Current Applied Science and Technology Vol. 23 No.
4 (July-August 2023)
Research article
________________________________________________________________________________________
Estimation of Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation
Scheduling for Major Crops Grown in India's North-Eastern
Region
Florence Akangle Panme* and Laxmi Narayan Sethi
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Triguna Sen School of Technology Assam
University, Silchar, Assam-788011, India
Received: 28 June 2022, Revised: 7 August 2022, Accepted: 26 December 2022
DOI: 10.55003/cast.2022.04.23.011
Abstract
Keywords The water demand of some agricultural crops grown in Assam was
assessed in this research. To estimate the crop water requirements
crop water requirement; of potato, chili, and brinjal, the FAO-CROPWAT model was used.
The climatic parameters like rainfall, solar radiation, wind speed,
evapotranspiration; sun hours, relative humidity, minimum and maximum temperature
were collected for 30 years from the Indian Meteorological
irrigation scheduling; Department (IMD) to estimate the crop water requirement (CWR).
The reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was computed by using the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)-recommended Penman-
North-East India
Monteith method and was found to vary from 1.84 mm/day to 4.49
mm/day. The calculated ETo was further used to compute the
CWR, the net irrigation requirement (NIR), and the gross irrigation
requirement (GIR) to plan for irrigation application during the
growing stages of the selected crops. The total CWR of potato,
chili, and brinjal was estimated to be 260.6 mm, 262.1 mm, and
274.2 mm, respectively, and the total NIR of potato, chili, and
brinjal sowed on the 1st of October was found to be 162.8 mm,
149.0 mm, and 167.2 mm, respectively, with an irrigation
efficiency of 70%. In December, the CWR and NIR of potato and
brinjal were found to be the highest. The month with the least
effective rainfall (8.5 mm) was December. The findings of the
study showed that efficient irrigation water management and
irrigation scheduling can be achieved by using the CROPWAT
model to maximize crop yield and minimize crop water stress.
________________________________________
*Corresponding author: E-mail: panmeflorence@[Link]
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Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 4 F.A. Panme and L.N. Sethi
1. Introduction
Agriculture is one of the most important sources of livelihood and its rapid expansion does not only
help in ensuring the security of food and nutrition but also in achieving self-sufficiency for people.
It also aims to achieve a balanced distribution of income and wealth in rural areas, eliminating
poverty and improving living standards. Agriculture's expansion has a greatest cascading effect on
other sectors, resulting in benefits being disseminated over the whole economy and the broadest
percentage of the population. Increased water demands due to fast population growth have prompted
the expansion of irrigation and industrial output to meet basic human requirements [1, 2].
Insufficient precipitation becomes the primary goal for the application of irrigation to maintain and
meet agricultural evapotranspiration (ET) [3, 4]. More than 75 % population of the state of Assam
lives in rural areas, and due to certain factors, the direct use of river water is limited. Due to the lack
of location-specific crop type information and irrigation scheduling for different crops, only a few
research studies have paid attention to irrigation water requirements and irrigation efficiency in
Assam. Improper use of irrigation water can adversely affect crop yields in the region. Because
water is such an important element for crop production, it has become a necessity to plan and
distribute this limited resource efficiently [5, 6]. Many methods are employed for the estimation of
evapotranspiration. Since accurate measurement of evapotranspiration becomes strenuous under
field conditions, potential evapotranspiration is often predicted on the basis of climatological data.
Empirical formulas like the Blaney-Criddle method use the monthly percentage of total daylight
hours in the year and the mean monthly temperature. The Thornwaite method is based on the
exponential relationship between mean monthly temperature and consumptive use, and the
Hargreaves method is based on the relationship between potential evapotranspiration, average daily
temperature, and incident solar radiation only [7]. Since the Penman-Monteith method combines the
energy balance method with the mass transfer method and incorporates the climatic effect on crop
factors to compute the evapotranspiration, it is one of the most widely used methods [8-10]. Smith's
CROPWAT simulations [11] make use of the Penman-Monteith method for estimating reference
evapotranspiration, which is commonly employed to achieve water use efficiency. It calculates the
actual evapotranspiration (ETc) of a crop by estimating ETo [2, 12]. Gross irrigation need is also
estimated by combining climate, crop, and soil data, and enables the generation of irrigation
recommendations, irrigation schedule planning under variable water supply situations, and yield
reduction under varied conditions [1, 5, 8, 13]. Vegetables from all over the world, including both
tropical and temperate varieties, are cultivated in the study area. Therefore, the objective of the study
was to determine the crop water demand and temporal change of ETc with respect to the water
requirements of some of the major horticultural crops grown in the region using a CROPWAT 8.0
decision-making tool. An attempt was also made to estimate the irrigation frequency by planning
the irrigation schedule.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Description of the study area
The study focuses on Assam, one of the eight states in the North-Eastern region of India (Figure 1),
located at latitude 26.24 N and longitude 92.53 E. It covers a geographical area of 78,438 km2,
encompassing three of India’s six physiographic divisions known as the Northern Plains
(Brahmaputra plain), the Northern Himalayas (Eastern Hills), and the Deccan plateau (Karbi
Anglong district). As per the 2011 census of India, the region had a record of 3.12 million people,
with a population density of 398 people per km2. Since the Brahmaputra River flows through Assam,
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Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 4 F.A. Panme and L.N. Sethi
the region experiences cold and wet climates for the majority of the year. In 2020, the actual rainfall
level for Assam was 2,175.96 mm and the average temperature of the region was between 8°C
(during winter) and 32°C (during summer). Agriculture employs roughly 53% of the rural
population of Assam, making it essentially an 'agrarian economy’ with 0.90 million cultivators and
0.20 million agricultural laborers, respectively. According to the 2010-2011 Agricultural Census,
the state had 2.72 million operational holdings covering around 2.99 million hectares.
2.2 CROPWAT 8.0 model description
Model Description FAO's Land and Water Development Division in Italy, with the help of
Southampton University's Institute of Irrigation and Development Studies and Egypt's National
Water Research Center, developed a decision-making tool called CROPWAT 8.0 to help in planning
the best scheduling time for irrigation of crops [14]. To produce irrigation schedules under varied
management conditions, the model performs calculations for ETo, ETc, and NIR. It enables the
generation of irrigation recommendations, the scheduling of irrigation schedules, and the evaluation
of productivity using soil, climatic, and crop data [8, 11-17]. CROPWAT 8.0 can also be used to
assess farmers' irrigation methods and forecast crop performance in both wet and dry circumstances.
2.3 Data collection
2.3.1 Climatic data
The daily climatic data (1990-2020) such as rainfall, solar radiation, minimum, maximum, and mean
temperature at 2 m height, humidity, wind speed at 2 m height, and sunshine hours for the study
were collected from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) [18] and adjusted to a monthly
scale for analysis. The average annual wind speed, sunshine hours and annual rainfall for the study
area were observed to be 1.4 m/s, 6.42 h and 2436.4 mm, respectively. The region of Assam contains
two hill districts and twenty-one plain districts. The hills of the region experience a subalpine
climate, whereas the plains areas enjoy hot summers and cool winters. Eighty percent of the rainfall
in Assam comes from the South-West monsoon, which starts in June and continues till September.
Figure 2 and Figure 3 represent the month-wise solar radiation, sun hours, minimum and maximum
temperature profiles of the study area for the period of 30 years (1990 to 2020).
2.3.2 Soil data
Alluvial soils, hill soils, piedmont soils, and lateritic soils constitute the major soil categories found
in Assam. Extremely rich and deep alluvial soil with fine loam to coarse loam texture has been found
to be in abundance in the Brahmaputra and Barak plains. The piedmont soil zone lies in the
Himalayan foothills where the soils are quite deep and loamy in texture, ranging from fine to coarse.
The soil data required by the CROPWAT model, such as soil type, maximum infiltration rate,
available moisture, both total and initial, rooting depth of the specific crop, and initial soil depletion
level, were taken from the FAO-Irrigation and Drainage manual [19].
2.3.3 Crop data
Potato, chili, and brinjal were chosen as the study's main farmed horticulture crops. According to
the Ministry of Irrigation, Government of India (1984) and FAO-Irrigation and Drainage manual,
important details of crops such as crop coefficient, duration of growth stages, yield response factor,
crop height, and other related facts were examined for the study region. The crop-wise area, production.
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Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 4 F.A. Panme and L.N. Sethi
Figure 1. Location of study area (source: [Link] .com)
9 25
Solar radiation (MJ/m2/Day)
8
7 20
6
Sun hours
15
5
4
10
3
2 5
1
0 0
Sun hours
Figure 2. Month-wise average sunshine hours and solar radiation of the study area during 1990 to 2020
35.00
30.00
Temeprature (°C)
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Tmin Tmax
Figure 3. Month-wise average minimum and maximum temperature variation during 1990 to 2020
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Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 4 F.A. Panme and L.N. Sethi
and average yield of the selected crops are presented in Table 1, and Table 2 contains the crop
coefficient value for different crop growth stages.
Table 1. Crop-wise area, production and average yield
Crop Area (‘000 Ha) Production (‘000 MT) Avg. yield (Kg/Ha)
Potato 103.205 773.48 7495
Chili 19.847 189.84 9565
Brinjal 17.76 286.35 16123
Table 2. Crop coefficient and growing period of potato, chili and brinjal
Crop Potato Chili Brinjal Date of sowing
Initial 0.5 0.66 0.6 1 Oct
Crop coefficient (Kc) Mid 1.5 0.92 1.15 1 Oct
Final 0.75 1.12 0.80 1 Oct
Growing period Initial 25 20 30 1 Oct
(days) Development 30 30 40 1 Oct
Mid-season 45 60 40 1 Oct
Late-season 30 40 20 1 Oct
Total growing days 130 150 130
2.3.4 Data analysis
The daily climatic baseline data were adjusted to monthly scale and used in the CROPWAT 8.0 to
determine the ETo for the study area. The ETo data obtained was further used to calculate the ETc.
The flow chart showing the methodology for estimation of the irrigation demand using CROPWAT
model is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Flow chart for the estimation of irrigation demand and scheduling using CROPWAT
model
2.4 Crop water requirement
During the crop's growing season, water lost in the soil and plants, known as evapotranspiration,
must be replenished for the crop to survive. The water lost due to the evaporation and transpiration
processes together constitutes the crop water requirement of the crop. The reference crop
evapotranspiration was calculated using the FAO-recommended Penman-Monteith (1992) method
in the CROPWAT model and the FAO Penman-Monteith model has long been widely recommended
for estimating ETo [17, 20-22]. In the absence of measured data, it has been extensively used around
the world [23]. The output ETo calculated using equation (1) was expressed in mm per day even
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Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 4 F.A. Panme and L.N. Sethi
though monthly climatic data was used as input. The output ETo rate in mm/day represents the
average daily ETo of any given month. The daily ETo values were further adjusted to the monthly
scale for analysis (Figure 5).
900
0.408𝛥𝛥(𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 − 𝐺𝐺) + 𝛾𝛾 𝑈𝑈 (𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 )
𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 = 𝑇𝑇 + 273 2 𝑠𝑠 (1)
𝛥𝛥 + 𝛾𝛾(1 + 0.34𝑈𝑈2 )
where, ETo = Reference Evapotranspiration [mm day-1], Rn = Net radiation at the crop surface
[day −1 ], G = Soil heat flux density [MJm2day-1], T = Mean daily air temperature at 2 m height
[°C], U2 = Wind speed at 2 m height [ms-1], es = Saturation vapour pressure [kPa], ea = Actual vapour
pressure [kPa], es ‒ ea = Saturation vapour pressure deficit [kPa], Δ = Slope vapour pressure curve
[kPa °C-1], γ = Psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1] which is considered as 0.0677 kPa °C-1.
The crop coefficient (Kc) of the selected crops for specific growth stages and the Penman–
Monteith equation were used to calculate the monthly ETc of crops.
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 × 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜 (2)
where, ETc is the actual evapotranspiration of crops in mm and Kc is the crop coefficient at a specific
growth stage.
2.5 Effective rainfall and NIR
In the CROPWAT model, the effective rainfall was estimated using the approach given by the
United States Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service (USDA-SCA) [2]. The
following equations (3) and (4) were used for estimating the monthly effective rainfall using this
approach.
𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 (125 − 0.6𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 ) 250
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 ≤ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (3)
125 3
125 250
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = + 0.1(𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 )𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 ≥ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (4)
3 3
where, Pe represents the monthly effective rainfall in mm; PT is the total monthly rainfall in mm.
The following equations (5) and (6) were used to compute the monthly NIR and GIR which
includes the water losses from the irrigation system.
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 − 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 (5)
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = (6)
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜
where, Po represents the performance of irrigation operation which depends on the characteristics of
the adopted irrigation methods (70 % for surface irrigation) [13].
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Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 4 F.A. Panme and L.N. Sethi
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Reference evapotranspiration
The daily scale ETo value was computed to find the monthly evapotranspiration in mm and has been
presented in Figure 5. The ETo of the region was found to be highest in April (134.70 mm) at an
average ETo rate of 4.49 mm/day, followed by May (130.90 mm) at an average ETo rate of 4.30
mm/day. The lowest ETo occurred in December (55.20 mm) at an average ETo rate of 1.84 mm/day.
Several climatic parameters were considered when computing the ETo rate of any watershed area.
Any change in the climatic parameters highly influences the change in the value of the estimated
ETo rate, among which solar radiation and temperature affect it the most.
3.2 Effective precipitation
The effective rainfall was lowest in December (8.5 mm), which indicates that a large quantity of
irrigation water will be required to replenish the soil with moisture. During the monsoon season, the
effective rainfall values were found to be satisfactory. Figure 6 represents the month-wise total and
effective rainfall of the region. The month of July experienced the highest amount of effective
rainfall (173.2 mm) which was followed by June (171.2 mm).
3.3 Crop water and net irrigation requirement
Table 2 represents the crop coefficient and days of growth stages of the selected crops. For total
growing periods of 130, 150, and 130 days, the total CWR of potato, chili, and brinjal was estimated
to be 260.6 mm, 262.1 mm, and 274.2 mm, respectively. The NIR presented in Table 3 shows the
total NIR of potato, chili, and brinjal sowed on the 1st of October as 162.8 mm, 149.0 mm, and 167.2
mm, respectively. The CWR and NIR of potato and brinjal were found to be the highest in
December. The high CWR was due to the absence of a sufficient amount of effective rainfall
required to replenish the soil. Therefore, a higher amount of irrigation water has to be supplied to
meet the irrigation demands of the crop. Also, the crop water requirement depends on the stage of
its growth. It can be seen that the chili plant required the highest CWR in January. CROPWAT
results confirmed the fact that ETo value was highly influenced by the amount of effective rainfall.
Thus, during the rainy season, the value of ETo was lower in comparison to the estimated ETo value
during the dry or water deficit season. The same inference has been made by others in their research
work [24]. From November to January, the overall water needs climb steadily, and then drop with
the increase in effective rainfall. The difference between GIR and NIR gives the irrigation losses at
the field level. Differences in crop development stages, crop coefficients, and cropping area account
for the difference in monthly water demand [13, 25]. As a result, it has been considered critical to
develop a strategy of water management depending on agricultural needs to obtain increased crop
yields while preserving water resources.
3.4 Irrigation scheduling and gross water requirement
The irrigation scheduling strategy for potato, chili, and brinjal from the beginning of October to the
middle of February was presented in Table 4. The total count of the division of irrigation
applications needed for each crop throughout its stage of growth was given by scheduling data. The
schedule was planned to irrigate the crops at critical moisture levels in the soil to fill them up to the
field capacity. CROPWAT model did not assign any irrigation dates during October as a sufficient
amount of effective water was available to meet the water demands of the crop. The peak NIR of
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Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 4 F.A. Panme and L.N. Sethi
5
4.5
4
3.5
ETo (mm/day)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Figure 5. Estimated average daily ETo per month from CROPWAT 8.0 during 1990 - 2020
600.00
500.00
400.00
Rain, mm
300.00
200.00
100.00
0.00
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Total Rainfall, mm Effective rainfall, mm
Figure 6. Month-wise average total and effective rainfall during 1990 to 2020
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Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 4 F.A. Panme and L.N. Sethi
Table 3. Actual evapotranspiration (ETc) and net irrigation requirement (NIR)
ETc (mm) NIR (mm)
Month
Potato Chili Brinjal Potato Chili Brinjal
October 49.4 64.5 60.1 0 0 0
November 68.2 59.9 69.5 49 40.7 50.3
December 68.4 54.2 68.3 59.8 45.6 59.8
January 61.6 64.8 62.5 48 51.1 49
February 13 18.7 13.8 6 11.6 8.1
Total 260.6 262.1 274.2 162.8 149.0 167.2
Table 4. Irrigation scheduling plan for the crops
NIR,
Crop Date Day Stage Depletion % GIR, mm Flow, l/s/ha
mm
16-Nov 47 Dev 31 24.0 34.3 0.08
27-Nov 58 Mid 30 25.3 36.1 0.38
10-Dec 71 Mid 33 27.4 39.2 0.35
Potato
24-Dec 85 Mid 31 26.4 37.7 0.31
8-Jan 100 Mid 32 26.7 38.2 0.29
6-Feb 129 End 50 42.1 60.1 0.24
7-Feb End End 0
6-Oct 6 Init 20 08.5 12.2 0.24
11-Oct 11 Init 22 10.6 15.2 0.35
17-Nov 48 Dev 27 26.3 37.5 0.12
Chili
8-Dec 69 Mid 32 35.3 50.5 0.28
31-Dec 92 Mid 31 34.3 49.0 0.25
31-Jan 123 End 45 50.8 72.6 0.27
7-Feb End End 8
12-Oct 12 Init 23 11.6 16.5 0.16
15-Nov 46 Dev 27 25.8 36.9 0.13
Brinjal
30-Nov 61 Mid 30 33.9 48.4 0.37
18-Dec 79 Mid 31 34.9 49.8 0.32
6-Jan 98 Mid 32 35.7 51.0 0.31
7-Feb End End 40
where, Dev = Development stage, Mid = Middle stage, End = Ending stage and Init = Initial stage
potato was observed in the mid-season stage (105.8 mm) followed by the end-stage (42.1 mm).
Similarly, the mid-season growth stage gave the highest value of GIR (151.2 mm) for potato.
However, both chili and brinjal required lesser NIR in comparison to potato with only 63 mm and
93 mm, respectively, during the mid-stage of growth. The GIR was also found to be 99.5 mm and
148.8 mm during the mid-stage of growth for chili and brinjal, respectively. Effective water
balancing and knowledge about the rainwater quantity and its availability for crop irrigation can
save and conserve irrigation water. The irrigation schedule plan will provide the best way to
efficiently utilize irrigation water and increase the water yield at the same time.
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Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 4 F.A. Panme and L.N. Sethi
4. Conclusions
The CWR, NIR, and GIR of potato, chili, and brinjal were estimated using CROPWAT 8.0 for
Assam. The model was also used for planning the irrigation for the crops sown on the 1st of October.
The findings obtained from this study can be used to adopt water-saving practices by scheduling
irrigation and effective use of water during the water deficit period. Also, using this knowledge, a
complete plan of irrigation scheduling can be developed to estimate irrigation demand for the other
crops grown in the region to achieve a higher yield of productivity.
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