / tangent= 12

1 = 12(1) + 𝑐

𝑐 = −11

𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 12𝑥 − 11

497
 1
Gradient of normal is −
12

1
1=− (1) + 𝑐
12

13
𝑐 = 12

1 13
∴𝑦=− 𝑥+
12 12

12𝑦 = −𝑥 + 13

Stationary Points

A stationary Point is a point at which the gradient of the curve

𝑑𝑦
is equal to zero ( = 0) and also occur at a point of inflexion.
𝑑𝑥

Point of Inflexion

498
 𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥

A point of inflexion is not a turning Point

𝑑𝑦
= 0 (𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 0 (𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑑𝑥

These stationary points can be Maximum or minimum.

So it is good to note the following:

• For Minimum Turning point gradient changes from

negative to positive
• For Maximum Turning point gradient changes from
positive to negative
• For a point of inflexion gradient does not change

Finding Coordinates of stationary point

499
 (1) Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the
curve
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 2

𝑑𝑦
At Stationary Point =0
𝑑𝑥

3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9 = 0

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 = 0

(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

𝑥 = −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1

Now find corresponding 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ

At 𝑥 = −3 𝑦 = 3(−3)3 + 3(−3)2 − 9(−3) + 2 = −25

At 𝑥 = 1 𝑦 = 1 + 3 − 9 + 2 = −3

∴Coordinates of S.P are (−3; 29) and (1;−3)

(2) Find the coordinates of the stationary point on the curve

𝑦 = 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 12

500
 𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 =0
𝑑𝑥

6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 12 = 0

6(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2) = 0

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0

𝑥=1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 𝑦 = 2(1)3 + 3(1)2 − 12(1) + 1 = −6

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −2 𝑦 = 2(−2)3 + 3(−2)2 − 12(−2) + 1 = 21

∴The coordinates of the stationary point are

(1; −6) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−2; 21)

Example 3

Find the coordinates of stationary point on the curve

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6

𝑑𝑦
At stationary point =0
𝑑𝑥

501
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 + 5 = 0
𝑑𝑥

5
∴𝑥=−
2

1
𝑦=−
4

5 1
∴ (− , − )
2 4

Example 4

Find the coordinates of the stationary points on curve

2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 − 6 = 0
𝑑𝑥

6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = 0

6(𝑥 2 − 1) = 0

(𝑥 2 − 1) = 0

502
𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1

𝑦 = 2(1)3 − 6(1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 2(−1)3 − 6(−1)

(1 , −4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−1 , 4)

Example 5

Find the stationary points on the curve with equation

𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 1

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 12 = 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0

(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

𝑥 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1

𝑦 = −6 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 21

503
Testing Nature of a Stationary Point

A Stationary Point can be Maximum or Minimum or A point of

inflexion.

To test nature of A Stationary Points two Methods are used:

(1) First Derivative Test

(2) Second Derivative

The First Derivative Test

𝑑𝑦
As the name suggests we use to test.
𝑑𝑥

For A max Point:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
>0 <0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(+) (−)

𝑑𝑦
∴For A Max Stationary point changes from positive to
𝑑𝑥
negative

504
For A Minimum Stationary Point:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
<0 >0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(−) (+)

𝑑𝑦
∴For A Min Stationary Point 𝑑𝑥 changes from negative to
positive.

𝑑𝑦
For A point of inflexion does not change sign
𝑑𝑥

Examples

We will find nature of the stationary points we found before

Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 2
And determine their nature

505
Our Stationary Points were (−3 , 29 ) and (1 , 3)

To determine Nature of point (−3; 29):

𝑑𝑦
On a table use test values >−3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < −3 and substitute in
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
and see our signs for
𝑑𝑥

𝑥 < −3 𝑥 > −3
Test value −4 −2
𝑑𝑦 + −
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
∴Since 𝑑𝑥 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑒. (+) 𝑡𝑜 (−)
It is a max point.

Point (1;3)

𝑥<1 𝑥>1
Test Value 0 2
𝑑𝑦 − +
𝑑𝑥

506
 𝑑𝑦
∴Since changes from negative to positive (1 , 3) is a
𝑑𝑥
minimum Stationary point.

The Second Derivative Test

The most used and shorter method
𝑑²𝑦
As the name suggests we are now using (second
𝑑𝑥²
derivative) to test.

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑖𝑓 >0 (𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
𝑑𝑥²

𝑑²𝑦
𝑖𝑓 <0 (𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
𝑑𝑥²

𝑑²𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑖𝑓 = 0 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡)
𝑑𝑥² 𝑑𝑥

Example

We are going to use the previous example

Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 2
And determine their nature

507
The coordinates of S.P were (−3; 29 ) and (1;3)

Nature of (−3; 29):

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9
𝑑𝑥

Differentiate twice to get

𝑑²𝑦
= 6𝑥 + 6
𝑑𝑥²

=6(−3) + 6

=−12

𝑑²𝑦
∴ (−3 , 29) is a Maximum since 𝑑𝑥² < 0

Nature of (1; 3):

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9
𝑑𝑥

Differentiate twice to get

508
𝑑²𝑦
𝑑𝑥²
= 6𝑥 + 6

=6(1) + 6

=12

𝑑2 𝑦
∴(1 , 3) is a minimum turning point since >0
𝑑𝑥 2

Example 2

Find the stationary points on the curve with equation

𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 1 and determine their nature

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 12 = 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0

(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

𝑥 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1

𝑦 = 21 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = −6

Nature of (−2 , 21)

509
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
= 12𝑥 + 6

= 12(−2) + 6

= −18 (𝑀𝐴𝑋𝐼𝑀𝑈𝑀 )

Nature of (1 , −6)

𝑑2 𝑦
= 12𝑥 + 6
𝑑𝑥 2

= 12(1) + 6

= 18 (𝑀𝐴𝑋𝐼𝑀𝑈𝑀)

Example 3

Find the coordinates of stationary point on the curve

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 and determine nature of the stationary point.

𝑑𝑦
At stationary point =0
𝑑𝑥
510
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 + 5 = 0
𝑑𝑥

5
∴ 𝑥 = −2

1
𝑦=−
4

5 1
∴ (− , − )
2 4

Nature:

To determine the nature of a quadratic function you should

just use the concept of shapes when 𝑎 > 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 < 0 or you
can use first derivative test.

Since 𝑎 > 0 we have a minimum turning point.

Example 4

Find the coordinates of the stationary points on curve

2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 and determine their nature

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 − 6 = 0
𝑑𝑥

511
6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = 0

6(𝑥 2 − 1) = 0

(𝑥 2 − 1) = 0

𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1

𝑦 = 2(1)3 − 6(1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 2(−1)3 − 6(−1)

(1 , −4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−1 , 4)

Nature of (1 , −4)

𝑑2 𝑦
= 12𝑥
𝑑𝑥²

= 12(1)

= 12 (𝑀𝐼𝑁𝐼𝑀𝑈𝑀)

Nature of (−1 , 4)

𝑑2 𝑦
= 12𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2

512
= 12(−1)

= −12

513
Differentiation of Exponential Functions

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑒 = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Examples 𝑓´(𝑥)

𝑑
(a) (𝑒 5𝑥+4 ) = 5𝑒 5𝑥+4
𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑
(b) (2𝑒 𝑥² ) = 2(2𝑥𝑒 𝑥² )
𝑑𝑥

= 4𝑥𝑒 𝑥²

3𝑥 2 +3 𝑑𝑦
(c) 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2 +3
= 6𝑥𝑒
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(d) Find 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑒 5𝑥 + 3𝑒 4𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥

514
 𝑑𝑦
= 5𝑒 5𝑥 + 12𝑒 4𝑥+2
𝑑𝑥

3
− 𝑥+1
(e) Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 2 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓′(𝑥 )

3 −3𝑥+1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = − 𝑒 2
2

Differentiation of Logarithms

𝑑𝑦 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑓(𝑥)) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

Examples

𝑑𝑦
(1) Given 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(5𝑥 + 2) find
𝑑𝑥

𝑓´(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 5
=
𝑑𝑥 5𝑥+2
𝑓(𝑥)

515
 (2) If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛 (𝑥 ) 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓′(𝑥)

′( 1
𝑓 𝑥) =
𝑥

𝑑 8
(3) (𝐼𝑛(8𝑥 + 5)) =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥+5

𝑑 3 2 15𝑥 2 +2𝑥+5
(4) (𝐼𝑛(5𝑥 + 𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 9)) =
𝑑𝑥 5𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 +5𝑥+9

(5) Given that 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4) find 𝑦′

′ 4𝑥+5
𝑦 =
2𝑥 2 +5𝑥+4

𝑥−2 𝑑𝑦
(6) Given that 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛 ( ) find
3𝑥+5 𝑑𝑥

𝑥−2
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐼𝑛(3𝑥 + 5)
3𝑥+5

𝑑𝑦 1 3
= +
𝑑𝑥 𝑥−2 3𝑥−5

516
Differentiation of Trigonometrical Functions

𝑑
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥
𝑑𝑥

The PTA method of differentiating Trigs

PTA is used to represent order of differentiation.

It Stands for:

Power
Trig
Algebra
This means differentiate the power first followed by the trig
and finally the algebraic function.
517
Let us do the following Examples together
𝑑𝑦
Given the following find
𝑑𝑥

(1) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 (𝑥 + 2)

Applying P.T.A

Do you see any power in 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 (𝑥 + 2)? ?

Yes, it is there at 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 (𝑥 + 2)

𝑑
We are going to differentiate that using (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 to get
𝑑𝑥
5𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥 + 2)

We differentiated the power now we differentiate the trig ratio

without power
Our trig ratio on its own is 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 2)
Differentiating that gives 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 + 2)

Now differentiating the Algebraic function in the brackets

𝑥 + 2 gives us 1.

Combining that gives 5𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥 + 2) × cos (𝑥 + 2) × 1

Which is 5𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥 + 2)cos (𝑥 + 2)

518
Example 2

𝑑
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝑥 + 3)) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 3) × −𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 3) × 2
𝑑𝑥

= −4𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 3)𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 3)

Example 3

Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 (8𝑥 + 7) find 𝑓′(𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 6𝑠𝑖𝑛5 (8𝑥 + 7) × 𝑐𝑜𝑠(8𝑥 + 7) × 8

= 48𝑠𝑖𝑛5 (8𝑥 + 7)𝑐𝑜𝑠(8𝑥 + 7)

Example 4

𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 given that 𝑦 = tan(5𝑥 + 9)

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (5𝑥 + 9) × 5
𝑑𝑥

519
 = 5𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (5𝑥 + 9)

Example 5

𝑑𝑦
Find given that 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋 + 3𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= −𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋 + 3𝑥 ) × 3
𝑑𝑥

= −3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋 + 3𝑥 )

Example 6

𝑑𝑦
Find given that 𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 8)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2[−𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 8) × 2]
𝑑𝑥

= −4𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 8)

Example 7

5( 𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 6𝑥 − 1) find 𝑑𝑥

520
𝑑𝑦
= 5𝑡𝑎𝑛4 (6𝑥 − 1) × 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (6𝑥 − 1) × 6
𝑑𝑥

= 30𝑡𝑎𝑛4 (6𝑥 − 1)𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (6𝑥 − 1)

Example 8

𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛9 (𝑥 − 3) find
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 9𝑠𝑖𝑛8 (𝑥 − 3) × 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 − 3) × 1

= 9𝑠𝑖𝑛8 (𝑥 − 3)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 − 3)

The Product Rule

The product rule is used in differentiating product of two

functions which can be same or different.

Let 𝑢 and 𝑣 be functions of 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣 =𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example

521
 𝑑𝑦
Find given that 𝑦 = 𝑥²(𝑥 − 1)²
𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 𝑥2 𝑣 = (𝑥 − 1)²

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 2𝑥 = 2(𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
∴ = (𝑥 2 )2(𝑥 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑥 − 1)2
𝑑𝑥

= 2𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 1) + 2𝑥(𝑥 − 1)²

Example 2
𝑑𝑦
Given 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 find
𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝑑𝑦
∴ = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Example 3
522
 𝑑𝑦
Given 𝑦 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑥 find
𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑣 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 1
=1 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
∴ = (𝑥 ) ( ) + (𝐼𝑛𝑥 )(1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

1 + 𝐼𝑛𝑥

Example 4

𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 find
𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 1 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
=2 𝑑𝑥
= 3
𝑒

𝑑𝑦 1 3𝑥
= (2𝑥 ) ( 𝑒 ) + (𝑒 3𝑥 )(2)
𝑑𝑥 3

2
= 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 2𝑒 3𝑥
3

523
 3𝑥 2
=𝑒 (3 𝑥 + 2)

Example 5

𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝑥 + 1) find 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 5𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝑥 + 1)

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
=5 = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠(5𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= (5𝑥 )(5𝑐𝑜𝑠(5𝑥 + 1)) + 5𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝑥 + 1)

= 25𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(5𝑥 + 1) + 5𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝑥 + 1)

Example 6

𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 find
𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑥 𝑑𝑣
=𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

524
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 )

Example 7

𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 find
𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
=2 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 8𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Example 8

4( 𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 − 1)³ find 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 𝑥4 𝑣 = (𝑥 − 1)3

𝑑𝑢 3 𝑑𝑣
= 4𝑥 = 3(𝑥 − 1)2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

525
 𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 4 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 4𝑥 3 (𝑥 − 1)3
𝑑𝑥
The Quotient and Chain Rule are so simple that we are just
going to do a few examples

Chain Rule

The chain Rule is used in differentiating composite functions

(function of a function)
This is the case in which there is an inner function inside a bracket
or a square root.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Example 1

𝑑𝑦
Given 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2
2 )3 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 𝑥2 + 2 ∴ 𝑦 = 𝑢³

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 = 3𝑢²
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥

= 3𝑢² × 2𝑥

526
 = 6𝑥𝑢²

But 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 2

𝑑𝑦
∴𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥(𝑥 2 + 2)²

Example 2

𝑑𝑦
Given 𝑦 = √2𝑥 + 3 find 𝑑𝑥

1
𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 3) 2

1
𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑦=𝑢 2

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 1
=2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 2√𝑢

𝑑𝑦 1
∴ = ×2
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑢

2
=2
√𝑢

1
=
√𝑢

527
 𝑑𝑦 1
But 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 3 ∴ =
𝑑𝑥 √2𝑥+3

Example 3

𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = √4𝑥 2 + 3 find
𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 4𝑥 2 + 3 𝑦 = √𝑢

𝑑𝑢 1
= 8𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑢

𝑑𝑦 1
= × 8𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑢

4𝑥
=
√𝑢

4𝑥
=
√4𝑥 2 +3

Quotient Rule
528
The quotient rule is used when we want to differentiate same
or different functions that are dividing each other.

If
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑣 −𝑢
𝑦= 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑣²

Example

𝑑
Show that (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)²

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝑥
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝑥

1
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 (SHOWN)

529
Example 2

Find the derivative of 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥×𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥×𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

−(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

1
=−
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

= −𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

Given that
2𝑒 𝑥
𝑦=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Find
𝑑𝑥
530
𝑢 = 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 2𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑒 𝑥 −2𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

=
𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

2𝑒 𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

Given that
𝐼𝑛𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥−1
𝑑𝑦
Find
𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑣 =𝑥−1

𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑣
= =1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 − 1 ( ) − (𝐼𝑛𝑥 )(1)
)
= 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2

Given that
𝑥2
𝑦=
2𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑦
Find
𝑑𝑥

531
𝑢 = 𝑥2 𝑣 = 2𝑥 − 1

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 2𝑥 =2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 (2𝑥−1)(2𝑥)−2(𝑥 2 )
∴ = (2𝑥−1)2
𝑑𝑥

4𝑥 2 −2𝑥−2𝑥 2
= (2𝑥−1)2

2𝑥 2 −2𝑥
= (2𝑥−1)2

2(𝑥 2 −𝑥)
= (2𝑥−1)2

3𝑡 𝑑𝑦 3(1−𝑡 2 )
Given that 𝑦 = show that =
𝑡 2 +1 𝑑𝑡 (1+𝑡 2 )2

𝑢 = 3𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑡2 + 1

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
=3 = 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

532
𝑑𝑦 3(𝑡 2 +1)−(3𝑡 )(2𝑡 )
= (𝑡 2 +1)2
𝑑𝑡

3𝑡 2 +3−6𝑡 2
= (𝑡 2 +1)2

3−3𝑡 2
= (𝑡 2 +1)2

3(1−𝑡 2 )
= (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)
(𝑡 2 +1)2

IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

This is my favorite part of differentiation.

An implicit function is one in which it is difficult to make 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 subject

and you cannot clearly express 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥.

For example, consider 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 = 6𝑥

This is an implicit function because as you can see you cannot clearly
express it in terms of 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦

But consider 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 we call this explicit function as it is easy to make

𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

533
Important Points to Note on Implicit differentiation

𝑑𝑦
Whenever you differentiate 𝑦 put in front.
𝑑𝑥

The same procedures for differentiation are the same ones but remember
𝑑𝑦
we are putting in front of your derivative.
𝑑𝑥

Examples

𝑑𝑦
Differentiating 2𝑦 gives 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Differentiating 𝑦² gives 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Differentiating 𝑦 gives
𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦
Differentiating 𝐼𝑛𝑦 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Differentiating 𝑒 𝑦 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑒 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Differentiating 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦
𝑑𝑥

When 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are multiplying each other apply the product rule since a
function of 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑦

534
Let us say we want to differentiate 3𝑥𝑦

𝑢 = 3𝑥 𝑣=𝑦

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑦
=3 =1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
∴ = 3𝑥 + 3𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Examples Product Rule

𝑑𝑦
The equation of a curve is 𝑥 3 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 5𝑥²𝑦 find
𝑑𝑥

Applying product rule at 5𝑥²𝑦 first

𝑢 = 5𝑥 2 𝑣=𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑦
= 10𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 5𝑥 2 + 10𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Now differentiating term by term and then substitute 5𝑥 2 𝑦 with

𝑑𝑦
5𝑥 2 + 10𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
∴3𝑥 2 + 5 + 2 = 2𝑦 + 5𝑥 2 + 10𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

535
 𝑑𝑦
Now make subject
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
5 − 2𝑦 − 5𝑥 2 = 10𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 − 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(5 − 2𝑦 − 5𝑥²) = 10𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 − 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 10𝑥𝑦−3𝑥 2 −2
=
𝑑𝑥 5−2𝑦−5𝑥²

Example 2

A curve is defined by the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 − 1 = [Link] the

equation of the tangent to the curve at point (2 , 1)

To find the equation of the tangent we need its gradient first.

But recall that the gradient of a curve at a point is the gradient of the
tangent at the same point.
∴The gradient of the tangent at point (2 , 1) is the gradient of the curve at
point (2 , 1)
To find gradient of the curve we now apply implicit differentiation.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(3𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 ) = −3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −3(𝑥 2 +𝑦)
=
𝑑𝑥 3(𝑦 2 +𝑥 )

536
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 +𝑦
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 2 +𝑥

(2)2 +1 5
Therefore at (2 , 1) gradient of tangent = − ( =−
1)2 +2 3

Using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

5
1 = (− ) (2) + 𝑐
3

13
𝑐=
3

5 13
∴Equation of the tangent to the curve is 𝑦 = − 𝑥 +
3 3
3𝑦 = −5𝑥 + 13

Example 3
A curve is defined by 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 9 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (1 , 2).Find the gradient of
the curve at that point.

𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 2 = −3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑥2
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦2

𝑑𝑦 1
=−
𝑑𝑥 4

537
Example 4

Find the equation of the normal to the curve 𝑦 − 𝑥 + 3𝑒 −𝑦 = 0 at the point

(0 , 0)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
− 1 − 3𝑒 −𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(1 − 3𝑒 −𝑦 ) = 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 1−3𝑒 −𝑦

𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 1−3𝑒 0

𝑑𝑦 1
=−
𝑑𝑥 2

Gradient of normal= 2y

0 = 2(0) + 𝑐

𝑐=0

Equation of the normal is 𝑦 = 2𝑥

Example 5

1 𝑑𝑦
Given 𝐼𝑛3𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥 Show that = 𝑦𝑒 3𝑥
3 𝑑𝑥
538
 1 3𝑥
𝐼𝑛3𝑦 = 𝑒
3
Implicit
3 𝑑𝑦
( ) = 𝑒 3𝑥
3𝑦 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦
( ) = 𝑒 3𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦𝑒 3𝑥 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)
𝑑𝑥

Example 6

The equation of a curve is 2𝑦 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑥 = 9 find gradient of the

curve at the point (2 , 1 )

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
4𝑦 − 3𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4 −2=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
4𝑦 − 3𝑥 +4 = 3𝑦 + 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(4𝑦 − 3𝑥 + 4) = 3𝑦 + 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 3𝑦+2
=
𝑑𝑥 4𝑦−3𝑥+4

𝑑𝑦 3(2)+2
=
𝑑𝑥 4(2)−3(1)+4

𝑑𝑦 8
=
𝑑𝑥 9
539
Parametric Differentiation

Definition of some key Terms

When dealing with this subtopic one must thoroughly understand these
terms or else ZIMSEC will make you understand that life can be difficult!!!!

Cartesian Equation of a curve

The Cartesian equation of a curve is when the curve has been expressed in
terms of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦.
2 𝑥+3 2 𝑦−4 2
For example, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 7 𝑜𝑟 ( ) +( ) =1 𝑒𝑡𝑐
4 2

Parametric Equations of a curve

Now by a parametric equation we mean that a third party called a

parameter has been added to 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 such that
𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of the parameter.

Consider the example below

𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑦 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 7

Both 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 have been expressed in terms of 𝜃 which becomes our

parameter.

540
So, once you get these definitions you are good to go.

Usually, the following concepts are examined.

𝑑𝑦
Let us start with finding given parametric equations
𝑑𝑥

Consider the example

𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑥 = 2𝑡 + 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 6𝑡 2 + 5 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥

Use the Chain Rule

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= 12𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 1
Now take note that =2 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 1
∴ = 12𝑡 × = 6𝑡
𝑑𝑥 2

= 6𝑡

EXAMPLE 1

𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 find
𝑑𝑥

541
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
∴ = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ×
𝑑𝑥 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

3
=
2

Example 2

𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 5𝑡 2 − 2 express in terms of 𝑡
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= −1 = 10𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
= −10𝑡
𝑑𝑥

Example 3

3 𝑑𝑦
A curve has parametric equations 𝑦 = 3𝑡 + 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 5 − 𝑡 find
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
= 9𝑡 = −1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
∴ = −9𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥

542
Given that
2 3
𝑥= ; 𝑦= 2
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑦
Find
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 6
=− =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑡2 𝑑𝑡 𝑡3

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 6 𝑡2
∴ =− ×−
𝑑𝑥 𝑡3 2

6𝑡 2
=
𝑡3

3
=
𝑡

𝑡2 2𝑡 𝑑𝑦 −2
Given that 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = show that =
𝑡−1 𝑡−1 𝑑𝑥 𝑡 2 −2𝑡

𝑑𝑥 (𝑡−1)(2𝑡 )−(𝑡 2 )(1) 𝑑𝑦 2(𝑡−1)−(2𝑡 )(1)

= (𝑡−1)2
= (𝑡−1)2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2𝑡 2 −2𝑡−𝑡 2 2𝑡−2−2𝑡
= (𝑡−1)2
= (𝑡−1)2

𝑡 2 −2𝑡 −2
= (𝑡−1)2
=(
𝑡−1)2

𝑡 (𝑡−2)
= (𝑡−1)2

543
 𝑑𝑦 −2 (𝑡−1)2
∴ = (𝑡−1)2
×
𝑑𝑥 𝑡 (𝑡−2)

−2
=
𝑡 2 −2𝑡

Finding the Cartesian equation from parametric equations

This is also a very important concept one is supposed to know.

Remember we said a Cartesian equation is the one which contains only 𝑥

and 𝑦
So, this means that given a parametric equation we have to find a way to
play around with it and obtain a Cartesian equation.

So let us look at following examples

A curve is defined parametrically by the equations

𝑥 = 3𝑡 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑡2 − 5
Find the Cartesian equation of the curve

So, we have two equations

𝑥 = 3𝑡 + 1 (1)

544
𝑦 = 𝑡2 − 5 (2)

𝑥−1
Making 𝑡 subject of formula in (1) gives 𝑡 =
3

Then substituting 𝑡 in (2) we get

𝑥−1 2
𝑦=( ) −5
3

(𝑥−1)2
𝑦= −5 (𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
9

Find the Cartesian equation of the curve represented parametrically by

𝑥 = 2 − 2𝑡
𝑦 = 4𝑡 2 + 3

𝑥 = 2 − 2𝑡 (1)
𝑦 = 4𝑡 2 + 3 (2)

2−𝑥
𝑡=
2

2−𝑥 2
∴ 𝑦 = 4( ) +3
2

𝑦 = (2 − 𝑥 )2 + 3

Given a curve with parametric equations

545
 1
𝑥 = +2
𝑡
1
𝑦= −1
𝑡

Show that the Cartesian equation of the curve is 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3

1
𝑥 = +2 (1)
𝑡
1
𝑦 = −1 (2)
𝑡

1
𝑡=
𝑥−2

1
∴𝑦= 1 −1
( )
𝑥−2

𝑦 =𝑥−2−1

𝑦 =𝑥−3 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

A curve is defined parametrically by the equations

𝑥 = 6 + 3𝑡
𝑦 = 2 − 𝑡2
Find the Cartesian equation of the curve

546
 𝑥−6
𝑡=
3

𝑥−6 2
𝑦 =2−( )
3

(𝑥−6)2
𝑦 =2−
3

A curve is defined parametrically by the equations

𝑥 = 1 + 9𝑡
1
𝑦=
1+𝑡
Find the Cartesian equation of the curve

𝑥−1
𝑡=
9

1
𝑦= 𝑥−1
1+
9

9
𝑦=
𝑥+8

Use of Identities to find Cartesian equation of a curve

Sometimes we can also use trig identities to find Cartesian equations of

curves.

One must note that the most common identities we will be using are

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1
547
 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

Let us quickly look at the following examples

A curve has parametric equations given by

𝑥 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2

Find the Cartesian equation of the curve

𝑥 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1)
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2 (2)

So, since we have 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 we are going to use the identity
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1
But first making 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 subjects.

𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑦 − 2
3

𝑥 2
∴ ( ) + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 1 (𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
3

The parametric equations of a curve are given by

𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 5
𝑦 = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 20
Find the Cartesian equation of the curve
548
 𝑥+5 𝑦 − 20
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
2 5

∴ 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1

𝑥+5 2 𝑦−20 2
( ) +( ) =1
2 5

The parametric equations of a curve are given by

𝑥 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2
𝑦 = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 7
Find the Cartesian equation of the curve

𝑥+2 𝑦−7
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
3 5

Using 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1

𝑥+2 2 𝑦−7 2
( ) +( ) =1
3 5

A curve is defined parametrically by the equations

𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 1
𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 3
Find the Cartesian equation of the curve

549
 𝑥−1 2
𝑦+3
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 =
3 2
Using 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

𝑥−1 2 𝑦+3
1+( ) =
3 2

550
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION TO AREAS AND VOLUMES

For one to really understand this concept let me take you back to primary
level first and discuss about total surface areas.

Total Surface Area of a rectangular prism

Consider the prism below with the length represented by L , width

represented by W and height represented by H.

The total surface area of this shape is the total areas of the six faces
But observe there is a set of three opposite faces which have same areas.
∴Total Surface Area= 2(𝐿 × 𝑊 ) + 2(𝐿 × 𝐻) + 2(𝑊 × 𝐻)

551
Let us do the following example

The diagram below shows a rectangular prism with its length , width and
height being 2𝑥 , 4𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 − 1 respectively.
Express its total surface area in terms of 𝑥

𝑥−1
4𝑥
2𝑥

A= 2(4𝑥 × 2𝑥 ) + 2(2𝑥(𝑥 − 1)) + 2(4𝑥(𝑥 − 1))

Then simplify that is your assignment.

Total Surface Area of a cylinder

Consider the cylinder below

552
 𝑟

The cylinder as you can see has two circles and a curved surface.

∴The total surface area of the cylinder= 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ

Volume of a cylinder= 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

It is also important to know these:

Surface Area of a sphere= 4𝜋𝑟 2

4
Volume of a sphere= 𝜋𝑟 3
3

So let us do the following 3 questions from Zimsec

Example 1

553
SOLUTION

(i)Total Surface Area=2(3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥ℎ + 𝑥ℎ)

∴𝐴 = 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 2𝑥ℎ

6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥ℎ = 1152𝑐𝑚2

8𝑥ℎ = 1152 − 6𝑥 2

1152−6𝑥 2
ℎ=
8𝑥

576−3𝑥 2
ℎ=
4𝑥

2
2 576−3𝑥
𝑉=3𝑥 ( )
4𝑥

3
= 𝑥 (576 − 𝑥 2 )
4

554
 9
= 𝑥 (192 − 𝑥 2 )
4

9 1
= 𝑥 (48 − 𝑥 2 ) (SHOWN)
4 4

Example 2

SOLUTION
(I)V= 𝑙 × 𝑤 × 𝑑

32
128=( 2) (𝑥 )(𝑑)
𝑥

Making d subject of formula

555
32𝑑
= 128
𝑥

𝑑 = 4𝑥

One must understand that THE BOX IS OPEN therefore for our total
surface Area we are going to consider 5 faces not 6

32 32
A=2 ( ( )
2 × 4𝑥) + 2 4𝑥 × 𝑥 + ( × 𝑥)
𝑥 𝑥2

128 32
= + 8𝑥 2 +
𝑥 𝑥

160
= + 16𝑥
𝑥

𝑑𝐴
(ii)𝐴𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐴 160
=− + 16𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2

−160 + 16𝑥 3 = 0

16𝑥 3 = 160

𝑥 3 = 10

3
𝑥 = √10

556
 3
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ(𝑑) = 4( √10) = 8.62𝑐𝑚
32
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 3 2 = 6.89𝑐𝑚
( √10)
3
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = √10 = 2.15

Verification
𝑑2 𝐴
If the Area is Minimum >0
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝐴 320
= + 16
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥3

𝑑2 𝐴 320
= 3 + 16
𝑑𝑥 2 3
( √10)

𝑑2 𝐴
= 48 (𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)
𝑑𝑥 2

557
Example 3

SOLUTION

(a)𝑉 = 𝑛𝑟 2 ℎ = 50𝜋 𝑐𝑚3

𝑥
But 𝑟 =
2

𝑥 2
∴𝜋 ( ) ℎ = 50𝜋
2

𝑥2
ℎ = 50
4

𝑥 2 ℎ = 200 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

558
(b)Surface area of A cylinder=2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ

𝑥 2 𝑥 200
∴A=2𝜋 ( ) + 2𝜋 ( ) ( )
2 2 𝑥2

𝜋𝑥 2 200𝜋
A= +
2 𝑥

𝜋 400
= [𝑥 2 + ] (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)
2 𝑥

𝑑𝐴 200
(c) = 𝜋𝑥 − 𝜋=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2

𝜋𝑥 3 − 200𝜋 = 0

𝜋𝑥 3 = 200𝜋

𝑥 3 = 200

3
𝑥 = √200

Verification

𝑑2 𝐴 400
=𝜋+
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥3

400
=𝜋+ 3 3
( √200)

= 5.14
559
 𝑑2 𝐴
Since is positive it is Minimum
𝑑𝑥 2

3
(d)𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = √200

𝜋 3 2 400
𝐴 = [( √200) + 3 ]
2 √200

A=161.2cm²

560
Worksheet

(1) The equation of a curve is 𝑥 3 + 2𝑦 3 = 3𝑥𝑦.

𝑑𝑦 𝑦−𝑥 2
Show that =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 2 −𝑥

(ii)Find coordinates of the point , other than the origin , where curve has a
tangent parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

(2) The curve with equation 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 has one stationary point for
which 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
(ii)Find 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 of this point and determine nature

(3) Differentiate from first principles 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6

(4) A cylinder has radius 𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 and a height ℎ meters. The sum of
the radius and height is [Link] an expression for the volume , of
the cylinder in terms of r only.
Hence find the maximum volume

(5) A closed cylindrical can has height ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟.

1
The volume is 0.01𝑚3 . Show that ℎ =
100𝜋𝑟 2

𝑑𝑦
(6) Given that 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 (2𝑥 + 3) 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(7) Given 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6) 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥

(8) The equation of a curve is 𝑥 3 + 2𝑦 3 = 3𝑥𝑦.

𝑑𝑦 𝑦−𝑥 2
Show that =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 2 −𝑥

561
(ii)Find coordinates of the point , other than the origin , where curve has a
tangent parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

(9) The curve with equation 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 has one stationary point for
which 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
(ii)Find 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 of this point and determine nature

(10) Differentiate from first principles 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6

(11) A cylinder has radius 𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 and a height ℎ meters. The sum of
the radius and height is [Link] an expression for the volume , of
the cylinder in terms of r only.
Hence find the maximum volume

(12) A closed cylindrical can has height ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟.

3 1
The volume is 0.01𝑚 . Show that ℎ =
100𝜋𝑟 2

5( 𝑑𝑦
(13) Given that 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 3) 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(14) Given 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6) 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥

(15) A cuboid has a total surface area of 150 𝑐𝑚2 and is such that its
base is a square of side 𝑥 𝑐𝑚.
Show that the height, ℎ 𝑐𝑚 , of the cuboid is given by
75−𝑥 2
ℎ=
2𝑥
Express the volume of the cuboid in terms of 𝑥.Hence determine , as
𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 , its maximum volume and show that it is maximum.

562
 (16) The radius of a circular disc is increasing at a constant rate of
0.003 cm/s. Find the rate at which the area is increasing when
the radius is 20 cm.

(17) The equation of a curve is 3𝑥 2 = 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑦

𝑑𝑦
Find
𝑑𝑥

(18) The parametric equations of a curve are

𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 4

𝑑𝑦
Find and the Cartesian equation of the curve.
𝑑𝑥

563
Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• Use Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series for approximation

BACKGROUND

The Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s are series is used in expansion

of 𝑓(𝑥) where can be differentiated more than once to obtain
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) , 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) , 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) … ..

The following is the formula for the Maclaurin’s series of

expansion.

564
Maclaurin’s Series

2
′
𝑥 𝑓´´´(0) 3
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (0)𝑥 + 𝑓´´(0) + 𝑥 + ⋯ ..
2! 3!

Example 1

Expand 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 2) using the Maclaurin series to obtain

the first four terms

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 2) 𝑓(0) = 𝐼𝑛(0 + 2) = 𝐼𝑛2

′( 1 ′( 1 1
𝑓 𝑥) = 𝑓 0) = =
𝑥+2 0+2 2

′′ ( 1 ′′ ( 1 1
𝑓 𝑥) = − ( 𝑓 0) = − ( =−
𝑥+2)2 0+2)2 4

′′′ ( 2 ′′′ ( 2 1
𝑓 𝑥) = 𝑓 0) = =
(𝑥+2)³ (0+2)³ 4

1 1 𝑥² 1 𝑥³
∴𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 2) = 𝐼𝑛2 + 𝑥 + (− ) + ( )
2 4 2! 4 3!

565
 1 1 2 1
= 𝐼𝑛2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥³
2 8 24

Example 2

Expand 𝑒 3𝑥 up to the term in 𝑥 3 using the Maclaurin’s series

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑓(0) = 𝑒 3(0) = 1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑒 3𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = 3𝑒 3(0) = 3

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 9𝑒 3𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 9𝑒 3(0) = 9

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 27𝑒 3𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 27𝑒 3(0) = 27

3𝑥 9 2 27
∴𝑒 = 1 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥3
2! 3!

9 9
= 1 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3
2 2

566
Example 3

Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 3)𝑒 2𝑥 find the Maclaurin’s series up to

the term in 𝑥 2

• So, to tackle this one we are going to apply the Maclaurin’s

series on 𝑒 2𝑥 only because that is the part which can be
differentiated up to 𝑛 times and then multiply by (𝑥 − 2)

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑓(0) = 1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = 2

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 4𝑒 2𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 4

2𝑥
4 2
∴𝑒 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯.
2!

(𝑥 − 3)𝑒 2𝑥 = (𝑥 − 3)(1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 )

= 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 3 − 6𝑥 − 6𝑥 2

= −3 − 5𝑥 − 4𝑥 2

567
Example 4

1
The function 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by obtain the first four terms of the
𝑥−2
Maclaurin’s series.

1 1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(0) = −
𝑥−2 2

′( 1 ′( 1
𝑓 𝑥) = − ( 𝑓 0) = −
𝑥−2)2 4

′′ ( 2 ′′ ( 1
𝑓 𝑥) = (𝑥−2)3
𝑓 0) =
4

′′′ ( 6 ′′′ ( 3
𝑓 𝑥) = − (𝑥−2)4
𝑓 0) = − 8

1 3
1 1 1 ( ) (− )
∴ = − + (− ) 𝑥 + 4
𝑥2 + 8
𝑥3 + ⋯
𝑥−2 2 4 2! 3!

1 1 1 2 1
=− − 𝑥+ 𝑥 − 𝑥3
2 4 8 16

Example 5

568
The function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 5). Expand 𝑓(𝑥) using Maclaurin
Series to obtain the first four terms of the expansion.

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 5) 𝑓(0) = 𝐼𝑛5

′( 2 ′( 2
𝑓 𝑥) = 𝑓 0) =
2𝑥+5 5

′′ ( 2 ′′ ( 2
𝑓 𝑥) = − ( 𝑓 0) = −
2𝑥+5)2 25

′′′ ( 4 ′′′ ( 4
𝑓 𝑥 ) = (2𝑥+5)3 𝑓 0) = 125

2 2 2 4
∴𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 5) = 𝐼𝑛5 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 +..
5 25 125

Example 6

Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 4)𝑒 𝑥 , expand using Maclaurin Series to

obtain the first four terms

Taking 𝑒 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(0) = 1

569
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 1

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 1

𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
∴(𝑥 + 4)𝑒 = (𝑥 + 4) [1 + 𝑥 + + + ⋯]
2! 3!

1 1 2
= 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 4 + 4𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 3
2 3 4 2
2 6 3

7
= 4 + 5𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯
2
6

Example 7 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

Given that

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑒 3𝑥 (3𝑥 + 2)

570
Find
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛
Series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) up to term in 𝑥 4

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 𝑓(0) = 0

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑒 3𝑥 (3𝑥 + 2) 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 6

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 27𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 27𝑒 3𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 27

𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥 ) = 81𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 108𝑒 3𝑥 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (0) = 108

3𝑥 6 2 27 3 108
∴𝑥𝑒 =0+𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ ..
2! 3! 4!

9 9
= 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 4 +..
2 3
2 2

Example 8

𝜋
Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5𝑥 + ) for the first four terms.
4

𝜋 √2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5𝑥 + 4 ) 𝑓(0) = 2

571
 𝜋 ′( 5 √2
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠 (5𝑥 + ) 𝑓 0) =
4 2

′′ ( 𝜋 ′′ ( 25√2
𝑓 𝑥 ) = −25𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5𝑥 + ) 𝑓 0) = −
4 2

′′′ ( 𝜋 ′′′ ( 125√2

𝑓 𝑥 ) = −125𝑐𝑜𝑠 (5𝑥 + ) 𝑓 0) = −
4 2

𝜋 √2 5√2 25√2 2 125√2

∴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5𝑥 + 4 ) = 2
+ 2
𝑥 − 2
𝑥 − 2
𝑥3 + ⋯

Example 9 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

(i) Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , use Maclaurin’s theorem to

find the series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥 ) up to and including the
term in 𝑥 3

(ii) Hence, or otherwise evaluate 𝑓(0.4) to 3 d.p

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓(0) = 0

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = −2𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = −2

572
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 2𝑒 −𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 2𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 2

−𝑥 2 2
∴𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 0 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ 2
2! 3!

1
= 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 +..
2
3

1
𝑓(0.4) = 0.4 − (0.4 )2 + (0.4)3
3

= 0.261

Example 10 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

2𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Given that 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦
Find 1.
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑3 𝑦
2.
𝑑𝑥 3

Hence, or otherwise obtain the Maclaurin Series for

573
𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , up to term in 𝑥 3

𝑑2 𝑦
= 3𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 4𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑3 𝑦
= 11𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥 3

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓(0) = 0

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 4𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 4

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 11𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 11

4 11
∴𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥3
2! 3!

2 11
= 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥3
6

574
The Taylor’s Series

• One must understand that the Taylor’s series comes in two

different versions. This is very important to note.

First Version⟹ 𝑓(𝑥 ) Centered at /about or near 𝑥 = 𝑎

(𝑥 − 𝑎)² (𝑥 − 𝑎)³
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) ′′′ ( )
+𝑓 𝑎 +. ..
2! 3!

• The value of 𝑎 is that value where the expansion is centered at

or near.

• This will be stated in the question.

• Hence 𝑓(𝑥 ) will be in the form 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎)

So let us look at the following examples:

575
Example 1

Find the Taylor’s series of 𝐼𝑛𝑥 about 𝑥 = 2 to obtain the first four
terms

𝑎=2

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑓(2) = 𝐼𝑛2

′( 1 ′( 1
𝑓 𝑥) = 𝑓 2) =
𝑥 2

′′ ( 1 ′′ ( 1
𝑓 𝑥) = − 𝑓 2) = −
𝑥2 4

′′′ ( 2 ′′′ ( 1
𝑓 𝑥) = 𝑓 2) =
𝑥3 4

1 1 (𝑥−2)2 1 (𝑥−2)3
∴𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛2 + (𝑥 − 2) + (− ) +( )
2 4 2! 4 3!

1 1 1
= 𝐼𝑛2 + (𝑥 − 2) − (𝑥 − 2 )2 + (𝑥 − 2)3 + ⋯
2 8 24

576
Example 2

2
Obtain the Taylor series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = about 𝑥 = 1 to obtain first
𝑥
four terms.

𝑎=1

2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(1) = 2
𝑥

′( 2
𝑓 𝑥) = − 𝑓 ′ (1) = −2
𝑥2

4
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 𝑓 ′′ (1) = 4

12
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = − 𝑓 ′′′ (1) = −12
𝑥4

2 4 12
∴ = 2 − 2(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 − (𝑥 − 1)3
𝑥 2! 3!

= 2 − 2(𝑥 − 1) + 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 2(𝑥 − 1)3

Example 3
577
Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 3)𝑒 𝑥 find the taylor expansion centered
at 𝑎 = 1

𝑎=1

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(1) = 𝑒

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (1) = 𝑒

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (1) = 𝑒

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (1) = 𝑒

𝑒 𝑒
∴𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑒(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3
2! 3!

𝑒 𝑒
(𝑥 − 3)𝑒 = (𝑥 − 3) [𝑒 + 𝑒(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)3 ]
𝑥 2
2 6

Example 4

Find the Taylor series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 5 + 7𝑥 + 3 at 𝑥 = 2 to obtain

the first four terms.

578
𝑎=2

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 5 + 7𝑥 + 3 𝑓(2) = 179

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 25𝑥 4 + 7 𝑓 ′ (2) = 407

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 100𝑥 3 𝑓 ′′ (2) = 800

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 300𝑥 2 𝑓 ′′′ (2) = 1200

′( ′′ (
(𝑥 − 𝑎)² ′′′
(𝑥 − 𝑎)³
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓 𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) +. ..
2! 3!

800(𝑥 − 2)2 1200(𝑥 − 2)3

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 179 + 407(𝑥 − 2) + + +⋯
2! 3!

800(𝑥 − 2)2 1200(𝑥 − 2)3

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 179 + 407(𝑥 − 2) + + +⋯
2 6

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 179 + 407𝑥 − 814 + 400(𝑥 − 2)2 + 200(𝑥 − 2)3

𝑓(𝑥 ) = −635 + 407𝑥 + 400(𝑥 − 2)2 + 200(𝑥 − 2)3

579
Version 2⟹Taylor Series for 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)

3
𝑥² 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(ℎ) + 𝑓 ′ (ℎ)𝑥 + 𝑓 ′′ (ℎ) + 𝑓 ′′′ (ℎ) + ⋯
2! 3!

Example 1

𝜋
Find Taylor expansion of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + ) up to the term in 𝑥 3
4

ℎ=4

𝜋 √2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓( ) =
4 2

𝜋 √2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓′ ( ) =
4 2

′′ ( ′′ 𝜋 √2
𝑓 𝑥 ) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 ( ) = −
4 2

580
 ′′′ ( ′′′ 𝜋 √2
𝑓 𝑥 ) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 ( ) = −
4 2

𝜋 √2 √2 √2 2 √2 3
∴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + ) = + 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 +⋯
4 2 2 2 2

Example 2
Use Taylor series to obtain a series expansion of (𝑥 + 1)4 up to
term in 𝑥 3

ℎ=1

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 𝑓(1) = 1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 3 𝑓 ′ (1) = 4

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 12𝑥 2 𝑓 ′′ (1) = 12

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 24𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (1) = 24

12 24
∴(𝑥 + 1)4 = 1 + 4𝑥 + 2
𝑥 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
2! 3!

= 1 + 4𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 +..

581
Example 3 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

𝜋
Find Taylor expansion of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 + ) up to the term in 𝑥 3 and
4
hence find 46° correct to 4 d.p

𝜋
ℎ=
4

𝜋 √2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓( ) =
4 2

′( ′ 𝜋 √2
𝑓 𝑥 ) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 ( ) = −
4 2

′′ ( ′′ 𝜋 √2
𝑓 𝑥 ) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 ( ) = −
4 2

′′′ ( ′′′ 𝜋 √2
𝑓 𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 (4) = 2

𝜋 √2 √2 √2 2 √2 3
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 + ) = − 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 +..
4 2 2 2 2

𝑥 + 45° = 46°

𝑥 = 1°
582
 √2 √2 𝜋 √2 𝜋 2 √2 𝜋 3
∴𝑐𝑜𝑠46° = − ( ) − ( ) + ( )
2 2 180 2 180 2 180

= 0.6946

Example 4

Using Taylor series, obtain first four terms of expansion of

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 7)

ℎ=7

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛2𝑥 𝑓(7) = 𝐼𝑛14

′( 1 ′( 1
𝑓 𝑥) = 𝑓 7) =
𝑥 7

′′ ( 1 ′′ ( 1
𝑓 𝑥) = − 𝑓 7) = −
𝑥2 49

′′′ ( 2 ′′′ ( 2
𝑓 𝑥) = 𝑓 7) =
𝑥3 343

583
 1 1 2 2
∴ 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 7) = 𝐼𝑛14 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 +..
7 49 343

Practice Questions

(1) The function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 5). Expand 𝑓(𝑥) using Maclaurin
Series to obtain the first four terms of the expansion.

(2) Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 4)𝑒 𝑥 , expand using Maclaurin Series to

obtain the first four terms

𝑥
(3) Use Maclaurin Series to obtain first four terms of 𝐼𝑛 (2 − )
3

(4) Find the Taylor series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 5 + 7𝑥 + 3 at 𝑥 = 2 to obtain the

first four terms.

𝜋
(5) Find Taylor expansion of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 + ) up to the term in 𝑥 3 and hence
4
find 46° correct to 4 d.p

𝜋
(6) Find Taylor expansion of 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 + ) up to the term in 𝑥³ and hence
4
find value of 46°

(7) Given that

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 3𝑒 3𝑥 (3𝑥 + 2)

Find 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛

Series of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) up to term in 𝑥 4

(8) Use Taylor series to obtain a series expansion of (2𝑥 + 1)4

584
 (9) Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝑥 + 3) for the first four terms.

(10) Find the Maclaurin expansion of 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 + 3) up to third term.

2
11. Obtain the Taylor series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 about 𝑥 = 1 to obtain
first four terms.

(12) Use the series expansion of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 to expand (1 + 𝑥 )2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 up to

and including the term in 𝑥 3

(13) Given that

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+ + 3𝑦 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 = 1 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Use Taylor series to find the first three terms of (1 + 𝑥 )2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

(14) Using Taylor series , obtain first four terms of expansion of

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 + 7)

(15) Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 3)𝑒 𝑥 find the taylor expansion centered
at
𝑎 = −2

585
586
Errors, Small Changes and Rates of Change

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES
• define error

• distinguish between absolute error and relative error

𝑑𝑦
• estimate errors in calculation including the use of 𝛿𝑦 = ( ) 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥

587
First let us talk about rates of change

Rates of change

Let us also look at rates of change since we need to familiarize

with the Chain Rules

Once one gets these chain rule formulas working out rates of change will
be like taking a walk.

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

Let us look at following examples from CAMBRIDGE

Example 1

Water is falling on the ground making a circular patch.

Given that the radius is increasing at the constant rate of 0.5 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1 find
the rate of increase of area when 𝑟 = 6 𝑐𝑚

So let us first gather all the data that we have been provided by the
question.

588
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐴
= 0.5 ; 𝑟 = 6 𝑐𝑚 ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ∴ = 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟

We are required to find

𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴
∴ = 2𝜋(6) × 0.5
𝑑𝑡

= 6 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠 −1

Example 2

The volume of a cube of side 𝑥 𝑐𝑚 is increasing at the constant rate of

8 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠 −1 Find the rate of increase of side 𝑥 when the volume is 64 𝑐𝑚3

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
=8 𝑉 = 𝑥3 ∴ = 3𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 3 = 64 ∴ 𝑥 = 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉

𝑑𝑥 1
=8×
𝑑𝑡 3( 4 ) 2

1
= 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1
6

589
Example 3

The radius of a spherical balloon increases at the constant rate of

2
𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1 Find the rate at which the volume increases when volume is
𝜋
36𝜋 𝑐𝑚3

4 3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟
3

𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉 2 4
= = 4𝜋𝑟 𝑉 = 36𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜋𝑟 3 = 36𝜋 ∴ 𝑟=3
𝑑𝑡 𝜋 𝑑𝑟 3

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

2
= 4𝜋(3)2 ×
𝜋

= 72 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠 −1

Example 4

The surface area of a sphere, A 𝑐𝑚2 is given by 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 where 𝑟 𝑐𝑚 is

the radius of the sphere. The surface area is decreasing at the rate of
4𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠 −1 find the rate at which the radius is changing when 𝑟 = 5 𝑐𝑚

2 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 = 8𝜋𝑟 = −4𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠 −1 𝑟 = 5
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

590
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐴
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑡

1
= × −4𝜋
8𝜋(5)

1
=− 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1
10

• Errors and small changes

Let us we are given a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 )

A small increase in 𝑥 or a small error in 𝑥 is represented by 𝛿𝑥

The corresponding small change in 𝑦 or error in 𝑦 is represented by 𝛿𝑦

So, it is the corresponding change in 𝑦 or error in 𝑦 we wish to derive

We use the formula

𝑑𝑦 𝛿𝑦
≈
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥

Therefore making 𝛿𝑦 subject

𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑦 ≈ ( ) (𝛿𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥

Hence, we are saying to find the corresponding change in 𝑦 or error in 𝑦

multiply the derivative by the small increase in 𝑥

591
Also, one must know the following:

𝛿𝑦
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 = × 100%
𝑦

So let us do the following examples:

EXAMPLE 1 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

If 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 find the approximate change in 𝑦 when 𝑥 increases from 6

to 6.02

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥

𝑥=6 𝛿𝑥 = 0.02

So, we need the approximate change in 𝑦 when 𝑥 was

increased form 6 to 6.02

𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 − 3
𝑑𝑥

= 4(6) − 3

592
 = 21

𝑑𝑦
Using 𝛿𝑦 ≈ (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝛿𝑥

∴Approximate change in 𝑦 = 21(0.02)

= 0.42

So, we are saying when 𝑥 increased from 6 to 6.02, 𝑦 increased

approximately by 0.42

EXAMPLE 2

1
If 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 find the approximate increase in 𝑦 if 𝑥 increases from 2
to 2.04

1
𝑦=𝑥+
𝑥

𝑥=2 𝛿𝑥 = 0.04

𝑑𝑦 1
=1− 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

1
𝛿𝑦 ≈ (1 − 2
) (0.04)
(2)
593
 ≈ 0.03

EXAMPLE 3

Find an approximate value for the increase in volume of a sphere

when the radius of the sphere increases from 10 cm to 10.1 cm

Leave answer in terms of 𝜋

4 3 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑟 = 10 𝛿𝑟 = 0.1

𝑑𝑉
𝛿𝑉 ≈ ( ) (𝛿𝑟)
𝑑𝑟

𝛿𝑉 ≈ (4𝜋(10)2 )(0.1)

≈ 40𝜋

594
EXAMPLE 4 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

1
Given that 𝑦 = find the approximate percentage change in 𝑦 if
√2𝑥−1
𝑥 is decreased by 5% when 𝑥 = 5

SOLUTION

1
𝑦=
3

5
𝛿𝑥 = − 𝑥
100

5
=− (5)
100

= −0.25

𝑑𝑦 1 −
3
= − (2𝑥 − 1) 2
𝑑𝑥 2

1 −
3 1
= − (2(5) − 1) 2 = −
2 54

𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑦 = ( ) 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥

1 1
𝛿𝑦 = − × −0.25 =
54 216

595
 1
( )
216
% 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 1 × 100
( )
3

= 0.014%

EXAMPLE 5 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

8
Given that 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + , find the percentage increase in 𝑦 as 𝑥 increases
𝑥
from 2 to 2.003

DATA:

𝑥=2

8 8
𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + = 2(2)3 + = 20
𝑥 2

𝛿𝑥 = 0.003

𝑑𝑦 8 8
= 6𝑥 2 − = 6(2)2 − ( = 22
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 2) 2

Using
𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑦 = ( ) × 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝛿𝑦 = (22) × 0.003

= 0.0066

596
 0.0066
∴ % 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 = × 100
20

= 0.033%

EXAMPLE 6

Find an approximate value of (5.02)3

Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 3

𝑥 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿𝑥 = 0.02

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

= 3(5)2

= 75

∴𝛿𝑦 ≈ 75(0.02)

≈ 1.5

∴𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 ≈ 53 + 1.5

(5.02)3 ≈ 125 + 1.5

597
 ≈ 126.5

EXAMPLE 7

It is noticed that when 𝑥 increases slightly from an initial value of 7,the

value of 𝑦 increase by 0.7
Find the approximate increase in 𝑥 that caused this increase in 𝑦 given
that 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are related by the equation
𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)

DATA PROVIDED:

2
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 6 = 4𝑥 + 7
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 2(7)2 + 7(7) + 6

= 153

𝑑𝑦
= 4(7) + 7
𝑑𝑥

= 35

𝑥=7 𝛿𝑦 = 0.7

𝛿𝑥 =? ? ?

598
 𝑑𝑦
Using 𝛿𝑦 ≈ ( ) (𝛿𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥

0.7 ≈ (35)𝛿𝑥

0.7
𝛿𝑥 ≈
35

𝛿𝑥 ≈ 0.02

599
(1)

Solution

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(i)6𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 − 4𝑥 = 4𝑦 − 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(2𝑦 − 4𝑥 ) = 4𝑦 − 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 4𝑦−6𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦−4𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2(2𝑦−3𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 2(𝑦−2𝑥)

𝑑𝑦 2𝑦−3𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦−2𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2(−3)−3(2)
=
𝑑𝑥 −3−2(2)

−12
=
−7

12
=
7

600
 2𝑦−3𝑥
(ii)1 =
𝑦−2𝑥

2𝑦 − 3𝑥 = 𝑦 − 2𝑥

(2)

Solution

𝑑𝑥 2𝑡 𝑑𝑦
(𝑖 ) = 2𝑒 = 4𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + 4𝑒 𝑡 (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑡 1
= (4𝑡𝑒 + 4𝑒 ) ×
𝑑𝑥 2𝑒 2𝑡

𝑑𝑦 4𝑒 𝑡 (𝑡+1)
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑒 2𝑡

𝑑𝑦 2(𝑡+1)
= (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)
𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑡

(ii)𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0 , 𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0

601
𝑑𝑦 2(0+1)
= =2
𝑑𝑥 𝑒0

1
∴𝑚 = −
2

1
0 = (− ) (1) + 𝑐
2

1
𝑐=
2

1 1
∴Equation of normal is 𝑦 = − 𝑥 +
2 2
2𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1

(3)

(i)𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓´(𝑥 ) = 0

3
∴3𝑢 + − 10 = 0
𝑢

3𝑢2 + 3 − 10𝑢 = 0

3𝑢2 − 10𝑢 + 3 = 0

602
3𝑢2 − 9𝑢 − 𝑢 + 3 = 0

3𝑢(𝑢 − 3) − 1(𝑢 − 3) = 0

(𝑢 − 3)(3𝑢 − 1) = 0

1
𝑢=3 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 =
3

1 1 1
1
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 ∴𝑥 =3 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
2
3

1
𝑥=9 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
9

3 3
(ii)𝑓´´(𝑥 ) = − 3
2√𝑥 2(√𝑥)

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 9
𝑑2 𝑦 3 3
= − 3
𝑑𝑥 2 2√9 2(√9)

1 1
= −
2 18

4
= (MINIMUM) Since positive
9

1
At 𝑥 =
9

𝑑2 𝑦 3 3
= − 3
𝑑𝑥 2 1 1
2√ ( ) 2(√ )
9 9

603
 9 81
= −
2 2

= −36(MAXIMUM)Since negative

𝑑𝑦
(iii)Remember 𝑦 = ∫
𝑑𝑥

1 1
−
∴𝑦 = ∫ (3𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 2 − 10) 𝑑𝑥

3 1
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 𝑐
2 2

Passing through (4 , 7)

3 1
∴7 = 2(4) + 6(4) − 10(4) + 𝑐
2 2

7=16 + 12 − 40 + 𝑐

𝑐 = 19
3 1
∴Equation of the normal is 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 192 2

604
(4)

SOLUTION

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 3 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3 − 2𝑥 2 = 4𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(3 − 2𝑥 2 ) = 4𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 4𝑥𝑦−2𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 3−2𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 −(2𝑥−4𝑥𝑦)
=
𝑑𝑥 −(2𝑥 2 −3)

𝑑𝑦 2𝑥−4𝑥𝑦
= (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 2 −3

(5)

605
SOLUTION

(a)𝑉 = 𝑛𝑟 2 ℎ = 50𝜋 𝑐𝑚3

𝑥
But 𝑟 =
2

𝑥 2
∴𝜋 ( ) ℎ = 50𝜋
2

𝑥2
ℎ = 50
4

𝑥 2 ℎ = 200 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

(b)Surface area of A cylinder=2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ

𝑥 2 𝑥 200
∴A=2𝜋 ( ) + 2𝜋 ( ) ( )
2 2 𝑥2

𝜋𝑥 2 200𝜋
A= +
2 𝑥

606
 𝜋 400
= [𝑥 2 + ] (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)
2 𝑥

𝑑𝐴 200
(c) = 𝜋𝑥 − 𝜋=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2

𝜋𝑥 3 − 200𝜋 = 0

𝜋𝑥 3 = 200𝜋

𝑥 3 = 200

3
𝑥 = √200

Verification

𝑑2 𝐴 400
=𝜋+
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥3

400
=𝜋+ 3 3
( √200)

= 5.14

𝑑2 𝐴
Since is positive it is Minimum
𝑑𝑥 2

3
(d)𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = √200

𝜋 3 2 400
𝐴 = [( √200) + 3 ]
2 √200
607
A=161.2cm²

(6)

SOLUTION
(a)𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

608
 𝜋 𝜋
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 +𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛
= 2
𝜋
2
𝜋
𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 −𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2

𝑏
=
−𝑎

𝑏
=−
𝑎

(b)𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )2 + (𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2

=𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 2𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑏 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

=𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑏 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

=𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑏 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

=𝑎2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) + 𝑏 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)

Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1

=𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 (𝑁𝑜 𝜃 ∴ 𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

(7)

SOLUTION
609
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
(a) = ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2
= 2𝑡𝑒 𝑡 = 2𝑡𝑒 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2 1
= 2𝑡𝑒 𝑡 × 2
𝑑𝑥 2𝑡𝑒 𝑡

=1 (Independent of t hence SHOWN)

(8)

SOLUTION
(i)V= 𝑙 × 𝑤 × 𝑑

32
128=( 2) (𝑥 )(𝑑)
𝑥

Making d subject of formula

32𝑑
= 128
𝑥
610
𝑑 = 4𝑥

One must understand that THE BOX IS OPEN therefore for our total
surface Area we are going to consider 5 faces not 6

32 32
A=2 ( ( )
2 × 4𝑥) + 2 4𝑥 × 𝑥 + ( × 𝑥)
𝑥 𝑥2

128 32
= + 8𝑥 2 +
𝑥 𝑥

160
= + 16𝑥
𝑥

𝑑𝐴
(ii)𝐴𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐴 160
=− + 16𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2

−160 + 16𝑥 3 = 0

16𝑥 3 = 160

𝑥 3 = 10

3
𝑥 = √10

3
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ(𝑑) = 4( √10) = 8.62𝑐𝑚

611
 32
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 3 2 = 6.89𝑐𝑚
( √10)
3
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = √10 = 2.15

Verification
𝑑2 𝐴
If the Area is Minimum >0
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝐴 320
= + 16
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥3

𝑑2 𝐴 320
= 3 + 16
𝑑𝑥 2 3
( √10)

𝑑2 𝐴
= 48 (𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)
𝑑𝑥 2

(9)

SOLUTION
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑡 = 4 − 3𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

612
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= (4 − 3𝑡 2 ) ×
𝑑𝑥 2𝑡

4−3𝑡 2
=
2𝑡

4 3𝑡 2
= −
2𝑡 2𝑡

2 3
= − 𝑡
𝑡 2

𝑑𝑦
At t.p =0
𝑑𝑥

2 3
− 𝑡=0
𝑡 2

3𝑡 2 = 4

2
𝑡=
√3

2 2 7
∴𝑥 = 1 + ( ) =
√3 3

16
𝑦=
3√3

(SHOWN)

613
(11)

SOLUTION

𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 5𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥
𝑑𝑥

But observe that 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥

𝑑𝑦
∴ = 5𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= −25𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥 + 10𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Observe 5𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥 = − 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= −25𝑦 + 2 ( − 2𝑦) + 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= −25𝑦 + 2 − 4𝑦 + 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= −29𝑦 + 4
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2 + 29𝑦 − 4 𝑑𝑥
=0 (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

614
(12)

SOLUTION
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(i)2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −2𝑥 − 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 + 2𝑦) = −2𝑥 − 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −(2𝑥+𝑦)
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥+2𝑦)

2𝑥+𝑦
=− (𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)
𝑥+2𝑦

(13)

SOLUTION

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 − 5𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 5 − 18𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

615
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 − 5𝑥 +5 = 5𝑦 + 18𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(2𝑦 − 5𝑥 + 5) = 5𝑦 + 18𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 5𝑦+18𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦−5𝑥+5

When 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 5𝑦 − 9 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = −3

At point 1 , −3

𝑑𝑦 5(−3)+18(1) 1
= =−
𝑑𝑥 2(−3)−5(1)+5 2

At point 1 , 3

𝑑𝑦 5(3)+18(1) 33
= =
𝑑𝑥 2(3)−5(1)+5 6

(14)

616
(i)Product Rule

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑢 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −2𝑒 −2𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡

= 𝑒 −2𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)

(ii)𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (3𝑡 − 100) = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (3𝑡 − 100)

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑡𝑎𝑛(3𝑡 − 100) × 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (3𝑡 − 100) × 3
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑡𝑎𝑛(3𝑡 − 100)𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (3𝑡 − 100)
𝑑𝑡

(15)

617
SOLUTION

(i)Total Surface Area=2(3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥ℎ + 𝑥ℎ)

∴𝐴 = 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 2𝑥ℎ

6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥ℎ = 1152𝑐𝑚2

8𝑥ℎ = 1152 − 6𝑥 2

1152−6𝑥 2
ℎ=
8𝑥

576−3𝑥 2
ℎ=
4𝑥

2
2 576−3𝑥
𝑉=3𝑥 ( )
4𝑥

3
= 𝑥 (576 − 𝑥 2 )
4

9
= 𝑥 (192 − 𝑥 2 )
4

9 1
= 𝑥 (48 − 𝑥 2 ) (SHOWN)
4 4

618
(16)

SOLUTION

𝑉 = 300

∴ 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 300

300
ℎ=
𝜋𝑟 2

300
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟 ( )
𝜋𝑟 2
600
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 +
𝑟

𝑑𝐴 600
(ii) = 4𝜋𝑟 − =0
𝑑𝑟 𝑟2

4𝜋𝑟 3 − 600 = 0

4𝜋𝑟 3 = 600

3 600
𝑟=√
4𝜋

619
 3 150
𝑟=√ = 3.63
𝜋

300
ℎ= 2 = 22.8
3 150
(√ )
𝜋

(17)

(18)

SOLUTION
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = −2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= −2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 ×
𝑑𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑑𝑦 −2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

620
𝑑𝑦 −2(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 )
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑑𝑦
= −2
𝑑𝑥

(19)

SOLUTION (IMPLICIT)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 24𝑦 3 = 14𝑥 + 7𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
24𝑦 3 − 14𝑥 = 7𝑦 2 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(24𝑦 3 − 14𝑥 ) = 7𝑦 2 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 7𝑦 2 −2𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 24𝑦 3 −14𝑥

𝑑𝑦 7(1)−2(1)
=
𝑑𝑥 24(1)−14(1)

𝑑𝑦 7−2
=
𝑑𝑥 24−14

𝑑𝑦 5
=
𝑑𝑥 10

621
𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 2

(20)

SOLUTION

𝑑 𝑓´(𝑥)
Recall 𝐼𝑛𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 2 +1)
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 2 +1)

sin (𝑥 2 +1)
= −2𝑥
cos (𝑥 2 +1)

= −2𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥 2 + 1)

(21)

SOLUTION

622
 1
𝑑𝑦 (4𝑥+9)2−1
(a) = 1
𝑑𝑥 4( −1)
2

1
−2
(4𝑥+9)
=
−2

1
=−
2√4𝑥+9

𝑑𝑦 1
At 𝑥 = 4 =−
𝑑𝑥 2√16+9

1
=−
10
𝑑𝑥
(b) = 0.20
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= × (𝐶𝐻𝐴𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝑈𝐿𝐸)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 1
∴ = (− ) (0.20)
𝑑𝑡 10
= −0.02

(22)

SOLUTION
Applying Implicit to the LHS
623
 1 𝑑𝑦 24𝑒 3𝑥
( ) =
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2√1+8𝑒 3𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦 12𝑒 3𝑥
( ) =
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 √1+8𝑒 3𝑥

𝑑𝑦 12𝑒 3𝑥
= ×𝑦
𝑑𝑥 √1+8𝑒 3𝑥

𝑑𝑦 12𝑦𝑒 3𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 √1+8𝑒 3𝑥

(23)

SOLUTION

𝑑2 𝑦
= −𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 4𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2

= 4𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 4𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

= 3𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 4𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Remember 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = − 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥

624
 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
∴ = 3𝑦 + 4 ( − 2𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑦 + 4 − 8𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
=4 − 5𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(2) =4 −5
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 4 (4 − 5𝑦) − 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 16 − 20𝑦 − 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
=11 − 20𝑦
𝑑𝑥

625
(24)

SOLUTION
1
𝑦=
3

5 5
𝛿𝑥 = − 𝑥=− (5) = −0.25
100 100

3 3
𝑑𝑦 1 − 1 − 1
= − (2𝑥 − 1) 2 = − (2(5) − 1) 2 =−
𝑑𝑥 2 2 54

𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑦 = ( ) 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥

1 1
𝛿𝑦 = − × −0.25 =
54 216

1
( )
216
% 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 1 × 100
( )
3

= 0.014%

626
(25)

SOLUTION

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
(i) = ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

2 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 ∴ = 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑟
= 3𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴
∴ = 2𝜋(𝑡 3 + 1) × 3𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡

= 6𝜋𝑡 2 (𝑡 3 + 1)

𝑑𝐴
At 𝑡 = 2 = 6𝜋(2)2 (23 + 1)
𝑑𝑡

= 216𝜋

627
(26)

SOLUTION

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
= 50 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟 = 10
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
∴ = ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉

1
= 50 ×
4𝜋(10)2

1
= 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1
8𝜋

(27)

SOLUTION

628
 1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
1 − [𝑦 ( ) + 𝐼𝑛𝑥 ]=
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
1 − − 𝐼𝑛𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
+ 𝐼𝑛𝑥 =1−
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦
( + 𝐼𝑛𝑥) = 1 −
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑥

𝑦
𝑑𝑦 (1− )
𝑥
=1
𝑑𝑥 +𝐼𝑛𝑥
𝑦

(28)

SOLUTION

(i) 2 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑚

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 2 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 56 − 2𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 28 − 𝑥

629
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥 (28 − 𝑥 ) = 28𝑥 − 𝑥 2

𝑑𝐴
(ii) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 =0
𝑑𝑥

28 − 2𝑥 = 0

𝑥 = 14

𝐴 = 14(28 − 14)

∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 196

Using first derivative test because

𝑑2 𝐴
𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 14
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 14

𝑑𝐴
= 28 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐴
For 13 = 28 − 2(13) = 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐴
For 15 = 28 − 2(15) = −2
𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

630
(29)

SOLUTION

𝑥−2 𝑦−3
(a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
5 5

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1

𝑦−3 2 𝑥−2 2
( ) +( ) =1
5 5

(30)

SOLUTION

631
𝑑𝑟
= 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 3
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
= 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
= 4𝜋(9)2 × 3
𝑑𝑡

= 972𝜋 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠 −1

(31)

SOLUTION

1 2
(a) 𝑥 = (2𝑡 + )
2
2𝑡

1
= 4𝑡 2 + 2 +
4𝑡 2

632
 2 1 2
𝑦 = (2𝑡 − )
2𝑡

2 1
= 4𝑡 − 2 +
4𝑡 2

1 1
(b) 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 4𝑡 2 + 2 + 2
2 − (4𝑡 − 2 + )
4𝑡 4𝑡 2

1 1
= 4𝑡 2 + 2 + 2
2 − 4𝑡 + 2 −
4𝑡 4𝑡 2

∴ 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 4

(32)

SOLUTION

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= −2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 1
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 × −
𝑑𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡

633
 −2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡
=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡

= −𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝑡

(33)

SOLUTION

𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟ℎ

𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

𝑉
∴ℎ=
𝜋𝑟 2

𝑉
𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟 ( )
𝜋𝑟 2

𝑉
𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 +
𝑟

𝑑𝑆
(ii)Smallest means minimum ∴ =0
𝑑𝑟

634
(34)

SOLUTION

DATA:

𝑥=2
8 8
𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + = 2(2)3 + = 20
𝑥 2
𝛿𝑥 = 0.003
𝑑𝑦 8 8
= 6𝑥 2 − = 6(2)2 − ( = 22
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 2) 2

Using
𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑦 = ( ) × 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝛿𝑦 = (22) × 0.003

= 0.0066

0.0066
∴ % 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 = × 100
20

= 0.033%

635
(35)

SOLUTION

(a) 16𝑥 2 + 25𝑦 2 = 400

𝑑𝑦
32𝑥 + 50𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 32𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑥 50𝑦

16𝑥
=−
25𝑦

𝑑𝑦 3
(b) =−
𝑑𝑥 5

16 3
= (− ) (3) + 𝑐
5 5

𝑐=5

3
∴𝑦 =− 𝑥+5
5

636
5𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 25

637
Integration

Syllabus Objectives:
• Indefinite Integral of Polynomials, Rational functions,
exponentials (𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) )
• Integration of Trigonometric functions with standard
integrals and those that can be reduced to standard
integral
• Integration by recognition, by parts and by
substitution
• Definite Integral
• Application of integration to areas and volumes

638
Introduction to Integration

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation

The concept of integration as a reverse process of differentiation
will be illustrated after we outline the notations used in what is
called indefinite integration.
Let us say we want to integrate a function 𝑓(𝑥 )the notation is as
follows:

The integration sign The integrand (what we are integrating)

∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) + 𝑐

The integration agent 𝑑(𝑥) simply means we are integrating in terms of 𝑥

𝐹 (𝑥 ) is basically the result of our integration which is often

called the anti-derivative
𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

639
Indefinite Integrals

𝑛+1
𝑥
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑛+1

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −1

2
𝑥³
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐
3

𝑛+1
𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑛+1

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −1

4
3𝑥
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 3𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
4

𝑛+1
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 , 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −1
𝑎(𝑛 + 1)

640
 4
(2𝑥 + 3)
𝑒𝑔. ∫(2𝑥 + 3)3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
8

∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑒𝑔. ∫ 5 𝑑𝑥 = 5𝑥 + 𝑐

Illustration on why Integration is referred to as reverse

process of differentiation

Let us take 𝑦=𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 + 2
𝑑𝑥

Now let us integrate the derivative we just obtained

2+1
3𝑥
∫ 3𝑥 2 + 2 𝑑𝑥 = + 2𝑥
2+1

= 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥

641
 𝑑𝑦
Integrating led us back to 𝑦. (𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

This shows us that integration is the reverse process of

𝑑𝑦
differentiation i.e. If you integrate the first derivative ( ) you
𝑑𝑥
get y (the original function)

𝑑𝑦
∴𝑦=∫
𝑑𝑥

Examples on Indefinite Integration

(2𝑥+3)3+1
(a) ∫(2𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥 = )3 +𝑐
2(3+1)

(2𝑥 + 3)4
= +𝑐
8

1
+1
(𝑥)2
(b) ∫ √𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 1 +c
+1
2

3
𝑥2
= 3 +c
2

642
 2(√𝑥)³
= +c
3

(c)∫ 5 𝑑𝑥 = 5𝑥 + 𝑐

3 7𝑥 4
(d)∫ 7𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
4

To do Questions

Warm Up
Find

(𝑎) ∫ 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 3𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫ 1110𝑑𝑥

(𝑑) ∫(1 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒) ∫(3𝑥 + 1)5

Solutions
6 5
𝑥 3𝑥
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐 (𝑏) ∫ 3𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
6 5

(𝑐) ∫ 1110𝑑𝑥 = 1110𝑥 + 𝑐

6 6
(1 − 3𝑥 ) (1 − 3𝑥 )
(𝒅) ∫(1 − 3𝑥 )5 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐 =− +𝑐
−3(6) 18

643
 6
(3𝑥 + 1)
(𝒆) ∫(3𝑥 + 1)5 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
18

Level 1
Find
𝟏 𝟐 𝟒
(𝒂) ∫ 𝒅𝒙 (𝒃) ∫ 𝒅𝒙 (𝒄) ∫ √𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 𝒅𝒙 (𝒅) ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝒙³ √𝒙 𝒙²

𝟒
(𝒆) ∫ 𝟑
𝒅𝒙
(𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓)

Solutions
−3+1
𝑥
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
−3 + 1

𝑥 −2
= +𝑐
−2

−1
= +𝑐
2𝑥²

−1
2 2𝑥 2 +1
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
√𝑥 −1
+1
2
644
= 4√𝑥 + 𝑐

1
+1
(2 + 3𝑥)2
(𝑐 )√2 + 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
3
3( )
2
3
2(2 + 3𝑥)2
= +𝑐
9

4 4𝑥 −2+1
(𝑑 ) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑥 −2 + 1

4
=− +𝑐
𝑥

4 4(4𝑥 − 5)−3+1
(𝑒) ∫ 3
𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
(4𝑥 − 5) 4(−3 + 1)

−1
= +𝑐
2(4𝑥 − 5)²

645
Level 2
Find
1 1 6 3
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 𝑑𝑢 (𝑐) ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑 ) 4 𝑑𝑥
√2𝑥 + 1 √𝑢 √𝑥 √2𝑥 − 3

3
(𝑒) ∫ √27𝑥𝑑𝑥

Solutions
−1
1 (2𝑥 + 1) 2 +1
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
√2𝑥 + 1 −1
2( + 1)
2

= √2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑐

−1
1 𝑢 2 +1
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = +𝑐
√𝑢 −1
+1
2

= 2√𝑢 + 𝑐

646
 −1+1
6 6𝑥 3
(𝒄) ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
√𝑥 −1 + 1
3
𝟐
= 𝟗𝒙𝟑 +𝒄

−1
3 3(2𝑥 − 3) 4 +1
(𝑑 ) ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
√2𝑥 − 3 −1
2( + 1)
4
𝟑
= 𝟐(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑)𝟒 +𝒄

1+1
3 (27𝑥)3
(𝒆) ∫ √27𝑥𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
1+1
3
𝟒
𝟖𝟏𝒙𝟑
= +𝒄
𝟒

647
Integration of Polynomials

When integrating polynomials simply integrate term by

term!!!
3 2 2𝑥 3+1 5𝑥 2+1 9𝑥 1+1
(a)∫(2𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥= + + + 4𝑥+c
3+1 2+1 1+1

𝑥4 5𝑥 3 9𝑥 2
= + + + 4𝑥 + 𝑐
2 3 2

2𝑥 3 +6𝑥 2 +9𝑥 2𝑥 3 6𝑥 2 9𝑥
(b)∫( )𝑑𝑥=∫( + + )𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

=∫(2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9) 𝑑𝑥

2𝑥 2+1 6𝑥 1+1
= + + 9𝑥 + 𝑐
2+1 1+1

2𝑥³
= + 3𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 𝑐
3

To do questions
Warm Up

Find
648
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥
6 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥
(𝑏) ∫ (4𝑥 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫( )𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

(𝑑) ∫(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥 (𝑒) ∫(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥

Solutions
𝑥³
(a)∫(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑥2 + 𝑐
3

6 4𝑥² 6𝑥 −2+1
(b)∫ (4𝑥 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = + +𝑐
𝑥 2 −2+1
6
= 2𝑥 2 − + 𝑐
𝑥
𝑥 3 +3𝑥 𝑥³ 3𝑥
(𝑐) ∫ ( 𝑥
) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥
+ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

= ∫(𝑥² + 3)𝑑𝑥

𝑥³
= + 3𝑥 + 𝑐
3

2 𝑥³
(d)∫(𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 𝑐
3

2 𝑥³
(𝑒) ∫(𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
3

649
Level 1
Find

3
1 1 2 1
(𝑎) ∫(𝑥 + 2 )𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ (𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫(√𝑥 − )𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 √𝑥
2 + √𝑥 2 3
(𝑑) ∫( 2
)𝑑𝑥 (𝑒) ∫(𝑥 − 2 + 3√𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

Solutions
3 1 𝑥4 𝑥 −2+1
(𝑎) ∫ (𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥 = + +𝑐
𝑥2 4 −2+1

𝑥4 1
= − +𝑐
4 𝑥

1 2 2 1
(𝑏) ∫ (𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 − 2 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥²

𝑥3 1
= − 2𝑥 − + 𝑐
3 𝑥

1 −1
+1 +1
1 𝑥2 𝑥2
(𝑐) ∫ (√𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 − −1 +𝑐
√ 𝑥 +1
2 2

3
2𝑥 2
= − 2√𝑥 + 𝑐
3

650
 2+√𝑥 2 √𝑥
(𝑑) ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 2 + )𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥²

2𝑥 −2+1 1
−2
= +𝑥 2 +𝑐
−2+1

−3
1
= −𝑥 + 𝑥 2 +𝑐

3
3 2 𝑥4 1 3𝑥 2
(𝑒) ∫ (𝑥 − + 3√𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = + + 3 +𝑐
𝑥2 4 2𝑥
2

3
𝑥4 1
= + + 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2
4 2𝑥

Level 2
Find
𝑥3 − 1 3 4
21
(𝑎) ∫ ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 𝑥 (𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫(𝑥 + 2 + 3)𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
1 3
(𝑑) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 2 𝑑𝑥 )2 2 3
(𝑒) ∫(𝑥 + 3 + 2𝑥 + )𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥²

Solution
𝑥3 1 1
(𝑎) ∫ ( − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 − )𝑑𝑥
𝑥² 𝑥 𝑥²

𝑥² 1
= + +𝑐
2 𝑥

651
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑥 3 (𝑥 − 2)𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥

𝑥5 𝑥4
= − +𝑐
5 2

4 21 𝑥5 21
(𝑐 ) ∫ (𝑥 + + 3) 𝑑𝑥 = − + 3𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥2 5 𝑥

(𝑑) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥

= ∫(𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑥4 4𝑥 3
= − + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑐
4 3

3 1 2 3 𝑥4 1 2𝑥 3 3
(𝑒) ∫ (𝑥 + 3 + 2𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 = − 2𝑥 2 + −𝑥+𝑐
𝑥 𝑥 4 3

652
Integrating Exponential Functions

Integrating exponential functions can be so funny and easy

after you get this concept:

If 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒇(𝒙) then

𝒇(𝒙)
𝒆
∫ 𝒆𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = +𝑪
𝒇´(𝒙)

𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒔𝒏′𝒕 𝒊𝒕

Examples

(a)∫ 𝑒 2𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥

𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓´(𝑥 ) = 2
2𝑥+3 𝑒 2𝑥+3
∴ ∫𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = +c
2

(b∫ 2𝑒 3𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓´(𝑥) = 3

3𝑥+1 2𝑒 3𝑥+1
∴ ∫ 2𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
3

653
 𝑥2
(c)∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓´(𝑥) = 2𝑥

𝑥2 𝑒 𝑥²
∴ ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥
+𝑐

Question Time
Warm Up
Find

(𝑎) ∫ 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 4𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫ 2𝑒 (1−5𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

2𝑥
1 −𝑥 2𝑥
5
(𝑑) ∫ (𝑒 + 2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒) ∫(2𝑒 + 3𝑒 )𝑑𝑥 (𝑓) ∫ 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑒

Solutions
4𝑥
𝑒
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐 (𝑏) ∫ 4𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −4𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐
4

(1−5𝑥)
−2𝑒
(𝑐 ) ∫ 2𝑒 1−5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
5
2𝑥 −2𝑥
1 𝑒 𝑒
(𝑑 ) ∫ (𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = + +c
𝑒 2 −2

654
 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑥
= − +𝑐
2 2

𝑒 2𝑥 1
= − 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 2𝑒

−𝑥 2𝑥
2𝑒 3𝑒
(𝑒) ∫(2𝑒 −𝑥 + 3𝑒 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = + +𝑐
−1 2

−𝑥
3 2𝑥
= −2𝑒 + 𝑒 +𝑐
2

−2 3 2𝑥
= 𝑥 + 𝑒 +𝑐
𝑒 2

5 5𝑒 −3𝑥
(𝑓) ∫ 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − +𝑐
𝑒 3

Level 1
Find

(𝑎) ∫(2𝑒 3𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫(3𝑒 2𝑥+3 + 5𝑒 −3𝑥 − 6)𝑑𝑥

1 4𝑥−1 −1
(𝑐 ) ∫ √𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑 ) ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒) ∫(𝑒 2 𝑥 )³𝑑𝑥
2
Solution
3𝑥
2𝑒
(𝑎) ∫(2𝑒 3𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥 = + 4𝑥 + 𝑐
3

655
 2𝑥+3 −3𝑥
3𝑒 5𝑒
∫(3𝑒 2𝑥+3 + 5𝑒 −3𝑥 − 6)𝑑𝑥 = − − 6𝑥 + 𝑐
2 3

1
3𝑥 2
(𝑐) ∫ √𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑥

3
= ∫(𝑒 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

3
𝑒 2𝑥
= +𝑐
3
2

2 3𝑥
= 𝑒2 + 𝑐
3

1 4𝑥−1 1 𝑒 4𝑥−1
(𝑑) ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
2 2 4

𝑒 4𝑥−1
= +𝑐
8

−1 −3
(𝑒) ∫(𝑒 2 𝑥 )3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

656
 −3
𝑒2𝑥
= +𝑐
−3
2

−3
−2𝑒 2 𝑥
= +𝑐
3

Level 2
Find

(𝑎) ∫ 5𝑒 (𝑥−3) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫(𝑒 𝑥 )(𝑒 𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫(𝑒 𝑥 + 2)² 𝑑𝑥

𝑒 3𝑥 2
(𝑑) ∫ ( 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑠‼!)
𝑒 𝑒

Solutions

(𝑎) ∫ 5𝑒 (𝑥−3) 𝑑𝑥 = 5𝑒 (𝑥−3) + 𝑐

(b)
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

𝑒 2𝑥
= + 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
2

(𝑐 ) ∫(𝑒 𝑥 + 2)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑒 2𝑥 + 4𝑒 𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥

657
 𝑒 2𝑥
= + 4𝑒 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 𝑐
2

𝑒 3𝑥 2
(𝑑) ∫ ( 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑒 𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑒 −𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑒

= 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐

(e)
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

Integration of Trigonometrical Functions

For Integration of trigonometric functions, the following

concepts must first be looked at:

These are the standard integrals make sure you don’t confuse
them with differentiation.

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
∗Know this as well ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 + 𝑐

658
∗We integrate 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

From these we can make use of following concepts:

1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

−1
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 3) + 𝑐
2

1
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

1
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 + 9)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥 + 9) + 𝑐
3

2(
1
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

2( 1
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 7𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(7𝑥 ) + 𝑐
7

2(
1
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑡(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

659
 2( 1
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥 = − cot(2𝑥 + 3) + 𝑐
2

Let us do some examples and use the concepts we just

discussed Step by Step

Find the following

(a)∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
Remember ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
𝑎

1
∴∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥)+c
3

(b)∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (4𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑥

1
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐

1
∴ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (4𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(4𝑥 + 5) + 𝑐
4

(c)∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐²(2𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥

1
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐²(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐
660
 1
∴ ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐²(2𝑥 + 4)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(2𝑥 + 4) + 𝑐
2

Let us see if you are ready for Question time

Warm Up

Find
(𝑎) ∫ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫(3 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫ sin (2𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥
(𝑑) ∫ cos(5𝑥 − 3) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒) ∫(2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Solutions
(𝑎) ∫ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐

(𝑏) ∫(3 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 − (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) + 𝑐

= 3𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐

1
(𝑐) ∫ sin(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = − cos(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝑐
2

1
(𝑑) ∫ cos(5𝑥 − 3) 𝑑𝑥 = 5 sin(5𝑥 − 3) + 𝑐

1 1
(𝑒) ∫(2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥) − (− 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥) + 𝑐
2 4
1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 + 𝑐
4
661
Level 1
Find
1
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 9)𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫ 9sin (𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥
2
(𝑑) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃 𝑑𝜃 (𝑒) ∫ cos (2𝜃 + 1)𝑑𝜃

Solution
1 1
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1
= ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥) + 𝑐
2 3
1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 + 𝑐
6

(𝑏) ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 9)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 𝑐

(𝑐) ∫ 9 sin(𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 = 9 ∫ sin (𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥

= −9 cos(𝑥 + 2) + 𝑐

1
(𝑑) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 + 𝑐
4

1
(𝑒) ∫ cos(2𝜃 + 1) 𝑑𝜃 = sin(2𝜃 + 1) + 𝑐
2

Level 2
Find
1 1
(𝑎) ∫(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥)
2 5
662
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐²(√3𝑥)𝑑𝑥

1
(𝑐) ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + )𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠²3𝑥

(𝑑) ∫ 3𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (5𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥

(𝑒) ∫(100 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Solution
1 1
(𝑎) ∫ (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4

2 1
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (√3𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = tan(√3𝑥) + 𝑐
√3

1
(𝑐) ∫ (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐²3𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠²3𝑥

1 1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝑥 + 𝑐
2 3

(𝑑) ∫ 3𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (5𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐²(5𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥

1
= 3 ( tan(5𝑥 + 1)) + 𝑐
5

663
 3
= tan(5𝑥 + 1) + 𝑐
5

(𝑒) ∫(100 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 100𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐

Integrals Involving 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝑥

Many usually find this concept challenging…I also used to but

that was before I understood the following and you too can
understand that!!

For 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝑥
So let us say we are given
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

We are being asked to integrate 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 but the problem now is

we don’t have a formula for integrating 𝑠𝑖𝑛² 𝑥 from the
standard formulas we were talking about in the previous
sections.

∴this means we have to play around with 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 and make it

possible to integrate…..But how???

664
Remember all the identities for 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 and by making
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 find the one that can be
integrated.

1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1)

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 =
1
(1 − cos 2𝑥 ) (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝑥)
2

1
Did you notice that we can integrate (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥) but not
2
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝑥

∴Know this

2 1
To integrate 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑤𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑
2

2
1
𝑖𝑒. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2

Quick Examples
Find
2 1
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛²(3𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛²( 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2
Solutions
2 1
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2

1 1
= ∫( − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2 2

665
 1 1
= 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥+c
2 4

2( 1
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(3𝑥))𝑑𝑥
2

1 1
= ∫(2 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝑥)𝑑𝑥

1 1
= 𝑥− 𝑠𝑖𝑛6𝑥 + 𝑐
2 12

2 1 1 1
(𝑐) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2( 𝑥))𝑑𝑥
2 2 2

1 1
= ∫( − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2 2

1 1
= 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
2 2

For cos² 𝑥
So just like how we played around with 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 to be
integratable, we are also going to do the same for 𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝑥!!!!

So let us say we are given ∫ cos² 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 again we meet that same

problem.

666
We cannot integrate cos² 𝑥 from the standard integrals
formulas we were discussing.

So again, let us recall some identities involving cos² 𝑥 , make

cos² 𝑥 subject of formula and see which can be integrated

1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1)

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 =
1
(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 ) (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1)
2

We can see that to integrate 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 we have to integrate

1
(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥) Instead
2

2 1
∴ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2

Quick Examples
Find
1
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2𝑥 ) (𝑐) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠²( 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3
Solutions
2 1
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2

1 1
= ∫( + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 2

667
 1 1
= 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4

2( 1
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(2𝑥))𝑑𝑥
2

1 1
= ∫( + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2 2

1 1
= 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 + 𝑐
2 8

2 1 1 1
(𝑐) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2( 𝑥))𝑑𝑥
3 2 3

1 1 2
= ∫ + cos ( 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2 2 3

1 3 2
= 2 𝑥 + 4 sin (3 𝑥) + 𝑐

For 𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝑥

Consider∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝑥.
Again recall that we don’t have a formula from our standard
integrals therefore we have to play around with it until it can
be integrated.

668
 So we are all familiar with the identity
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥

Therefore making 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 the subject gives

𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1

Now do you see that 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 is integratable.

∴To get ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑑𝑥 𝑤𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥

Quick Examples
Find
2 1
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛²(5𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛²( 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
4
Solutions
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

(𝑏) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 5𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥

1
= 5 𝑡𝑎𝑛5𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
669
 2 1 1
(𝑐) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (4 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐²(4 𝑥) − 1)𝑑𝑥

= 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

Integration of Rational Functions

What really is a rational function??

A rational function is a fraction in which both the numerator

and the denominator are polynomials
(the numerator can be constant)
Examples of these rational functions are as follows

5𝑥 1 2
2𝑥 2 +3 𝑥 2𝑥+5

𝑥² 5 𝑥²
1+𝑥 2𝑥 (𝑥+3)³

𝑒𝑡𝑐. 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒

𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

The following are not rational functions

670
2𝑥+1 sin 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +1
𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 Because not
√𝑥+1 cos 𝑥 √2+𝑥²
both denominator and numerator are polynomials

So since you now know what really rational functions are

Let us see how we integrate them.

Before you attempt to integrate a rational function make sure

the fraction is proper always

1 𝑥²
𝑒𝑔. 𝑥+2 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥−2
𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟

We are going to use method of recognition to integrate

rational functions

The Recognition Method

This method simply tells us we have to recognize the

numerator as the derivative,𝑓´(𝑥) of the denominator and take
our answer as 𝐼𝑛|𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟| + 𝑐

In short we are simply saying:

𝑓´(𝑥)
∫ = 𝐼𝑛|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)
671
Example
𝑓´(𝑥)

1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑓(𝑥)

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 | + 𝑐 (𝐴 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙)
𝑥

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑥 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

More Examples and Explanations

2 4𝑥 1 7
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝑎) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐 ) ∫ (𝑑 ) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 4 2𝑥 + 3 5𝑥 7𝑥 + 3

𝑥+2 6 2
(𝑒) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑓) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑔) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥 2(2𝑥 + 3)

672
Explained Solutions
(a) 𝑓´(𝑥)

2
∫ 2𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥

𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝐼𝑛|𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟| + 𝑐

2
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛|2𝑥 + 4| + 𝑐
2𝑥 + 4

4𝑥
(𝑏) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 2 + 3) + 𝑐
2𝑥 + 3

(𝑛𝑜 𝑚𝑢𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑥 )

1 1 1
(𝑐) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
5𝑥 5 𝑥

1
= 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 | + 𝑐
5

673
 7
(𝑑) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛|7𝑥 + 3| + 𝑐
7𝑥 + 3

𝑥+2
(𝑒) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
𝑥+1

1
𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑔𝑒𝑡 1 +
𝑥+1

𝑥+2 1
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥+1

= 𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 1| + 𝑐

6 1
(𝑓) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 6 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

= 6𝐼𝑛|𝑥 | + 𝑐

2 1 2
(𝑔) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2(2𝑥 + 3) 2 2𝑥 + 3

674
 1
= 𝐼𝑛|2𝑥 + 3| + 𝑐
2

Examples which need Adjustments

Consider
1 5 4𝑥
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥+1 6𝑥−7 𝑥 2 +4

(a)
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 + 1
𝑓´(𝑥 ) = 3 𝑛𝑜𝑡 1
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 3

1 1
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒
3𝑥+1 3

1 3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 3𝑥 + 1 3𝑥 + 1

1 1 3
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 + 1 3 3𝑥 + 1

675
 1
= 𝐼𝑛|3𝑥 + 1| + 𝑐
3

5 5 6
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
6𝑥 − 7 6 6𝑥 − 7

5
= 𝐼𝑛|6𝑥 − 7| + 𝑐
6

𝑁. 𝐵 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜

𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝑐
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎

1 1
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛|2𝑥 + 3| + 𝑐
2𝑥+3 2

5 1
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 2𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥 = 5 ∫ 2𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥

1
= 5( 𝐼𝑛|2𝑥 + 3| + 𝑐)
2

5
= 𝐼𝑛|2𝑥 + 3| + 𝑐
2

676
 5 1
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 5 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
6𝑥−7 6𝑥−7

1
= 5(6 𝐼𝑛|6𝑥 − 7| + 𝑐)

5
= 𝐼𝑛|6𝑥 − 7| + 𝑐
6

4𝑥 2𝑥
(𝑐 ) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫
𝑥 2 +4 𝑥 2 +4

= 2𝐼𝑛(𝑥 2 + 4) + 𝑐

More Examples (Remember to just integrate term by term

where there is more than one)

2 1
(1) ∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝐼𝑛|𝑥 | − 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 − 1| + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥−1

2 3
(2) ∫ + 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 1| + 3𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐
𝑥+1 𝑥+2

1 1 1 1
(3) ∫ + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛|2 + 5𝑥 | − 𝐼𝑛|1 − 2𝑥 | + 𝑐
2+5𝑥 1−2𝑥 5 2

2 1 1
(4) ∫ − + 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 2| − 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 3| + 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 | +c
𝑥+2 𝑥+3 𝑥

Reminder of the recognition concept

677
 𝑓´(𝑥)

𝑥 1 2𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥² 2 1 + 𝑥²

𝑓(𝑥)

1
𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
2
1
= 𝐼𝑛(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐
2

If denominator is linear you can also use

1 1
∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝐼𝑛|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝑐 But make sure your numerator is
1 always.

4 1
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥+6 2𝑥+6
1
= 4( 𝐼𝑛|2𝑥 + 6| + 𝑐)
2
= 2𝐼𝑛|2𝑥 + 6| + 𝑐
Or by just recognizing the numerator as
𝑓´(𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝐼𝑛|𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜| + 𝑐

678
 𝑓´(𝑥)

4 2
𝑒𝑔. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 6 2𝑥 + 6

𝑓(𝑥)
2 to maintain numerator 4

4
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝐼𝑛|2𝑥 + 6| + 𝑐
2𝑥+6

Integrating Fractions involving trigonometrical Functions

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑜𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑡𝑐
3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2

But the whole Trick is that when you see fractions involving
trigs think of the Recognition Concept

Examples
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑
2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 3−4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥
1
(𝑒)𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝐼𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥) + 𝑐
3

679
 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑓´(𝑥)

2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 2 −3𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥

𝑓(𝑥)
2
− 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
3

2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 2
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝐼𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥) + 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 3

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
(𝑏) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
= −∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

= −𝐼𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ) + 𝑐

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
(𝑐) ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

= 𝐼𝑛(sin 𝑥 ) + 𝑐

680
 cos 5𝑥 1 −20 cos 5𝑥
(𝑑) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3−4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥 20 3−4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥

1
= − 20 𝐼𝑛(3 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥 ) + 𝑐

𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
(𝑒) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥

−1 −3𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
= ∫
3 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥

1
= − 𝐼𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 ) + 𝑐
3

THE METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION

So here are the following steps to be taken when integrating

by substitution

(1)𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

(2)𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
(3)𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
(4)𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

So let us look at the following examples together

681
 1
(𝑎) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2𝑥 + 3
𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 3

𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 3

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
=2 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2

1 1 𝑑𝑢
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( )
2𝑥 + 3 𝑢 2

1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2𝑢

1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑢

1
= 𝐼𝑛|𝑢| + 𝑐
2

1
= 𝐼𝑛|2𝑥 + 3| + 𝑐
2

5
(b) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∫ 6−7𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢 = 6 − 7𝑥

682
𝑑𝑢
= −7
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 = −
7

5 5 𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (− )
6 − 7𝑥 𝑢 7

−5 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑢
7 𝑢

−5
= 𝐼𝑛|𝑢| + 𝑐
7

−5
= 𝐼𝑛|6 − 7𝑥 | + 𝑐
7

𝑥
(𝑐 )𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢 = 4 − 𝑥, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4−𝑥

𝑢 =4−𝑥

𝑑𝑢
= −1
𝑑𝑥
683
𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑢

𝑥 =4−𝑢
𝑥 4−𝑢
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑢
√4 − 𝑥 √𝑢

−1 1
= − ∫(4𝑢 2 − 𝑢 )𝑑𝑢
2

1
1
= 2𝑢 (3 𝑢 − 4) + 𝑐
2

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = 4 − 𝑥

1
= 2√4 − 𝑥 ( (4 − 𝑥 ) − 4) + 𝑐
3

= 2√4 − 𝑥 (8 + 𝑥 ) + 𝑐

684
(𝑑) ∫ √9 − 𝑥²𝑑𝑥 , 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃

∫ √9 − 𝑥²𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √9 − (3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)²(3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃)

= ∫ √9 − 9𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃(3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑𝜃

= ∫ √9(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃)(3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑𝜃

= ∫ √9𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝜃(3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑𝜃

= ∫(3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑𝜃

= ∫ 9𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃

685
= 9 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃

(Recall integration of 𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝜃)

1
= 9 ∫ (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)𝑑𝜃
2

9 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
= (𝜃 + )+𝑐
2 2
More Examples

(𝑎)𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∫ 𝑥 (5𝑥 − 3)8 𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑢 = 5𝑥 − 3

𝑢+3 1
𝑢 = 5𝑥 − 3 𝑥= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
5 5

𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢

8
𝑢+3 81
∫ 𝑥 (5𝑥 − 3) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫( )𝑢 𝑑𝑢
5 5

1
= ∫(𝑢9 + 3𝑢8 )𝑑𝑢
25

686
 1 𝑢10 𝑢9
= ( + )
25 10 3

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = 5𝑥 − 3

( )10 ( )9
1 5𝑥 − 3 5𝑥 − 3
∴ ∫ 𝑥 (5𝑥 − 3)8 𝑑𝑥 = ( + )+𝑐
25 10 3

(𝑏)𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑢 = cos 𝑥 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = cos 𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

5 5
−𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ( )
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

= − ∫ 𝑢5 𝑑𝑢

𝑢6
=− +𝑐
6

687
 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥 + 𝑐
6

𝐼𝑛 𝑥
(𝑐 )𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛 𝑥
𝑥

𝑑𝑢 1
𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑢
= ∫ (𝑥 𝑑𝑢)
𝑥

= ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

1 2
= 𝑢 +𝑐
2

1
= (𝐼𝑛 𝑥 )2 + 𝑐
2

688
(𝑑 )𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑

∫ tan 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥

2
𝑑𝑢
2
∴ ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢(𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥)( )
𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥

= ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

1 2
= 𝑢
2

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = tan 𝑥

1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐
2

(𝑒)𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑢2 + 2 ,

689
 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑥√𝑥 − 2𝑑𝑥

2
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 =𝑢 +2 = 2𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑢𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢

∴ ∫ 𝑥√𝑥 − 2𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑢2 + 2)√𝑢2 + 2 − 2(2𝑢 𝑑𝑢)

= ∫(𝑢2 + 2)√𝑢²(2𝑢 𝑑𝑢)

= ∫ 2𝑢²(𝑢2 + 2)𝑑𝑢

= ∫ 2𝑢4 + 4𝑢2 𝑑𝑢

2 5 4 3
= 𝑢 + 𝑢 +𝑐
5 3

2 5
4 3
= (√𝑥 − 2) + (√𝑥 − 2) + 𝑐
5 3

(𝑓)𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

690
 1 − 𝑥²
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(1 + 𝑥²)²

𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = tan 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃

1 − 𝑥² 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝜃
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃)𝑑𝜃
(1 + 𝑥²)² (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝜃)²

(1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝜃)(𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃)
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
(𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃)²

(1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝜃)
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃

1 − (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1)
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃

2 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃

2 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃

691
 2 2 2
= ∫( − 1) 𝑑𝜃 ( = = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝜃)
𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝜃

= ∫(2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1)𝑑𝜃

𝐵𝑢𝑡 cos 2𝜃 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1

= ∫ cos 2𝜃 (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

692
Definite Integration

Definite integrals

What is a definite integral??

In simpler terms whenever you see an integral with a lower
limit and upper limit that is a definite integral.

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎
Upper limit
Lower limit

For example
3
∫1 (2𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥
Upper limit is 3 and lower is 1
In simpler terms we are still integrating but this time we have
limits that we are taking into consideration.
The formula is

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

Where
𝐹 (𝑥 ) 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

693
Note: for definite integration there is no constant of
integration
So what is the formula

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

Telling us to do??
Let us take a walk through the example

5
∫ (𝑥 2 + 5)𝑑𝑥
3
Step 1

Open a square bracket in which you place your result of

integration carrying your limits on the sides of the bracket.
Like this
5
𝑥³
[ + 5𝑥]
3 3
Step 2
Apply the formula

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

694
This means first substitute your upper limit into the result of
your integration Minus Substitution of the lower limit

Like this
5
𝑥³ (5)3 (3)3
[ + 5𝑥] = [ + 5(5)] − [ + 5(3)]
3 3
3 3

128
=
3

Simple …..Right
Examples on Definite Integration
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝜋
3 4 5
2 2
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐) ∫ 4𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑) ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥+3 1 0 0

𝜋
1
1 − 4𝑥 cos 𝑥 2
(𝑒) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑓) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 3 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥² 0 3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

Solutions

3 2
(𝑎) ∫2 𝑑𝑥 = [2𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 3)]32
𝑥+3

= 2𝐼𝑛(3 + 3) − 2𝐼𝑛(2 + 3)

695
 = 2𝐼𝑛6 − 2𝐼𝑛5

= 2(𝐼𝑛6 − 𝐼𝑛 5)

6
= 2𝐼𝑛 ( )
5

𝜋
4 𝜋
4 3 𝑥4 4 2
(𝑏) ∫1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =[ ] (𝑐) ∫0 4𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥]
2
4 1 3 0
(4)4 1 4 3𝜋
= − = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) − 0
4 4 3 2
255 4
= =−
4 3

5 2𝑥 1 2𝑥 5
(𝑑) ∫0 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = [2 𝑒 ]
0

1 10 1
= 𝑒 − 𝑒0
2 2

1 10 1
= 𝑒 −
2 2

1
= (𝑒 10 − 1)
2

1 1−4𝑥
(𝑒) ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐼𝑛 (3 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥²)]10
3+𝑥−2𝑥²

= 𝐼𝑛(3 + (1) − 2(1)²) − 𝐼𝑛(3 + 0 − 0)

696
 = 𝐼𝑛2 − 𝐼𝑛3

2
= 𝐼𝑛 ( )
3

𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑥 2
(𝑓) ∫02
3+sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = [𝐼𝑛 (3 + sin 𝑥)]0

𝜋
= 𝐼𝑛 (3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) − 𝐼𝑛(3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛0)
2

= 𝐼𝑛(3 + 1) − 𝐼𝑛3

4
= 𝐼𝑛 ( )
3

Substitution method involving Definite Integration

Let us look at these examples

(1)𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

1
1 𝜋
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
0 √1 − 𝑥² 2

𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃

697
 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑡𝑜 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑜
𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 𝜃 = sin−1 (0) 𝜃 = 0
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝜋 −1
𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1 𝜃 = sin (1) =
2
𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐴𝐷 𝑀𝑂𝐷𝐸‼‼!

𝜋
1
1 2 1
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑𝜃
0 √1 − 𝑥² 0 √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃

𝜋
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
0 √𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝜃

𝜋
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

698
 𝜋
2
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝜃
0

𝜋
= [𝜃]02

𝜋
= (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛‼!)
2

(2)𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢 = √𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

4 2
1 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑥(1 + √𝑥) 1 𝑢(1 + 𝑢)

𝑢 = √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2√𝑥𝑑𝑢 𝑥 = 𝑢²

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑢 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝑢 = √𝑥 ∴ 𝑢 = √4 = 2 (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟)

𝑢 = √1 = 1 (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)

699
 4 2
1 1
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 (2√𝑥 𝑑𝑢)
1 𝑥(1 + √𝑥) 1 𝑢 (1 + 𝑢 )

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = √𝑥

2
2𝑢
=∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢²(1 + 𝑢)

2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛‼‼)
1 𝑢(1 + 𝑢)

(3)𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 , 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

1
1 𝜋
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
0 1 + 𝑥² 4

𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃, 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 (𝑅𝐴𝐷 𝑀𝑂𝐷𝐸)

−1 (
𝜋
𝜃 = tan 1) = (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟)
4

700
𝜃 = tan−1 (0) = 0 (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)

𝜋
1
1 1 4
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃)𝑑𝜃
0 1 + 𝑥² 0 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝜃

𝜋
4 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃 (𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃)
0 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝜃

𝜋
4
= ∫ 1 𝑑𝜃
0

𝜋
= [𝜃]04

𝜋
= (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛‼‼)
4

(4𝑎)𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

𝜋
1
𝑥² 6
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 √(4 − 𝑥²) 0
𝜋
6
(𝑏)𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∫ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
0

701
 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 2 sin 𝜃 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠

−1
1 𝜋
𝜃 = sin ( )= (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟)
2 6

𝜃 = sin−1 (0) = 0 (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)

𝜋
1
𝑥² 6 (2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)²
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃)
0 √4 − 𝑥² 0 √4 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃

𝜋
6 (4𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃)(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
0 √4(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃)

𝜋
6 (4𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃)(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
0 √4𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝜃

𝜋
6 (4𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃)(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
0 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

702
 𝜋
6
= ∫ (4𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0

(b)(𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃)

𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸: 𝑊𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ∴ 𝑛𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑠. 𝑓

𝜋 𝜋
6 6
∫ (4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = 4 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
0 0

𝜋
1 1
6
= 4 ∫ ( − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
0 2 2

𝜋
1 1 6
= 4 [ 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃]
2 4 0

𝜋 1 𝜋
= 4 (( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) − (0 − 0))
12 4 3

𝜋 √3
= 4( − )
12 8

703
(5)𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢 = √𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
4 2
1 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑥(4 − √𝑥) 1 𝑢(4 − 𝑢)

𝑢 = √𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝑢 = √4 = 2 (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡)

𝑢 = √1 = 1 (𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)

4 2
1 2𝑢
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑢
1 𝑥(4 − √𝑥) 1 (𝑢 )(4 − 𝑢 )

2
2
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)
1 𝑢 (4 − 𝑢 )

704
(6)𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑥
∫ √( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
1−𝑥

2
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝜃

𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃
∴ ∫ √( ) = ∫ √( ) (2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
1−𝑥 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛²𝜃
= ∫ √( ) 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=∫ × 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= ∫ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

(7)𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢 = √(6 − 𝑥 ) 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

5 2
5 10𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑥 + √6 − 𝑥 1 (3 − 𝑢)(2 + 𝑢)

705
 𝑢2 = 6 − 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 6 − 𝑢2 , 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑢 𝑑𝑢

New limits:𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 5 𝑢 = √6 − 5 = 1

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 2 𝑢 = √6 − 2 = 2

5 2
5 5
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
(−2𝑢)𝑑𝑢
2 𝑥 + √(6 − 𝑥 ) 1 (6 − 𝑢 ) + 𝑢

2
−10𝑢
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑢
1 −𝑢 + 𝑢 + 6

2
−10𝑢
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑢
1 −(𝑢 − 𝑢 − 6)

2
10𝑢
=∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑢 −𝑢−6

2
10𝑢
=∫ 𝑑𝑢 (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)
1 (𝑢 − 3)(𝑢 + 2)

706
Integration By Partial Fractions

This is where we want to integrate but the rational function

must be partialised first into two or more rational functions
and after that integrate the separate rational functions.

Let us do the following example step by step

𝑥+1
Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+2)

This has to be partialised first obviously

𝑥+1
Partialising
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+2)

𝑥+1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+2) 𝑥−3 𝑥+2

𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)

𝑥 = −2
−2+1=A(0)+B(−2 −3)

−1=−5B

1
B=
5
707
 4
𝑥 = 3, 𝐴 =
5

𝑥+1 4 1
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫( + )𝑑𝑥
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+2) 5(𝑥−3) 5(𝑥+2)

4 1
= 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 − 3| + 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐
5 5
More Examples
3
(1)𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)

3 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2

3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)

3 = 𝐴(−2 + 2) + 𝐵(−2 − 1)
𝐵 = −1
3 = 𝐴(1 + 2) + 𝐵(0)
𝐴=1
3 1 −1
= +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2

3 1 1
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥−1 𝑥+2

= 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 − 1| − 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐
708
 𝑥−1
= 𝐼𝑛 ( )+𝑐
𝑥+2

1
(2)𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2

1 1
2
=
𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)

1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 1

1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2)

1 = 𝐴(−1 + 1) + 𝐵(−1 + 2)

𝐵=1

1 = 𝐴(−2 + 1) + 𝐵(0)

𝐴 = −1

709
 1 −1 1
= +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 1

1 −1 1
∴∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥+2 𝑥+1

= −𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 1) + 𝑐

= 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 1| − 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐

𝑥+1
= 𝐼𝑛 ( )+𝑐
𝑥+2

10
7 32
(3)𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
7 𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 6 11

7 7
2
=
𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 + 1)

7 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 6) (𝑥 + 1)

7 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 6)

710
7 = 𝐴(−1 + 1) + 𝐵(−1 − 6)

7 = −7𝐵

𝐵 = −1

7 = 𝐴(6 + 1)

𝐴=1

7 1 1
∴ 2 = −
𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 − 6) 𝑥 + 1

10 10
7 1 1
∴∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
7 𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 6 7 𝑥−6 𝑥+1

= [𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 6) − 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 1)]10

7

= (𝐼𝑛(10 − 6) − 𝐼𝑛(10 + 1) − (𝐼𝑛(7 − 6) − 𝐼𝑛(8))

= 𝐼𝑛4 − 𝐼𝑛11 − 𝐼𝑛1 + 𝐼𝑛8 (In 1=0)

= 𝐼𝑛4 + 𝐼𝑛8 − 𝐼𝑛11

711
 32
= 𝐼𝑛 ( ) (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)
11

3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8
(4)𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 4)

3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8 2 𝑥
2
= + 2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 4) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 4

3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8 2 𝑥
∴∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ + 2 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 4) 𝑥−2 𝑥 +4

1
= 2𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 2 + 4) + 𝑐
2

2
6𝑥 + 7
(5)𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛(12)
1 (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)

6𝑥 + 7 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) (2𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 + 2

6𝑥 − 7 4 1
= +
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) (2𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 + 2

712
 2 2
6𝑥 − 7 4 1
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥
1 (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 1 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥+2

= [2𝐼𝑛(2𝑥 − 1) + 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 2)]12

= 2𝐼𝑛(2(2) − 1) + 𝐼𝑛(2 + 2) − (2𝐼𝑛(2(1) − 1) + 𝐼𝑛3)

𝐼𝑛1 = 0 (𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)

= 2𝐼𝑛3 + 𝐼𝑛4 − 2𝐼𝑛1 − 𝐼𝑛3

= 2𝐼𝑛3 + 𝐼𝑛4 − 𝐼𝑛3

= 𝐼𝑛9 + 𝐼𝑛4 − 𝐼𝑛3

36
= 𝐼𝑛 ( )
3

= 𝐼𝑛12 (Shown)

713
 4
3𝑥
(6)𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 5
3 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)

3𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 2)

3𝑥 1 2
= +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 2

4 4
3𝑥 1 2
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥
3 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) 3 𝑥+1 𝑥−2

= [𝐼𝑛(𝑥 + 1) + 2𝐼𝑛(𝑥 − 2)]43

= 𝐼𝑛5 + 2𝐼𝑛2 − (𝐼𝑛4 + 2𝐼𝑛1)

= 𝐼𝑛5 + 𝐼𝑛22 − 𝐼𝑛4 − 0 (2𝐼𝑛 1 = 0)

= 𝐼𝑛5 + 𝐼𝑛4 − 𝐼𝑛4

= 𝐼𝑛5 (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

12 + 8𝑥 − 𝑥²
(7)𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥 ) =
(2 − 𝑥)(4 + 𝑥²)
𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
(𝑖 )𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 +
2−𝑥 4 + 𝑥²
714
 1
25
(𝑖𝑖 )𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
0 2

12 + 8𝑥 − 𝑥 2 3 4𝑥
(𝑖 ) 2
= +
(2 − 𝑥 )(4 + 𝑥 ) 2 − 𝑥 4 + 𝑥²

1 1
3 4𝑥
(𝑖𝑖) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥
0 0 2−𝑥 4 + 𝑥²

= [−3𝐼𝑛(2 − 𝑥 ) + 2𝐼𝑛(4 + 𝑥²)]10

= −3𝐼𝑛(2 − 1) + 2𝐼𝑛(4 + 1) − (−3𝐼𝑛2 + 2𝐼𝑛4)

= −3𝐼𝑛1 + 2𝐼𝑛5 + 3𝐼𝑛2 − 2𝐼𝑛4

−3𝐼𝑛1 = 0 (𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)

= 2𝐼𝑛5 + 3𝐼𝑛2 − 2𝐼𝑛2²

= 𝐼𝑛52 + 3𝐼𝑛2 − 2𝐼𝑛2²

= 𝐼𝑛25 + 3𝐼𝑛2 − 4𝐼𝑛2

= 𝐼𝑛25 − 𝐼𝑛2

715
 25
= 𝐼𝑛 ( ) (𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)
2

INTEGRATION BY PARTS

We use the concept of integration by parts when we want to

integrate product of different functions for example

∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 2𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒𝑡𝑐

We see that there is product of an exponential and trig

function in the first example, product of algebraic function and
log in the second and product of an algebraic and an
exponential function in the last.

So when we want to integrate the product of different

functions, we now use the Integration by Parts Formula.

The formula for Integration by parts used to integrate the

products of 2 functions of 𝑥 is as follows:

Let us derive it from the product rule:

𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
=𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

716
 𝑑𝑣
Now make 𝑢 subject of formula
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = −𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Integrating both sides gives w.r.t 𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
∫ (𝑢 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
∫ (𝑢 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫(𝑣 𝑑𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
∫ (𝑢 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 − ∫(𝑣 𝑑𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 Remember: ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
∫ (𝑢 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫(𝑣 𝑑𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 Remember 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣

717
∴our formula for integration by parts goes as follows

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
∫ (𝑢 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫(𝑣 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Product of the two functions

Between those two functions multiplying each other there is

one which should be integrated and the other differentiated

THE PROBLEM IS HOW DO WE KNOW THE ONE TO

INTEGRATE AND THE ONE TO DIFFERENTIATE

We determine the one to be differentiated through the

acronym

LATE
The order of differentiation is as follows

Logarithmic Function
Algebraic Function
Trigonometrical function
Exponential Function
718
Once we see the one to differentiate it will be obvious that the
remaining should be integrated

Let us do the following examples together

(a)∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

We need to know which one to integrate or differentiate by

using
LATE
We see that Algebraic expressions (in this example 𝑥) must be
differentiated first before Trigs(in this example cos 𝑥)
∴we are going to differentiate 𝑥 and integrate cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
The one to differentiate is equated to u and gives
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
The one to integrate is equated to 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑣

𝑑𝑣
∴𝑢 = 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
=1 𝑣 = ∫( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑣 = ∫ cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑣 = sin 𝑥

719
∴∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 )(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ) − ∫(sin 𝑥)(1)𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
∫ (𝑢 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ (𝑣 𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

∴∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − ∫(sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

=𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − (− cos 𝑥)

=𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + 𝑐

Differentiate (u)
Log differentiated first!!!
(2)∫ 𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 By using LATE

𝑑𝑣
Integrate ( )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 1
𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑣
=𝑥 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑥²
𝑣= 2 + 𝑐

720
 1 2 1 2 1
∴∫ 𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝐼𝑛𝑥 ) (2 𝑥 ) − ∫(2 𝑥 )(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

1 2 1
= 𝑥 𝐼𝑛𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
2 2

1 2 1
= 𝑥 𝐼𝑛𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2

1 1 1
= 𝑥 𝐼𝑛𝑥 − ( 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐
2
2 2 2

1 1
= 𝑥 𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
2
2 4

1
= 𝑥 2 (2𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 1) + 𝑐
4

Special Cases for Integration by Parts

(1)The Integration of In 𝑥
Let us see why it is considered special

Consider ∫ 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

721
Do you see that there is product of two functions but the other
one seems to be hidden~ maybe it has no confidence to show
itself but actually it is 1!!!

∫ 𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 ∙ 𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Now we know according to LATE that in all cases where there

is a log, differentiate it and the other item integrate.

𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 =1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 1
= 𝑣=𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

1
∴∫ 𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑥 − ∫(𝑥)( )𝑑𝑥
𝑥

= 𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

722
(2)Integration of a trig and an exponential Function

Let us look at the following example and identify why it is

considered special case.

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝐵𝑦 𝐿𝐴𝑇𝐸
𝑑𝑣
𝑢 = sin 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
= cos 𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥

∴ ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝐴𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

723
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Now substitute ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

∴ ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

∴ ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

1 𝑥
∴ ∫ 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
𝑥
2

724
(3)Integrating By Parts Twice

Let us do the following example

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑥²𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Using LATE

𝑑𝑣
𝑢 = 𝑥² = 𝑒 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 1
= 2𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥 3

3𝑥 1 1
∴∫ 𝑥²𝑒 = (𝑥 2 ) ( 𝑒 3𝑥 ) − ∫( )𝑒 3𝑥 (2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3 3

1 2 3𝑥 2
= 𝑥 𝑒 − ∫ 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3

3𝑥 1 2 3𝑥 2
∫ 𝑥²𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 − ∫ 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3

This needs by parts again!!!!

So taking that aside:

∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
725
Using LATE
𝑑𝑣
𝑢=𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
=1 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥

∴∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 )(𝑒 𝑥 ) − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (1)𝑑𝑥

=𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

So we now then substitute back in

3𝑥
1 2 3𝑥 2
∫ 𝑥²𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 − ∫ 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3

Where there is ∫ 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 to get

3𝑥 1 2 3𝑥 2
∫ 𝑥²𝑒 = 𝑥 𝑒 − (𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
3 3

1 2 3𝑥 2 2
= 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥
3 3 3

1
= 𝑒 3𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2) + 𝑐
3

726
To Do Questions
Integrate the following 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥

(1) ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (2) ∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (3) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(4) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (5) ∫ 𝑥𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Short Hints for Solutions

𝑑𝑣
(1)𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥 [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐 ]
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣
(2)𝑢 = 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐 ]
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑥³ 𝑥2
(3)𝑢 = 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥2 𝐴𝑛𝑠: [ 𝐼𝑛𝑥 − + 𝑐]
𝑑𝑥 3 4

2
𝑑𝑣
(4)𝑢 = 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ]
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 4𝑥
1 4𝑥 1 4𝑥
(5)𝑢 = 𝑥 = 𝑒 [𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝑐]
𝑑𝑥 4 16

727
Application of Integration to Areas and Volumes

We can also use Integration to find area under a curve or

Volume obtained when a rotation has been done.
We will be using definite integration
All Scenarios for Area

(1)𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

(2)𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
(3)𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 2 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠

With the respective order let us see how we find each.

(1)𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑦

𝑓(𝑥)
A
𝑥
𝑎 𝑏
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑏
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎

𝑏
If The Area is below 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝐴 = − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
728
Example

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 = 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 4

𝑦 = 𝑥²

0 1 2 3 4
4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ (𝑦)𝑑𝑥
1

4 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫1 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥(This is definite integration with 4 as our
upper limit and 1 as lower limit)

4
𝑥³
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = [ 3 ]
1

64 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = −
3 3
729
= 21 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2 /𝑠𝑞 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

(Area is in squares)

(2)𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑦
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑
A
𝑐
𝑥

𝑑
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑐
To note when limits are along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦, 𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦
∴Make 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

730
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚

𝑦 = 4 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 16

𝑦
16 𝑦 = 𝑥²
A
4
𝑥

1
𝑥= 𝑦2

16 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
4

3 16
2𝑦 2
=[ ]
3
4

1
37 𝑠𝑞 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
3

731
𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑑
𝐴= − ∫𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑦

(3)𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠

𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

Notes from diagram

We have two curves 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟

732
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑏
∴𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 (𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 )𝑑𝑥

𝑏
= ∫𝑎 (𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥))𝑑𝑥

Volume of Revolution

Area on a curve can be rotated 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 360° 𝑜𝑟 2𝜋about the

𝑥 −axis or about the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

In doing so a Volume of a solid is obtained

The Volume is called Volume of Revolution

733
 𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
A
𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

When the Area A is rotated through 360° 𝑎𝑏𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑎 𝑏 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

734
 𝑏
Volume Obtained =𝜋 ∫𝑎 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥

𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑦 = 𝑥²

A
0 1 2 3 4

4
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
2

4
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥
2

5 4
𝑥
= 𝜋[ ]
5 2

735
 (4)5 (2)5
= − 𝜋
5 5

= 198.4 𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠³

When Area A is rotated about 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Given Area A
𝑦
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑
A
𝑐
𝑥

𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠

736
 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑐

∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢 𝑜𝑛𝑒

737
 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑥²
6
A
2
𝑥

1
2
𝑦=𝑥 𝑥= 𝑦2

6 1
𝑉 = 𝜋∫ 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦
2

2 3 6
= 𝜋 [ 𝑦 2]
3 2

Concept for Volume obtained when area Between 2 curves is

rotated about 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

738
When the Area Between two curves is rotated about 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

After the Rotation, 𝑓(𝑥 ) is now the curve at the bottom but is
occupying the larger volume.

𝑏
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑓(𝑥 ))2 − (𝑔(𝑥))²) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

739
When the Area Between two Curves is rotated about 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
(Be Careful here)

𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑐
𝑥

Now do you see that after rotation 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 the
curve 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
Is the one that now has a bigger Volume despite being lower
than 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑 𝑑
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑦 − 𝜋 ∫ 𝑥² 𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑐

𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔(𝑥)

(𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)
𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)

So let us look at some of the following examples from ZIMSEC

740
EXAMPLE 1

Solution
1
(𝑎)𝑖 𝑦 = (1)
𝑥2
𝑦=𝑥 (2)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝐴(1; 1)

Notes on diagram

741
 5 1
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑅 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = ∫1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆ 𝐴
√
1 1
∆𝐴 = (1)(1) =
2 2

5
1 5
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = [2√𝑦]
1
1 √𝑦

= 2√5 − 2√1

= 2√5 − 2

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2√5 − 2 +
2

3
= 2√5 −
2

4√5−3
= 2
(𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)

742
EXAMPLE 2

SOLUTION
7𝜋
4
(𝑏𝑖𝑖 )𝐴 = ∫ (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3𝜋
4
7𝜋
4
=[−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ] 3𝜋
4

=−2√2

=2√2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠²

743
 7𝜋
4
(c)𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)²𝑑𝑥
3𝜋
4

7𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫ (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3𝜋
4
(recall
4
identities)
7𝜋
4
=𝜋 ∫ (1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3𝜋
4

7𝜋
1 4
= 𝜋 [𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥] 3𝜋
2
4

=3.8𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠³

744
EXAMPLE 3

SOLUTION
1
(i)A=− ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑦

Making 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑦2 = 𝑥 + 1

𝑥 = 𝑦2 − 1

1
𝑦³
=− [ − 𝑦]
3 0

1
=− [ − 1] − 0
3

745
 2
=−(− )
3

2
= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠²
3

1 2
(ii)V=𝜋 ∫0 (𝑦 − 1)²𝑑𝑦

1
𝑦 4+1 2𝑦 2+1
=𝜋 [ − + 𝑦]
4+1 2+1 0

1
𝑦5 2𝑦 3
=π[ − + 𝑦]
5 3 0

1 2
= − +1 𝜋
5 3

8
= 𝜋 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
15

746
EXAMPLE 4

SOLUTION
Short notes on diagram upon rotation

2
Finding upper limit for curve
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 − 1 (1)

𝑦=2 (2)

747
4=𝑥−1 ∴𝑥=5

5
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 − 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
1
𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋(2)2 (5) = 20𝜋

5
= 20𝜋 − 𝜋 ∫ (𝑥 − 4)𝑑𝑥
1
5
𝑥²
= 20𝜋 − 𝜋[2 − 4𝑥]
1

= 20𝜋 − 12𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠³

= 8𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠³

EXAMPLE 5

SOLUTION

748
(b)
1
𝑥
𝑉 = 𝜋∫ ( ) ²𝑑𝑥
−1 √(4 − 𝑥)

1
𝑥²
𝑉 = 𝜋∫ 𝑑𝑥
−1 4 − 𝑥²

𝑥² 4
= −1 − (𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
4 − 𝑥² 4 − 𝑥²

4 1 1
= +
(2 + 𝑥)(2 − 𝑥) 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥

𝑥² 1 1
= −1 + +
4 − 𝑥² 2+𝑥 2−𝑥

𝑉 = 𝜋[−𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛(2 + 𝑥 ) − 𝐼𝑛(2 − 𝑥)]1−1

𝑉 = 𝜋(−1 + 𝐼𝑛3 − 𝐼𝑛1 − 1 − 𝐼𝑛1 + 𝐼𝑛3) 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(𝐼𝑛1 = 0)

𝑉 = 𝜋(𝐼𝑛3 + 𝐼𝑛3 − 2)

𝑉 = 𝜋(2𝐼𝑛3 − 2)

𝑉 = 2𝜋(𝐼𝑛3 − 1) 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛‼‼

749
EXAMPLE 6

SOLUTION
(i)
2
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
1
2
(𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡‼!)

2
𝑎
= ∫ 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦

= [𝑎𝐼𝑛𝑦]21
2

1
= 𝑎𝐼𝑛2 − 𝑎𝐼𝑛
2

750
 1
= 𝑎(𝐼𝑛2 − 𝐼𝑛 )
2

2
= 𝑎𝐼𝑛( )
1
2

= 𝑎𝐼𝑛4

(iii) 𝑎𝐼𝑛4 > 100

100
𝑎>
𝐼𝑛 4

𝑎 > 72.134

∴min value of a is 7

751
Worksheet

𝑑𝑦 6
(1) A curve is such that = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃(3 , 3) is a point on the
𝑑𝑥 √4𝑥−3
[Link] equation of the curve.

𝑑𝑦
(2) A curve is such that = 2𝑥 2 − 5. Given that (3 ; 8) lies on a curve,
𝑑𝑥
find equation of the curve.

4
(3) A curve has equation 𝑦 =
√𝑥
Find area enclosed by the curve, 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 4

(4) Find ∫ 𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 2 +6𝑥+7
(5) Given that 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ;𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
(𝑥+2)(𝑥+3)
𝐵 𝐶
(a)Express 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐴 + +
𝑥+2 𝑥+3

2 25
(b)𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2 + 𝐼𝑛 ( )
18

1
(6) Evaluate ∫0 (3 + 2𝑥 )3 𝑑𝑥

(7) By using the substitution 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑

1
(a)∫(1 + 𝑥 )3 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫−1 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 )3 𝑑𝑥

(8) Find ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

752
 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
(9) Evaluate ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (10)Find ∫
3+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑥+4
(10) Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1

(11) Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

3
(12) Find ∫1 2𝑒 5𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
3
(13) Find the exact value of ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
6

𝜋
(14) ∫0 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥
2

𝜋
(15) Evaluate ∫0 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4

𝑥
(16) By use of partial fractions evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3

(17) By using the substitution 𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 the

integral

√2
∫0 √4 − 𝑦²𝑑𝑦

𝐼𝑛𝑥
(18) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

(19) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

753
754
Ordinary Differential Equations

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• formulate a statement involving a rate of change as a

differential equation
• solve differential equations by integration in the case
where variables are separable
• sketch typical examples of a family of curves representing
a general solution of a differential equation
• find a particular solution of a differential equation given
initial conditions
• solve problems involving 1st order differential equation

755
BACKGROUND

A differential equation is an equation which contains at least

one differential coefficient.

𝑑𝑦
For example, 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 8

A first order differential equation is one in which the power of

𝑑𝑦
is one
𝑑𝑥

So as for our syllabus scope we shall look at first order only.

756
Separation of variables to obtain a general solution

The general solution is the one which contains the arbitrary

constant usually represented by 𝑐

Let us consider the following example

Find general solution of the differential equation

𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦

To obtain general solution of a differential equation is very

simple once you understand that the first step always is to
separate the variables.

All terms in 𝑥 go to 𝑑𝑥 and all terms in 𝑦 go to𝑑𝑦.

So, to do that first remove fractions then do the separation.

𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Now we have successfully separated the variables our second

step will be integrating both sides.

757
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

To obtain

𝑦2 𝑥3
2
= 3
+𝑐

Then simplify further

3𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑐 ∗ 𝑐 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 6𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Example 2

𝑑𝑦
Given a differential equation = 𝑦 3 𝑒 4𝑥 find the general
𝑑𝑥
solution.

𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 3 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 4𝑥
3
= 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝑦

758
1
= 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦³

1
∫ 3 = ∫ 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦

1 1 4𝑥
− 2 = 𝑒 +𝑐
2𝑦 4

Example 3

𝑑𝑦 3𝑥
Given that 2 = find the general solution of the differential
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
equation.

2𝑑𝑦 𝑦 = 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝑐
2
2

Example 4

759
Given the differential equation

3
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 3)
𝑑𝑥
Find the general solution

𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥 + 3)

1 4 1
𝑦 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 3) + 𝑐
4 2

Example 5

𝑑𝑦
Given the differential equation 𝑦 = 5𝑥(𝑥 − 3) find the
𝑑𝑥
general solution.

𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 5𝑥(𝑥 − 3) 𝑑𝑥

𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = (5𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(5𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

760
𝑦2 5 3 15
2
= 3𝑥 − 2
𝑥2 + 𝑐

Example 6

Find the general solution of the differential equation

𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 = 3𝑡 3
𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 3𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 3𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡

1 3 4
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 = 𝑡 +𝑐
3 4

Example 7

Given the differential equation

𝑑𝑦
(5𝑦 − 2) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 + 7)
𝑑𝑥
Find the general solution.

(5𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥

∫(5𝑦 − 2) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 + 7) 𝑑𝑥

761
5 2 1
𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥 + 7) + 𝑐
2 3

Example 8

𝑑𝑦
Given 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 obtain the general solution.

𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑦

1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑦

Now integrating both sides since we have separated the

variables.

1
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑥3
𝐼𝑛|𝑦| = +𝑐
3

Example 9

762
 𝑑𝑦
Find the general solution of (3 − 𝑥 ) = 5𝑦
𝑑𝑥

(3 − 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦 = 5𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 5
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 3−𝑥

1 5
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 3−𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝐼𝑛|𝑦| = −5𝐼𝑛|3 − 𝑥 | + 𝑐

Particular solution of a differential equation

When we speak of the particular solution we are now saying

we are finding the value of the arbitrary constant and any
other constant and then express 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.

Hence a particular solution is the solution which does not

contain any constant at all.

Finding the particular solution of a differential equation is the

same as solving the differential equation.

763
So, what happens is that you will be given the differential
equation and what are called initial conditions.

These initial conditions are what you will use to find the
particular solution.

Let us quickly attack the following question

A differential equation satisfies the equation

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 − 1
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 2
Solve the differential equation given that 𝑦 = 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1

So, first of all find the general solution

(𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑦 = (𝑦 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

1 1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑦−1 𝑥+2

𝐼𝑛|𝑦 − 1| = 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐

Now we want to find the value of A so we are going to hire the

initial conditions and let them do their job by substituting in
the general solution.

764
𝐼𝑛|2 − 1| = 𝐼𝑛|1 + 2| + 𝑐

𝐼𝑛1 = 𝐼𝑛3 + 𝑐

0 = 𝐼𝑛3 + 𝑐

𝑐 = −𝐼𝑛3

∴ 𝐼𝑛|𝑦 − 1| = 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 + 2| − 𝐼𝑛3

Now remember for a particular solution make sure you make

𝑦 subject

𝑥+2
𝐼𝑛(𝑦 − 1) = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
3

𝑥+2
𝑦−1= 3

𝑥+2
𝑦 =1+
3

1
𝑦 = (𝑥 + 5)
3

765
Example 2

Let us do the following again

A differential equation is given by

2
𝑑𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑦2 = 0
𝑑𝑥
1 𝜋
Solve the differential equation given that 𝑦 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 =
4 4

So as always, we are going to find the general solution first.

2
𝑑𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = −𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = −𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥

1 1
− 𝑑𝑦 =
𝑦2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

1 2
− 2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦

1
∫ − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

766
1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑦

1
𝑦= +𝑐
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

𝜋 1
Now to find the particular solution use 𝑥 = 𝑦=
4 4

1 1
= 𝜋 +𝑐
4 𝑡𝑎𝑛
4

1
=1+𝑐
4

3
𝐴=−
4

1 3
∴𝑦= −
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 4

Example 3

𝑑𝑦 4
Given that = solve the differential equation given that
𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑦

𝑦 = 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1

𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 4 𝑑𝑥
767
 4
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

4
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑦2
2
= 4𝐼𝑛|𝑥 | + 𝑐

2 = 𝐼𝑛|1| + 𝑐

𝑐=2

𝑦2
= 4𝐼𝑛|𝑥 | + 2
2

∴ 𝑦 2 = 8𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 4

Example 3

Given that

768
 𝑑𝑦 2𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Find the particular solution given that 𝑥 = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 2

𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥

1 1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
2𝑦 𝑥

1
𝐼𝑛|𝑦| = 𝐼𝑛|𝑥 | + 𝑐
2

1
𝐼𝑛2 = 𝐼𝑛1 + 𝑐
2

1
𝑐 = 𝐼𝑛2
2

1 1
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛2
2 2

1
𝐼𝑛𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(√2𝑥)
2

𝐼𝑛√𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(√2𝑥)

√𝑦 = (√2𝑥)

769
𝑦 = 2𝑥 2

Example 4

Find the particular solution of the differential equation

𝑑𝑦
= (𝑦 + 1)2
𝑑𝑥
Given that 𝑦 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0

𝑑𝑦 = (𝑦 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥

1
(𝑦+1)2
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥

1
∫ (𝑦+1)2 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥

1
− =𝑥+𝑐
𝑦+1

−1 = 0 + 𝑐

𝑐 = −1

1
∴− =𝑥−1
𝑦+1

770
 1
1− =𝑥
𝑦+1

𝑦+1−1
=𝑥
𝑦+1

𝑦
𝑦+1
=𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥

𝑥
𝑦=
1−𝑥

Simple isn’t it

Formation of Differential Equations

This is the part where most people will start feeling like
running away after they see a half page question.

But worry not we will just be applying the concepts of general

solutions and particular solutions we discussed earlier!!!

771
COACHING POINTS TO MASTER FORMATION OF ODEs:

o Make sure you understand the question thoroughly always.

o One must understand that the word rate means change

with time for example:

𝑑𝑉
Rate of change of Volume (𝑉 ) becomes 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴
Rate of change of Area (𝐴) becomes
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴
Rate of change of a substance A is
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑚
Rate of change of mass (𝑚) is
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑙
Rate of change of length (𝑙 ) is 𝑒𝑡𝑐
𝑑𝑡

o One must be reminded about proportion

Let us say we are given the following statements

Rate of change of height (ℎ) of a tree is directly proportional to

the time (𝑡) in years.

772
 𝑑ℎ
This means ∝𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Removing the proportion sign and introducing constant 𝑘 to

get
𝑑ℎ
= 𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑡

The rate of water flowing into a cylindrical drum is inversely

proportional to the Area which is 200𝑥 𝑐𝑚2

This implies
𝑑𝑉 1
∝
𝑑𝑡 200𝑥

𝑑𝑉 𝑘
=
𝑑𝑡 200𝑥

The rate of increase of the knowledge of Professor Brighton

denoted by 𝑥 is directly proportional to the time taken in
studying (𝑡)

This means
𝑑𝑥
∝𝑡
𝑑𝑡

773
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑡

o One must also be careful when dealing with a negative

rate of change (𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒)

Let us look at the following statements:

Water is leaking from a container with a rate proportional to

the Area of the container 2 − √ℎ

Since water is leaking this means the rate of change of water is

negative

𝑑𝑉
− ∝ (2 − √ℎ)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
Remove the negative sign on
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
∝ −(2 − √ℎ)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
= −𝑘(2 − √ℎ)
𝑑𝑡

o You also need to keep the chain rule in mind

774
Let us look at the most commonly used example of the chain
rule

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑡

For example, consider the following statement:

The rate of change of volume is 2 𝑐𝑚3 per second and given

𝑑ℎ
that 𝑉 = 600ℎ find
𝑑𝑡

Observe we are given:

𝑑𝑉
= 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 600ℎ
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
From 𝑉 = 600ℎ 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 = 600
𝑑ℎ

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
Using = ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ
Making subject gives
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑣 𝑑ℎ
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉

775
 𝑑ℎ 1
∴ =2×
𝑑𝑡 600

o Also, one must be familiar with surface area formulas we

discussed in differentiation

Rates of change

Let us also look at rates of change since we need to familiarize

with the Chain Rules

Rates of Change

Once one gets these chain rule formulas working out rates of change
will be like taking a walk.

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

776
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

Let us look at following examples from CAMBRIDGE

Example 1

Water is falling on the ground making a circular patch.

Given that the radius is increasing at the constant rate of 0.5 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1
find the rate of increase of area when 𝑟 = 6 𝑐𝑚

So let us first gather all the data that we have been provided by the
question.

𝑑𝑟
= 0.5 ; 𝑟 = 6 𝑐𝑚 ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ∴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟

We are required to find

𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
= × 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝐴
∴ = 2𝜋(6) × 0.5
𝑑𝑡

= 6 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠 −1

777
Example 2

The volume of a cube of side 𝑥 𝑐𝑚 is increasing at the constant rate

of
8 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠 −1 Find the rate of increase of side 𝑥 when the volume is
64 𝑐𝑚3

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
=8 𝑉 = 𝑥 3 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 3 = 64 ∴ 𝑥 = 4
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉

𝑑𝑥 1
=8×
𝑑𝑡 3(4)2

1
= 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1
6

Example 3

The radius of a spherical balloon increases at the constant rate of

2
𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1 Find the rate at which the volume increases when volume
𝜋
is 36𝜋 𝑐𝑚3

4 3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟
3

778
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉 2 4 3
= = 4𝜋𝑟 𝑉 = 36𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜋𝑟 = 36𝜋 ∴ 𝑟=3
𝑑𝑡 𝜋 𝑑𝑟 3

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
= × 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟

2
= 4𝜋(3)2 × 𝜋

= 72 𝑐𝑚3 𝑠 −1

Example 4

The surface area of a sphere, A 𝑐𝑚2 is given by 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 where

𝑟 𝑐𝑚 is the radius of the sphere. The surface area is decreasing at
the rate of 4𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠 −1 find the rate at which the radius is changing
when 𝑟 = 5 𝑐𝑚

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
𝐴= 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 8𝜋𝑟 = −4𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠 −1 𝑟 = 5
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐴
= 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

1
= 8𝜋(5) × −4𝜋

1
= − 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1

779
QUESTION 1 (ZIMSEC)

SOLUTION

𝑑𝜃 1
(i) − ∝
𝑑𝑡 𝜃

𝑑𝜃 𝑘
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝜃

(𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

(ii) ∫ 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡

780
1
𝜃 2 = −𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐
2

1
(iv) (80)2 = −𝑘(0) + 𝑐
2

𝑐 = 3200

1 2
𝜃 = −𝑘𝑡 + 3200
2

1
(70)2 = −𝑘(20) + 3200
2

20𝑘 = 3200 − 2450

75
𝑘=
2

1 2 75
∴ 𝜃 = − 𝑡 + 3200
2 2

At 𝑡 = 40 , 𝜃 =?

1 2 75
𝜃 = − (40) + 3200
2 2

781
1 2
𝜃 = 1700
2

𝜃 = 58.31°

QUESTION 2 (CAMBRIDGE)

SOLUTION

782
 1
𝑑ℎ
(i) 𝑑𝑡
∝ (9 − ℎ) 3

𝑑ℎ 1
= 𝑘(9 − ℎ)3
𝑑𝑡

To find k:

1
0.2 = 𝑘(9 − 1)3

0.2 = 2𝑘

𝑘 = 0.1

1
𝑑ℎ
∴ 𝑑𝑡 = 0.1(9 − ℎ) 3

(ii) Separating variables to get

1
∫ 1 𝑑ℎ = ∫ 0.1 𝑑𝑡
(9 − ℎ)3

3 2
− (9 − ℎ)3 = 0.1𝑡 + 𝑐
2

783
 3 2
− (9 − 1)3 = 0.1(0) + 𝑐
2

𝑐 = −6

3 2
− (9 − ℎ)3 = 0.1𝑡 − 6
2

Making ℎ subject

2 2 𝑡
(9 − ℎ)3 = − ( − 6)
3 10

2 𝑡
(9 − ℎ)3 =4−
15

3
𝑡 2
9 − ℎ = (4 − )
15

3
𝑡 2
ℎ = 9 − (4 − )
15

784
 3
𝑡 2
(iii) Maximum height is when (4 − ) =0
15

𝑡
4− =0
15

max ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 9 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 60 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

QUESTION 3 (𝐶𝐴𝑀𝐵𝑅𝐼𝐷𝐺𝐸 )

𝑑𝜃
(i) = −𝑘(𝜃 − 𝐴)
𝑑𝑡

1
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = −𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝜃−𝐴

785
𝐼𝑛|𝜃 − 𝐴| = −𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐

𝜃 = 4𝐴 , 𝑡 = 0

𝐼𝑛|4𝐴 − 𝐴| = −𝑘(0) + 𝑐

𝑐 = 𝐼𝑛3𝐴

𝐼𝑛|𝜃 − 𝐴| = −𝑘𝑡 + 𝐼𝑛3𝐴

(ii) 𝐼𝑛|3𝐴 − 𝐴| = −𝑘(1) + 𝐼𝑛3𝐴

𝐼𝑛2𝐴 = −𝑘 + 𝐼𝑛3𝐴

𝑘 = 𝐼𝑛3𝐴 − 𝐼𝑛2𝐴

3𝐴
𝑘 = 𝐼𝑛
2𝐴

3
𝑘 = 𝐼𝑛
2
(𝑆𝐻𝑂𝑊𝑁)

(iii) 𝐼𝑛|𝜃 − 𝐴| = −𝑘𝑡 + 𝐼𝑛3𝐴

786
 3
𝐼𝑛|𝜃 − 𝐴| = −𝐼𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐼𝑛3𝐴
2

3
𝑡𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛3𝐴 − 𝐼𝑛(𝜃 − 𝐴)
2

3 𝑡 3𝐴
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
2 𝜃−𝐴

3 𝑡 3𝐴
( ) =
2 𝜃−𝐴

At 𝑡 = 2

3 2 3𝐴
( ) =
2 𝜃−𝐴

9 3𝐴
=
4 𝜃−𝐴

9𝜃 − 9𝐴 = 12𝐴

9𝜃 = 21𝐴

787
 7
𝜃= 𝐴
3

QUESTION 4 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

SOLUTION

(i) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 + 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 = 𝐻

But Volume of B=V at time 𝑡

∴Volume of A+V=H

Volume of A=H−𝑉

Rate of formation∝ Volume of A

788
 𝑑𝑉
∴ ∝𝐻−𝑉
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
= 𝑘(𝐻 − 𝑉 )
𝑑𝑡

1
(ii) ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝐻−𝑉

−𝐼𝑛(𝐻 − 𝑉 ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐

𝐼𝑛(𝐻 − 𝑉 ) = −𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐

𝐻 − 𝑉 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡+𝑐

𝐻 − 𝑉 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 ∙ 𝑒 𝑐

𝐻 − 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

At 𝑡 = 0 , 𝑉 = 𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 ∴ 𝐻 = 𝐴

𝐻 − 𝑉 = 𝐻𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

𝑉 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

2
At 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛9 , 𝑉 = 𝐻
3

789
2
𝐻 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑒 −𝑘𝐼𝑛9
3

2
𝐻 = 𝐻(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝐼𝑛9 )
3

2
= 1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝐼𝑛9
3

−𝑘𝐼𝑛9
1
𝑒 =
3

1
𝑘𝐼𝑛 9 1
𝑒 =
3

−𝐼𝑛9𝑘 = −𝐼𝑛3

1
𝑘=
2

1
− 𝑡
∴𝑉 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑒 2

1
− 𝑡
(iii) 0.8𝐻 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑒 2

1
− 𝑡
𝑒 2 = 0.2
790
𝑡 = 3.2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

(iv) Max Value= 𝐻 ∴V must not exceed H

𝑡
0

QUESTION 5 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

1
𝑑𝑙
(i) ∝ (10 − 𝑙 )
2
𝑑𝑡

791
𝑑𝑙 1
= 𝑘(10 − 𝑙 )2
𝑑𝑡

1
0.3 = 𝑘(10 − 1)2

0.3 = 3𝑘

𝑘 = 0.1

𝑑𝑙 1
= 0.1(10 − 𝑙 )2
𝑑𝑡

1
(ii) ∫ 1 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 0.1 𝑑𝑡
(10−𝑙 )2

1
−2(10 − 𝑙 )2 = 0.1𝑡 + 𝑐

1
−2(10 − 1)2 =𝑐

𝑐 = −6

Making 𝑙 subject

1
−2(10 − 𝑙 )2 = 0.1𝑡 − 6
792
 1 1
−2(10 − 𝑙 )2 = 𝑡−6
10

1 1
(10 − 𝑙 )2 =− 𝑡+3
20

1 2
10 − 𝑙 = (3 − 𝑡)
20

1 2
𝑙 = 10 − (3 − 𝑡)
20

1 2
(iii) At maximum (3 − 𝑡) = 0 ∴𝑙 = 10
20

793
QUESTION 6 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

𝑑𝑦
(a) ∝ (20 − 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑘(20 − 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥

1 = 𝑘(20 − 0)

1
𝑘=
20
794
𝑘 = 0.05

𝑑𝑦
∴ = 0.05(20 − 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥

1
(b) ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 0.05 𝑑𝑥
20−𝑦

−𝐼𝑛(20 − 𝑦) = 0.05𝑥 + 𝑐

𝐼𝑛(20 − 𝑦) = −0.05𝑥 + 𝑐

20 − 𝑦 = 𝑒 −0.05𝑥+𝑐

20 − 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 −0.05𝑥

𝑦 = 20 − 𝐴𝑒 −0.05𝑥

0 = 20 − 𝐴𝑒 −0.05(0)

𝐴 = 20

∴𝑦 = 20 − 20𝑒 −0.05𝑥

795
 (c) 𝑦 = 20 − 20𝑒 −0.05(10)

𝑦 = 7.87 (2 𝑑. 𝑝)

QUESTION 7 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

796
𝑑𝑉
= 0.1 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠 Note: Water leaking from tap not container
𝑑𝑡

ℎ∝𝑟 ∴ ℎ = 𝑘𝑟

𝑟 = 1 ; ℎ = 10

10 = 𝑘

ℎ
∴ℎ = 10𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 =
10

1 2
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 (10𝑟)
3

797
𝑑𝑉
= 10𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑟

Since surface area of a circle is 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝐴
We need at ℎ = 5 (ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓𝑤𝑎𝑦)
𝑑𝑡

Using chain Rule

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐴
= × ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟

1
= 0.1 × × 2𝜋𝑟
10𝜋𝑟 2

0.2
= 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠
10𝑟

ℎ 5 1
But 𝑟 = = =
10 10 2

𝑑𝐴 0.2
∴ = 1
𝑑𝑡 10( )
2

798
 1
= 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠
25

QUESTION 8 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

799
 𝑑𝑉
(i) 𝑑𝑡
= 2 … … … (1)

𝑑𝑉 1
− ∝ ℎ2
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉 1
= −𝑘ℎ2
𝑑𝑡

800
𝑑𝑉
= −𝑘√ℎ … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
∴ = 2 − 𝑘 √ℎ
𝑑𝑡

𝑉 = 500ℎ

𝑑𝑉
= 500
𝑑ℎ

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ
2 − 𝑘√ℎ = 500
𝑑𝑡

To find k:

2 − 𝑘√1 = 500(0.002)

2−𝑘 =1

𝑘=1
801
 𝑑ℎ
∴2 − √ℎ = 500
𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ 2 1
= − √ℎ
𝑑𝑡 500 500

𝑑ℎ 1
= (2 − √ℎ)
𝑑𝑡 500

1
(ii) 𝑥 = 2 − ℎ 2

𝑑𝑥 1
=−
𝑑ℎ 2√ℎ

But √ℎ = 2 − 𝑥

𝑑𝑥 1
∴ =−
𝑑ℎ 2(2 − 𝑥 )

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑ℎ
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑡

802
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑡 2(2 − 𝑥 ) 500

𝑑𝑥 −𝑥
=
𝑑𝑡 1000(2 − 𝑥 )

𝑑𝑥 1
(2 − 𝑥 ) =− 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 1000

𝑑𝑥
(2 − 𝑥 ) = −0.001𝑥
𝑑𝑡

QUESTION 9 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

𝑑𝜃
(i) 𝑑𝑡
∝ −(𝜃 − 20)

803
 𝑑𝜃
∴ = −𝑘(𝜃 − 20)
𝑑𝑡

(ii) 𝑡 = 0 ; 𝜃 = 60℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 5 ; 𝜃 = 40℃

1
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = − ∫ 𝑘𝑑𝑡
𝜃 − 20

𝐼𝑛(𝜃 − 20) = −𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐

𝐼𝑛40 = 0 + 𝑐

𝑐 = 𝐼𝑛40

𝐼𝑛(40 − 20) = −5𝑘 + 𝐼𝑛40

𝐼𝑛20 = −5𝑘 + 𝐼𝑛40

1
5𝑘 = 𝐼𝑛
2

1 1
𝑘 = 𝐼𝑛
5 2

804
 1
∴𝐼𝑛(𝜃 − 20) = − 𝐼𝑛2𝑡 + 𝐼𝑛40
5

𝑡
−
𝐼𝑛(𝜃 − 20) = 𝐼𝑛2 5 + 𝐼𝑛40

𝑡
−
𝐼𝑛(𝜃 − 20) = 𝐼𝑛 (40 × 2 5)

40
𝜃= 𝑡 + 20
25

(iii) At 𝑡 = 10 , 𝜃 =?

40
𝜃= 10 + 20
25

40
𝜃= + 20
4

𝜃 = 30

805
QUESTION 10 (𝐶𝐴𝑀𝐵𝑅𝐼𝐷𝐺𝐸 )

𝑑𝑉
(i) = 30 … … … (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
= −𝑘√ℎ … … . (2)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
∴ = 30 − 𝑘√ℎ
𝑑𝑡

𝑉 = 1000ℎ

𝑑𝑉
= 1000
𝑑ℎ

806
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ
Making subject
𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉

𝑑ℎ 1
∴ = (30 − 𝑘√ℎ) ×
𝑑𝑡 1000

𝑑ℎ
1000 = 30 − 𝑘√ℎ
𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ
ℎ=1 ; = 0.02
𝑑𝑡

1000(0.02) = 30 − 𝑘√1

20 = 30 − 𝑘

𝑘 = 10

𝑑ℎ
∴1000 = 30 − 10√ℎ
𝑑𝑡

807
𝑑ℎ 1
= (30 − 10√ℎ)
𝑑𝑡 1000

𝑑ℎ 10
= (3 − √ℎ)
𝑑𝑡 1000

𝑑ℎ
= 0.01(3 − √ℎ)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥
(ii) (𝑥 − 3) 𝑑𝑡 = 0.005𝑥

𝑥−3
( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 0.005𝑑𝑡
𝑥

3
∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 0.005𝑑𝑡
𝑥

𝑥 − 3𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 0.005𝑡 + 𝑐

𝑥=3 ; 𝑡=0

3 − 3𝐼𝑛3 = 0 + 𝑐

𝑐 = 3 − 3𝐼𝑛3
808
𝑥 − 3𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 0.005𝑡 + 3 − 3𝐼𝑛3

Making 𝑡 subject

𝑥 − 3 − 3𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 3𝐼𝑛3 = 0.005𝑡

𝑥 − 3 + 3𝐼𝑛3 − 3𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 0.005𝑡

𝑥 − 3 + 3(𝐼𝑛3 − 𝐼𝑛𝑥 ) = 0.005𝑡

3
𝑥 − 3 + 3𝐼𝑛 = 0.005𝑡
𝑥

1 3
𝑡= (𝑥 − 3 + 3𝐼𝑛 )
0.005 𝑥

3
𝑡 = 200 (𝑥 − 3 + 3𝐼𝑛 )
𝑥

809
QUESTION 11 (𝐶𝐴𝑀𝐵𝑅𝐼𝐷𝐺𝐸 )

𝑑𝑉
(i) = 20 (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
∝ −ℎ2
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
= −𝑘ℎ2 (2)
𝑑𝑡

810
𝑑𝑉
= 20 − 𝑘ℎ2
𝑑𝑡

4 3
𝑉= ℎ
3

𝑑𝑉
= 4ℎ2
𝑑ℎ

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ
Making subject
𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉

𝑑ℎ 2
1
= (20 − 𝑘ℎ ) × 2
𝑑𝑡 4ℎ

𝑑ℎ 5 𝑘
= 2−
𝑑𝑡 ℎ 4

811
 𝑑ℎ
ℎ=1 = 4.95
𝑑𝑡

5 𝑘
4.95 = −
1 4

𝑘
= 0.05
4

𝑘 = 0.2

𝑑ℎ 5 0.2
∴ = −
𝑑𝑡 ℎ2 4

𝑑ℎ 5 1
= 2−
𝑑𝑡 ℎ 20

(ii) R.H.S:

2000
= −20 +
(10 + ℎ)(10 − ℎ)

2000
= −20 +
100 − ℎ2

812
 −20(100 − ℎ2 ) + 2000
=
100 − ℎ2

−2000 + 20ℎ2 + 20000

=
100 − ℎ2

20ℎ2
= 2
= 𝐿𝐻𝑆
100 − ℎ

𝑑ℎ 5 1
(iii) = −
𝑑𝑡 ℎ2 20

𝑑ℎ 100 − ℎ2
=
𝑑𝑡 20ℎ2

20ℎ2
∫ 2
𝑑ℎ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
100 − ℎ

20ℎ2 2000
But we know that = −20 +
100−ℎ2 (10+ℎ)(10−ℎ)

2000
∫ (−20 + ) 𝑑ℎ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
(10 + ℎ)(10 − ℎ)

813
 1
∫ (−20 + 2000 ( 2 2
)) 𝑑ℎ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
10 − ℎ

1 1 𝑎+𝑥
Note:∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
𝑎 −𝑥 2𝑎 𝑎−𝑥

10 + ℎ
−20ℎ + 100𝐼𝑛 ( )=𝑡+𝑐
10 − ℎ

𝑡=0 , ℎ=0 , 𝑐=0

10 + ℎ
∴ −20ℎ + 100𝐼𝑛 ( )=𝑡
10 − ℎ

QUESTION 12 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

814
 (i) Temperature between meat and oven= (100 − 𝜃)℃

𝑑𝜃
∝ (100 − 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜃
∴ = 𝑘(100 − 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡

1
(ii) ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
100−𝜃

−𝐼𝑛(100 − 𝜃) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐

𝑡 =0𝑠, 𝜃 = 4℃

𝑡 = 60 𝑠 , 𝜃 = 16℃

−𝐼𝑛(100 − 4) = 𝑘 (0) + 𝑐

𝑐 = −𝐼𝑛96

⟹−𝐼𝑛(100 − 𝜃) = 𝑘𝑡 − 𝐼𝑛96

−𝐼𝑛(100 − 16) = 60𝑘 − 𝐼𝑛96

815
60𝑘 = 𝐼𝑛96 − 𝐼𝑛84

1 8
𝑘= 𝐼𝑛 ( )
60 7

1 8
∴−𝐼𝑛(100 − 𝜃) = 𝐼𝑛 ( ) 𝑡 − 𝐼𝑛96
60 7

𝑡 8
−𝐼𝑛(100 − 𝜃) = 𝐼𝑛 ( ) − 𝐼𝑛96
60 7

𝑡 8
𝐼𝑛(100 − 𝜃) = 𝐼𝑛96 − 𝐼𝑛 ( )
60 7

𝑡
8 60
𝐼𝑛(100 − 𝜃) = 𝐼𝑛96 − 𝐼𝑛 ( )
7

96
𝐼𝑛(100 − 𝜃) = 𝐼𝑛 𝑡
8 60
(7)
( )

96
100 − 𝜃 = 𝑡
8 60
(7)

816
 96
𝜃 = 100 − 𝑡
8 60
(7)

QUESTION 13 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

817
 𝑑𝑁
(i) = 𝑘𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠(0.02𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁
⟹ = 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠(0.02𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑁

1
∫ 𝑑𝑁 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(0.02𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑁

𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.02𝑡)
𝐼𝑛𝑁 = 𝑘 +𝑐
0.02

𝐼𝑛𝑁 = 50𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.02𝑡) + 𝑐

𝑁 = 125 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0

𝐼𝑛125 = 50𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.02(0)) + 𝑐

818
𝑐 = 𝐼𝑛125

𝐼𝑛𝑁 = 50𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.02𝑡) + 𝐼𝑛125

𝑁
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 50𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.02𝑡)
125

𝑁
(ii) 𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 50𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛0.02𝑡
125

𝑁 = 166 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 30

166
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 50𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.02 × 30)
125

𝑘 = 0.010049

𝑁
(iii) 𝐼𝑛 (125) = 50(0.010049)𝑠𝑖𝑛0.02𝑡

819
 𝑁
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 0.502𝑠𝑖𝑛0.02𝑡
125

𝑁
= 𝑒 0.502𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.02𝑡)
125

𝑁 = 125𝑒 0.502𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.02𝑡)

Least value occurs when 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.02𝑡) = −1

∴𝑁 = 125𝑒 0.502(−1)

𝑁 = 75.7

QUESTION 14 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

820
 𝑑𝑥
(i) 𝑑𝑡
∝ 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 )

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑘𝑥(1 − 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑡

1
(ii) ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 1−𝑥

1
Taking aside to partialise:
𝑥(1−𝑥)

1 1 1
≡ +
𝑥(1 − 𝑥 ) 𝑥 1 − 𝑥

1 1
⟹∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 1−𝑥

𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 𝐼𝑛(1 − 𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐
821
 𝑥
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐
1−𝑥

20
When 𝑡 = 0 𝑥 = 100

80
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 120 𝑥=
100

20
(100)
𝐼𝑛 ( )=𝑐
80
(100)

1
𝑐 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
4

𝑥 1
∴𝐼𝑛 (1−𝑥) = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐼𝑛 (4)

80
(100) 1
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 120𝑘 + 𝐼𝑛 ( )
20 4
(100)

822
 1
𝐼𝑛4 − 𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 120𝑘
4

4
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 120𝑘
1
4

𝐼𝑛16 = 120𝑘

1
𝑘= 𝐼𝑛16
120

𝑥 1 1
∴𝐼𝑛 (1−𝑥) = (120 𝐼𝑛16) 𝑡 + 𝐼𝑛 (4)

𝑥 𝑡 1
𝐼𝑛 ( )= 𝐼𝑛16 + 𝐼𝑛 ( )
1−𝑥 120 4

𝑥 𝑡 1
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 𝐼𝑛16120 + 𝐼𝑛 ( )
1−𝑥 4

𝑥 1 𝑡
𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 𝐼𝑛 ( × 16120 )
1−𝑥 4

823
 𝑥 𝑡
= 4−1 × (42 )120
1−𝑥

𝑥 𝑡
= 4−1 × 460
1−𝑥

𝑥 𝑡
= 460−1
1−𝑥

𝑡
𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥 )460−1

𝑡 𝑡
−1 −1
𝑥= 460 − 𝑥460

𝑡 𝑡
−1 −1
𝑥 (1 + 460 ) = 460

𝑡
−1
460
𝑥= 𝑡
1+ 460−1

1
𝑥= 𝑡
1−
4 60 +1

(iii) 𝑡 = 60 𝑤𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑥

824
 1
𝑥= 60
1−
4 60 +1

1
𝑥 = = 50%
2

(iv) Everyone will be infected with cholera

QUESTION 15 (𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

(i)

825
 𝑦

3𝑚
3𝑚

Area in contact= 2(3𝑦 + 3𝑦) + 9

𝐴 = 12𝑦 + 9

𝑑𝑉
− ∝ 12𝑦 + 9
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
= −𝑘(12𝑦 + 9)
𝑑𝑡

𝑉 = 9𝑦

𝑑𝑉
=9
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑦
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
Making subject
𝑑𝑡

826
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑦
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉

𝑑𝑦 1
= −𝑘(12𝑦 + 9) ×
𝑑𝑡 9

𝑑𝑦 4𝑦 1
= −9𝑘 ( + 1) ×
𝑑𝑡 3 9

4(3)
0.3 = −𝑘 ( + 1)
3

0.3 = −5𝑘

0.3
𝑘=−
5

3
𝑘=−
50

𝑑𝑦 3 4𝑦
∴ =− ( 3 + 1)
𝑑𝑡 50

827
Worksheet

(1) Find the general solutions of the following differential equations

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (e) 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 =4 (f) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 2𝑦𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 3𝑦+5 𝑑𝑦
(c) = (g) 2𝑥𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥−6 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
(d) = 𝑦 2 𝑒 2𝑥 (h) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 𝑥2 + 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(2) Find the particular solutions (𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠) of the following
Differential equations given the conditions:

𝑑𝑦 2𝑦
(a) = 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 𝜋
(b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 0 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 4 4

𝑑𝑦
(c) = (𝑦 + 1)2 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2𝑦
(d) = 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(e) 𝑦(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(f) 𝑦 2 = 𝑥2 + 1 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑥

828
 𝑑𝑦
(g) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1+4𝑦 2
(h) (3𝑥 + 5) 2 = 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑦

829
 TOPIC 6: NUMERICAL METHODS

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• approximate the root of an equation by graphical means or

sign change
• derive a converging iterative formula for solving a given
equation
• solve the equation using iterative procedure
• derive the Newton – Raphson formula
• solve equations using the Newton – Raphson method
• recognize cases where the iterative method may fail to
converge to the required root
• solve problems involving the use of iterative procedures in
root finding

830
LOCATION OF ROOTS

So let us first talk about Location of roots by sign change

• Location of roots by sign change

Given an equation 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0

If 𝑓(𝑥 ) has a root lying in the interval
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏

Then 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) must be having different signs

So let us quickly look at following examples using the concept

we just discussed:

831
EXAMPLE 1

Show that the equation 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 has a real root

between 2 and 3

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 1

𝑓(2) = 2(2)3 − 5(2)2 + 1 = −3

𝑓(3) = 2(3)3 − 5(3)2 + 1 = 10

Since there is a sign change root lies between 2 and 3

EXAMPLE 2

Show that the equation 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 has a root between 0

𝜋
and 2

Rearrange 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 to one equation (𝑅𝐴𝐷 𝑀𝑂𝐷𝐸‼)

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 1 + 𝑥

𝑓(0) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(0) − 1 + 0 = −1

832
 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ( ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) − 1 + = 2
2 2 2

𝜋
Since there is a sign change root lies between 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2

EXAMPLE 3

1
Show that 𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 has a root between 1 and 2
3

1
Rearranging to 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥
3

1 1
𝑓(1) = 𝐼𝑛1 − = −
3 3

2
𝑓(2) = 𝐼𝑛2 − = 0.026
3

Since there is a sign change root lies between 1 and 3

EXAMPLE 4

Show that 𝑒 𝑥 = 10𝑥 has a root between 3 and 4

833
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 10𝑥

𝑓(3) = 𝑒 3 − 10(3) = −9.91

𝑓(4) = 𝑒 4 − 10(4) = 14.6

Since there is sign change root lies between 3 and 4

EXAMPLE 5

Show that the equation 𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 3 − 𝑥 has a root between 2 and

2.5

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 3 + 𝑥

𝑓(2) = 𝐼𝑛2 − 3 + 2 = −0.31

𝑓(2.5) = 𝐼𝑛2.5 − 3 + 2.5 = 0.416

Since there is sign change root lies between 2 and 2.5

EXAMPLE 6

834
Show that the equation 𝑒 −2𝑥 = 3𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 2 has a root between 1
and 2

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 3𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 2

𝑓(1) = 𝑒 −2 − 3𝐼𝑛1 + 2 = 2.14

𝑓(2) = 𝑒 −4 − 3𝐼𝑛2 + 2 = −0.061

Since there is a sign change root lies between 1 and 2

835
 • LOCATION OF ROOTS BY GRAPHICAL METHOD

Let us look at location of roots using the graphical method

• Given 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑥 ) if we sketch two graphs 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑔(𝑥 ) the
number of points of intersection are the number of the real
roots of the equation.

Let us do the following examples:

EXAMPLE 1

Show graphically that 𝑒 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑥 has exactly one root.

So, we are going to sketch graph of 𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 − 𝑥 on the same axes.

𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
3

1
𝑥
0 3

𝑦 =3−𝑥

836
Since there is one point of intersection this means the equation
𝑒 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑥 has exactly one root

EXAMPLE 2

Show graphically that 𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 2𝑥 has exactly one real root

Sketching 𝐼𝑛𝑥 and 2𝑥 on same axes

𝑦
𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑦 = 2𝑥

𝑥
0 1

There is one point of intersection therefore one real root

837
EXAMPLE 3

Show graphically that 𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0 has exactly one real root

Rearrange this to form 𝐼𝑛𝑥 = −𝑥 + 3 and sketch graph of 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥

and 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3
𝑦

𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥
3

0 1 3 𝑥

𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3

Since there is one point of intersection the equation 𝐼𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0 has

exactly one real root

838
 • ITERATIVE METHODS

An iterative formula is an equation of the form 𝑋𝑛+1 = 𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 )

This equation is what we will be using to find approximations which

converge to a root

So, we are saying we are not finding exact value of an equation directly
but we are using an iterative formula to obtain a sequence of
approximations which get us closer and closer to the root

Steps in obtaining an iterative formula:

(1) Make one of the 𝑥 ′ 𝑠 subject of formula

(2) On the LHS put 𝑋𝑛+1 where there is 𝑥

(3) On the RHS put 𝑥𝑛 wherever there is 𝑥

So let us quickly look at the following short example

Given the equation 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 = 6 obtain two iterative formulae

based on the equation

𝑥 3 = 6 − 2𝑥

839
 3
𝑥 = √6 − 2𝑥

𝑥𝑛+1 = 3√6 − 2𝑥𝑛 (1)

OR:

2𝑥 = 6 − 𝑥 3

1 3
𝑥 =3− 𝑥
2

1 3
𝑥𝑛+1 = 3 − 𝑥 (2)
2 𝑛

Derive two iterative formulae based on

𝑒 2𝑥 = 7 − 𝑥

𝑥 = 7 − 𝑒 2𝑥

𝑥𝑛+1 = 7 − 𝑒 2𝑥𝑛 (1)

𝑒 2𝑥 = 7 − 𝑥

840
𝐼𝑛𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛(7 − 𝑥 )

2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛(7 − 𝑥 )

1
𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛(7 − 𝑥 )
2

1
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝐼𝑛(7 − 𝑥𝑛 ) (2)
2

• Reversing from an iterative formula to original equation

⟹Given an iterative formula just remove 𝑥𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑛 then

simplify to go back to original equation

So let us just look at following example:

Given that the iterative formula

2 𝑥𝑛
𝑋𝑛+1 = 2+
𝑥𝑛 5
Converges to the root 𝛼

State an equation satisfied by 𝛼 and hence state exact value of 𝛼

Removing 𝑥𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑛

841
 2 𝑥
𝑥= +
𝑥² 5

5𝑥 3 = 10 + 𝑥 3

4𝑥 3 = 10

5
𝑥3 =
2

3 5
Exact value= √2

Given the iterative formula

1
𝑥𝑛+1 = (5 − 𝑥𝑛 )3
Converges to 𝛼

State an equation satisfied by 𝛼

1
𝑥 = (5 − 𝑥 )3

𝑥3 = 5 − 𝑥

842
𝑥3 + 𝑥 − 5 = 0

So, since we have discussed a little bit about the iterative formula
let us now see how they are used in approximations and we will
look at the Newton Raphson Method

• The Newton Raphson Method

The Newton Raphson Method is used to converge to a root and is

used as follows:

𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 )
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − ′
𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 )

So, this means let us say we are given a first approximation 𝑥0 to

𝑓 (𝑥 )
find the second approximation 𝑥1 it becomes 𝑥0+1 = 𝑥0 − 𝑓′(𝑥0 )
0

So, in general, the idea you should get on the N-R-M is that to get the
next term we use the previous one

Let us look at the following example involving N-R-M

(ZIMSEC)

(i) Show by calculation that the equation 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 2 has a

root between 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1
843
 (ii) Use Newton-Raphson method twice, starting with 𝑥0 = 1 to
find the root of 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 2 correct to 3 decimal places.

SOLUTION

(i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 2

𝑓(0) = 𝑒 0 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 − 2

=1−1−2

= −2

𝑓(1) = 𝑒 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠1 − 2

= 0.18 (2 𝑑. 𝑝)

Since there is a sign change therefore root lies between 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1

(iii) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 2

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑥0 = 1

𝑒 1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠1−2
𝑥1 = 1 −
𝑒 1 +𝑠𝑖𝑛1

= 0.95000228
844
 𝑒 0.95000228 −𝑐𝑜𝑠0.95000228−2
𝑥2 = 0.95000228 −
𝑒 0.95000228 +𝑠𝑖𝑛0.95000228

= 0.948815412

𝑒 0.948815412 −𝑐𝑜𝑠0.948815412−2
𝑥3 = 0.948815412 −
𝑒 0.948815412 +𝑠𝑖𝑛0.948815412

= 0.948814755

∴= 0.95 (2 𝑑. 𝑝)

(𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

(i) Show that 6𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 + 𝑥 2 ) = 3 has a root between 1.9 and 2

(ii) By using the Newton-Raphson method once obtain a better
approximation starting with 𝑥 = 1.9

(i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 6𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 + 𝑥 2 ) − 3

𝑓(1.9) = 6𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 + (1.9)2 ) − 3

= −0.29

𝑓(2) = 6𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 + 4) − 3 = 1.54

(ii) 𝑥1 = 1.9

845
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 12𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜋 + 𝑥 2 )

6𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 + (1.9)2 ) − 3
𝑥2 = 1.9 −
12(1.9)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜋 + (1.9)2 )

= 1.91

(𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

Use the Newton-Raphson method starting with 𝑥1 = 1.2 to approximate

the root of
𝑥
= 𝐼𝑛𝑥
10

to 3 decimal places

1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 𝐼𝑛𝑥
10

′(
1 1
𝑓 𝑥) = −
10 𝑥

1
(1.2) − 𝐼𝑛(1.2)
𝑥1 = 1.2 − 10
1 1
−
10 1.2

= 1.115

846
𝑥2 = 1.118

𝑥3 = 1.118

∴𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠 1.118

(𝑍𝐼𝑀𝑆𝐸𝐶 )

(i) Show by graphical argument that 4 = 𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛𝑥 has exactly one real
root
(ii) Hence show that the root lies between 2.9 and 3
(iii) Hence show that the iteration 𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑒 4−𝑥𝑛 can be obtained from
the equation

(i) 4 − 𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛𝑥

𝑥
0 1 4

𝑦 =4−𝑥

One point of intersection therefore one real root

847
 (ii) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛𝑥 − 4

𝑓(2.9) = 2.9 + 𝐼𝑛2.9 − 4

= −0.04

𝑓(3) = 3 + 𝐼𝑛3 − 4

= 0.098

(iii) 4 = 𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛𝑥

𝐼𝑛𝑥 = 4 − 𝑥

𝑥 = 𝑒 4−𝑥

𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑒 4−𝑥𝑛

Trapezium Rule

SYLLABUS OBJECTIVES

• derive the trapezium rule

• estimate the area under a curve using the trapezium rule
• explain how to set bounds for the area under the curve using rectangle
or trapezia
• solve problems involving the trapezium rule

848
BACKGROUND

The trapezium rule is used in approximating the value of a definite

integral.

2
You can be given a definite integral let us say ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 but we may not
wish to find its exact value or area but rather we can approximate it.

849
 • Deriving the Trapezium Rule

At this point we wish to derive the Trapezium Rule

Let us say we are given the following shaded area and we want to
estimate the area

𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 )

𝑥
0 𝑎 𝑏

Do you still remember that in integration to find the exact shaded

𝑏
area we will evaluate ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

But now we are saying we don’t want to find the exact area but we
want an estimate or an approximate area

Key terms to note:

850
 • Width interval/height (𝑑)
• Number of trapezia (𝑛)
• Number of ordinates

So, to estimate the area under the graph we then cut it into uniform
trapezia of equal width

The uniform spacing is what we call the height or width interval

The trapezia refer to the units that resemble trapezium

The ordinates are the vertical lines

If you sketch the diagram, you will deduce that

Number of trapezia(𝑛) =Number of ordinates−1

This is very important to note

Whereas the height or width interval is given by

𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

ℎ=
𝑛

So, we are going to thoroughly look at the following examples

Use the trapezium rule with 5 ordinates to estimate the value of

7
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥
851
Since there are five ordinates this means 𝑛 = 4

To find the width interval

7−2
ℎ=
4

5
=
4

5
So, this height or width interval ( ) is telling us that from lower limit up to
4
5
upper limit we will be moving uniformly adding after each term until we
4
reach the upper limit!!

The initial value of 𝑥 is the lower limit and is denoted by 𝑥0

So, for each value of 𝑥 find the corresponding 𝑦 value

1
𝑥0 = 2 𝑦0 =
2

13 4
𝑥1 = 𝑦1 =
4 13

9 2
𝑥2 = 𝑦2 =
2 9

23 4
𝑥3 = 𝑦3 =
4 23

852
 1
𝑥4 = 7 𝑦4 =
7

So, after doing this just apply the formula using the values of 𝑦:

ℎ
𝐴 ≈ [𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 + 2(𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡)]
2

5
4 1 1 4 2 4
∴𝐴 ≈ [ + + 2( + + )]
2 2 7 13 9 23

≈ 1.28 (2 𝑑. 𝑝)

EXAMPLE 2

Use the trapezium rule with 4 ordinates to estimate the value of

4
∫ 𝐼𝑛𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1

So, since ordinates are 4 , 𝑛 = 3

4−1
∴ℎ =
3

=1

Hence from 1 to 4 there are equal spacings of 1

853
𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = 𝐼𝑛1 = 0

𝑥1 = 2 𝑦1 = 𝐼𝑛4

𝑥2 = 3 𝑦2 = 𝐼𝑛9

𝑥3 = 4 𝑦3 = 𝐼𝑛16

1
∴≈ [0 + 𝐼𝑛16 + 2(𝐼𝑛4 + 𝐼𝑛9)]
2

≈ 5.00

EXAMPLE 3

Use the trapezium rule with 4 equally spaced intervals to estimate value
of

4
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

Take note: we are already given number of trapezia (𝑛) so no need to

subtract 1 here

4−0
ℎ=
4

=1

854
𝑥0 = 0 𝑦0 = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑥1 = 1 𝑦1 = 𝑒

𝑥2 = 2 𝑦2 = 𝑒 2

𝑥3 = 3 𝑦3 = 𝑒 3

𝑦4 = 4 𝑦4 = 𝑒 4

1
= [1 + 𝑒 4 + 2(𝑒 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 3 )]
2

= 58.00

EXAMPLE 4

Use the trapezium rule with 4 ordinates to obtain an approximate value of

4
∫ 𝑥 3 𝐼𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥
1

𝑛 =4−1

=3

855
 4−1
ℎ= =1
3

𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = 0

𝑥1 = 2 𝑦1 = 8𝐼𝑛2

𝑥2 = 3 𝑦2 = 27𝐼𝑛3

𝑥3 = 4 𝑦3 = 64𝐼𝑛4

1
𝐴 ≈ [0 + 64𝐼𝑛2 + 2(8𝐼𝑛2 + 27𝐼𝑛3)]
2

≈ 79.6

Q1

Use the trapezium rule with 5 ordinates to estimate the value

of
7
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥

856
Solution

Since there are five ordinates this means 𝑛 = 4

To find the width interval

7−2
ℎ=
4

5
=
4

1
𝑥0 = 2 𝑦0 = 2

13 4
𝑥1 = 𝑦1 = 13
4

9 2
𝑥2 = 2 𝑦2 = 9

23 4
𝑥3 = 𝑦3 =
4 23

1
𝑥4 = 7 𝑦4 = 7

So, after doing this just apply the formula using the values of 𝑦:
857
 ℎ
𝐴 ≈ [𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 + 2(𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡)]
2

5
4 1 1 4 2 4
∴𝐴 ≈ [ + 7 + 2 (13 + 9 + 23)]
2 2

≈ 1.28 (2 𝑑. 𝑝)

Q2
Use the trapezium rule with 4 ordinates to estimate the value of

4
∫ 𝐼𝑛𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1

Solution

So, since ordinates are 4 , 𝑛 = 3

4−1
∴ℎ = 3
858
 =1

Hence from 1 to 4 there are equal spacings of 1

𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = 𝐼𝑛1 = 0

𝑥1 = 2 𝑦1 = 𝐼𝑛4

𝑥2 = 3 𝑦2 = 𝐼𝑛9

𝑥3 = 4 𝑦3 = 𝐼𝑛16

1
∴≈ 2 [0 + 𝐼𝑛16 + 2(𝐼𝑛4 + 𝐼𝑛9)]

≈ 5.00

Q3
Use the trapezium rule with 4 equally spaced intervals to estimate
value of

4
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

Solution

859
 4−0
ℎ=
4

=1

𝑥0 = 0 𝑦0 = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑥1 = 1 𝑦1 = 𝑒

𝑥2 = 2 𝑦2 = 𝑒 2

𝑥3 = 3 𝑦3 = 𝑒 3

𝑦4 = 4 𝑦4 = 𝑒 4

1
= [1 + 𝑒 4 + 2(𝑒 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 3 )]
2

= 58.00

860
Q4
Use the trapezium rule with 4 ordinates to obtain an approximate
value of

4
∫ 𝑥 3 𝐼𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥
1

Solution

𝑛 =4−1

=3

4−1
ℎ= =1
3

𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = 0

𝑥1 = 2 𝑦1 = 8𝐼𝑛2

𝑥2 = 3 𝑦2 = 27𝐼𝑛3
861
𝑥3 = 4 𝑦3 = 64𝐼𝑛4

1
𝐴 ≈ [0 + 64𝐼𝑛2 + 2(8𝐼𝑛2 + 27𝐼𝑛3)]
2

≈ 79.6

Q5

Use the Trapezium Rule with intervals of width 0.5 to estimate the
2.5 1
value of ∫1 1+𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 giving your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.

Solution

ℎ = 0.5

1
𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = =1
1 + 𝐼𝑛1

1
𝑥1 = 1.5 𝑦1 = = 0.71
1 + 𝐼𝑛1.5

862
 1
𝑥2 = 2 𝑦2 = = 0.59
1 + 𝐼𝑛2

1
𝑥3 = 2.5 𝑦3 = = 0.52
1 + 𝐼𝑛2.5

2.5
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≈ (0.5)⟦1 + 0.52 + 2(0.71 + 0.59)⟧
1 1 + 𝐼𝑛𝑥 2

≈ 1.03

Q6

By using the trapezium method with 3 intervals, estimate the value

of the integral

3 5
∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+3

Solution

3−0
ℎ=
3

863
ℎ=1

5 5
𝑥0 = 0 𝑦0 = =
0+3 3

5 5
𝑥1 = 1 𝑦1 = =
1+3 4

5 5
𝑥2 = 2 𝑦2 = = =1
2+3 5

5 5
𝑥3 = 3 𝑦3 = =
3+3 6

3
5 1 5 5 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≈ (1) ⟦ + + 2 ( + 1)⟧
0 𝑥+3 2 3 6 4

≈ 3.5

Q7

864
Using 3 ordinates estimate the value of

𝜋
2
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Solution

𝑛 =3−1=2

𝜋
−0
ℎ= 2
2

𝜋
ℎ=
4

𝑥0 = 0 𝑦0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1

𝜋 𝜋 √2
𝑥1 = 𝑦1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =
4 4 2

𝜋 𝜋
𝑥2 = 𝑦2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0
2 2

𝜋
2 1 𝜋 √2
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≈ ( ) ⟦1 + 0 + 2 ( )⟧
0 2 4 2

≈ 0.948

865
Q8

Use the trapezium rule with five ordinates to find an

6 𝑥
approximation for ∫2 𝑒 𝑑𝑥, giving your answer correct to one
decimal place.

Solution

6−2
ℎ=
4

ℎ=1

𝑥0 = 2 𝑦0 = 𝑒 2

𝑥1 = 3 𝑦1 = 𝑒 3

𝑥2 = 4 𝑦2 = 𝑒 4

𝑥3 = 5 𝑦3 = 𝑒 5

𝑥4 = 6 𝑦4 = 𝑒 6

866
 6
1
∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 ≈ (1)⟦𝑒2 + 𝑒6 + 2(𝑒3 + 𝑒4 + 𝑒5 )⟧
𝑥
2 2

≈ 428.5

867
(1)Use the trapezium rule with 5 ordinates to estimate the value of
4
∫0 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(2)Use the Trapezium Rule with 3 intervals to estimate the value of
𝜋
∫0 √(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
4

(3)By using the trapezium method estimate the value of the integral

3 5
∫0 𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
(4)Using 3 ordinates estimate the value of ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

5
(5)Estimate the value of the integral ∫1 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 using 7 ordinates.

(6)Use the trapezium with 3 ordinates to estimate the value of

𝜋
∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

1
(7)Estimate the value of ∫0 cos(𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 using Trapezium rule with 5
equal intervals answer to 3 𝑠 . 𝑓

(8)Using the Trapezium Rule with 7 ordinates estimate the value of

5
∫1 𝑥𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

868
(9)Use the trapezium rule with 3 ordinates to estimate the value of
2
∫0 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

869
870
Q1

Use the trapezium rule with 5 ordinates to estimate the value

of
7
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥

Solution
871
Since there are five ordinates this means 𝑛 = 4

To find the width interval

7−2
ℎ=
4

5
=4

1
𝑥0 = 2 𝑦0 = 2

13 4
𝑥1 = 𝑦1 = 13
4

9 2
𝑥2 = 𝑦2 =
2 9

23 4
𝑥3 = 𝑦3 =
4 23

1
𝑥4 = 7 𝑦4 = 7

So, after doing this just apply the formula using the values of 𝑦:

872
 ℎ
𝐴 ≈ [𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 + 2(𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡)]
2

5
4 1 1 4 2 4
∴𝐴 ≈ [ + 7 + 2 (13 + 9 + 23)]
2 2

≈ 1.28 (2 𝑑. 𝑝)

Q2
Use the trapezium rule with 4 ordinates to estimate the value of

4
∫ 𝐼𝑛𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1

Solution

So, since ordinates are 4 , 𝑛 = 3

4−1
∴ℎ = 3

873
 =1

Hence from 1 to 4 there are equal spacings of 1

𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = 𝐼𝑛1 = 0

𝑥1 = 2 𝑦1 = 𝐼𝑛4

𝑥2 = 3 𝑦2 = 𝐼𝑛9

𝑥3 = 4 𝑦3 = 𝐼𝑛16

1
∴≈ [0 + 𝐼𝑛16 + 2(𝐼𝑛4 + 𝐼𝑛9)]
2

≈ 5.00

Q3
Use the trapezium rule with 4 equally spaced intervals to estimate
value of

4
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Solution

874
 4−0
ℎ=
4

=1

𝑥0 = 0 𝑦0 = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑥1 = 1 𝑦1 = 𝑒

𝑥2 = 2 𝑦2 = 𝑒 2

𝑥3 = 3 𝑦3 = 𝑒 3

𝑦4 = 4 𝑦4 = 𝑒 4

1
= [1 + 𝑒 4 + 2(𝑒 + 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 3 )]
2

= 58.00

875
Q4
Use the trapezium rule with 4 ordinates to obtain an approximate
value of

4
∫ 𝑥 3 𝐼𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥
1

Solution

𝑛 =4−1

=3

4−1
ℎ= =1
3

𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = 0

𝑥1 = 2 𝑦1 = 8𝐼𝑛2

𝑥2 = 3 𝑦2 = 27𝐼𝑛3
876
𝑥3 = 4 𝑦3 = 64𝐼𝑛4

1
𝐴 ≈ [0 + 64𝐼𝑛2 + 2(8𝐼𝑛2 + 27𝐼𝑛3)]
2

≈ 79.6

Q5

Use the Trapezium Rule with intervals of width 0.5 to estimate the
2.5 1
value of ∫1 1+𝐼𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 giving your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.

Solution

ℎ = 0.5

1
𝑥0 = 1 𝑦0 = =1
1 + 𝐼𝑛1

1
𝑥1 = 1.5 𝑦1 = = 0.71
1 + 𝐼𝑛1.5

877
 1
𝑥2 = 2 𝑦2 = = 0.59
1 + 𝐼𝑛2

1
𝑥3 = 2.5 𝑦3 = = 0.52
1 + 𝐼𝑛2.5

2.5
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≈ (0.5)⟦1 + 0.52 + 2(0.71 + 0.59)⟧
1 1 + 𝐼𝑛𝑥 2

≈ 1.03

Q6

By using the trapezium method with 3 intervals, estimate the value

of the integral

3 5
∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+3

Solution

3−0
ℎ=
3

878
ℎ=1

5 5
𝑥0 = 0 𝑦0 = =
0+3 3

5 5
𝑥1 = 1 𝑦1 = =
1+3 4

5 5
𝑥2 = 2 𝑦2 = = =1
2+3 5

5 5
𝑥3 = 3 𝑦3 = =
3+3 6

3
5 1 5 5 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≈ (1) ⟦ + + 2 ( + 1)⟧
0 𝑥+3 2 3 6 4

≈ 3.5

Q7

879
Using 3 ordinates estimate the value of

𝜋
2
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Solution

𝑛 =3−1=2

𝜋
−0
ℎ= 2
2

𝜋
ℎ=
4

𝑥0 = 0 𝑦0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1

𝜋 𝜋 √2
𝑥1 = 𝑦1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =
4 4 2

𝜋 𝜋
𝑥2 = 𝑦2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0
2 2

𝜋
2 1 𝜋 √2
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≈ ( ) ⟦1 + 0 + 2 ( )⟧
0 2 4 2

≈ 0.948

880
Q8

Use the trapezium rule with five ordinates to find an

6 𝑥
approximation for ∫2 𝑒 𝑑𝑥, giving your answer correct to one
decimal place.

Solution

6−2
ℎ=
4

ℎ=1

𝑥0 = 2 𝑦0 = 𝑒 2

𝑥1 = 3 𝑦1 = 𝑒 3

𝑥2 = 4 𝑦2 = 𝑒 4

𝑥3 = 5 𝑦3 = 𝑒 5

𝑥4 = 6 𝑦4 = 𝑒 6

881
 6
1
∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 ≈ (1)⟦𝑒2 + 𝑒6 + 2(𝑒3 + 𝑒4 + 𝑒5 )⟧
𝑥
2 2

≈ 428.5

882
STAY BLESSED

~PROFESSOR
MAIBVISE

883
884