AAE5001 – Guidance Navigation and

Advanced Avionics System

Satellite Navigation Basics

Dr. Yiping Jiang

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GPS Development History

• Radio navigation Aids can be categorized as ground-based or space-
based.
• The accuracy of ground-based radio navigation aids depends on the
operating frequency. They have limited coverage and are influenced
by weather and terrain conditions.
• In the early 1960s, US developed the GPS satellite systems for
position determination.
• The optimum system was viewed as having the following attributes:
global coverage, continuous/all weather operation and high accuracy.
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Major applications of SatNav

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Principle of Satellite Navigation

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Alternative GPS Architectures

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Orbit and Constellation Design

• Low Earth Orbit (LEO):
• Pros: Strong signals, small antennas, low path loss
• Cons: Very large constellation needed for global coverage; frequent handovers;
large Doppler; higher operations burden
• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO, ~20,000 km):
• Pros: Good global coverage with moderate constellation size; stable geometry;
manageable Doppler
• Cons: Higher spacecraft cost and path loss than LEO
• Geostationary Orbit (GEO):
• Pros: Few satellites for near-global coverage; continuous view for many users
• Cons: Poor geometry for ranging (especially at high latitudes), limited vertical
accuracy, single-point vulnerability
• Highly Elliptical Orbits (HEO/Molniya):
• Pros: Strong high-latitude coverage
• Cons: Non-uniform global coverage; geometry and visibility not ideal for
worldwide system
• The study favored a MEO constellation for the best balance of coverage, geometry
(low GDOP), and system complexity.
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Measurement Type

• Doppler-only (Transit-style):
• Pros: Simpler signals and receivers
• Cons: Long observation times; works best for slowly moving or
stationary users; limited real-time 3D accuracy
• Two-way transponded ranging:
• Pros: Precise ranges possible
• Cons: Requires user uplinks (limited concurrency), higher user burden,
reveals user position
• One-way time-of-arrival (pseudo-range):
• Pros: Passive receivers; unlimited users; fast fixes
• Cons: Require time synchronization; requires highly stable satellite
clocks and precise time transfer
• The study converged on one-way pseudo-range ranging as the
most scalable, high-performance choice.
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cesium
clocks

Time and Frequency Strategy

• Onboard precision atomic clocks vs. ground-transponded timing:
• Onboard clocks enable passive, one-way ranging and independent
operation; cesium atomic clock; rubidium atom clock
• Ground-dependent architectures limit scalability and resilience
• Single vs. dual frequency:
• Dual frequency enables users to correct first-order ionospheric delay
• Signal structure:
• Spread-spectrum CDMA considered for anti-jam, low probability of
intercept/detection (LPI/LPD), and code-division multiplexing of
many satellites on the same frequency
• The study recommended precise onboard clocks, dual-frequency
operation in L-band, and direct-sequence spread spectrum (CDMA) with
distinct PRN codes per satellite.
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Control Segment and User Equipment

• Control segment: Ephemeris and clock estimation with
periodic uploads to satellites; robust monitoring for integrity
and performance
• User segment: Passive receivers performing code and
carrier tracking, with options for differential techniques and
inertial integration for higher accuracy
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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) or

PRN Signal Structure
• In addition to CDMA, it is sometimes called “spread spectrum” or
“spreading code” since the energy of the signal was spread over a
wide range of spectrum frequencies.
• It is also sometimes called PRN or pseudorandom noise because the
encoded (but repeated) sequence (Gold code, 1023) appears to be
random transitions of +1 and −1.
• It is called Code Division because each satellite is assigned its own
coded signal. Each was a binary (digital) sequence selected to be
uncorrelated with other signals and also uncorrelated with time shifts
of the signal itself.
• The expected, powerful advantage of this technique was that all
satellites would broadcast on exactly the same frequency.
• Furthermore, and very importantly, any time shifts induced by the
receiver for the various satellite signals would be identical and
effectively eliminated.
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Other design concerns

[Link] there a technique to encrypt the military signal so that
unauthorized users could not gain access?
[Link] would the codes be easily selected to avoid a false lock and also
allow additional satellites to be added without interfering with existing
satellite signals?
[Link] the anticipated complexity of the receiver drive costs to
unacceptable levels?
[Link] the signal resistant to accidental or deliberate interference?
[Link] this signal accommodate communication capability for satellite
location, satellite clock correction, and other parameters?
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GPS Architecture
• Consists of three segments:
Space segment, control segment
and user segment
• Space segment: The satellites
broadcast ranging codes and
navigation data on multiple
frequencies.
• Control segment: A worldwide
ground control/monitoring
network monitors the health and
status of the satellites. This
network also uploads navigation
data and other data to the
satellites.
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User segment
• User segment is the user receiver and antenna of different grades

Commercial Grade (>=3 meters horizontal)

Differential Grade (<=1 meter)

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User segment: Surveying grade

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A summary of GPS satellites’ statistics and key

parameters

[Link]
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Standard Positioning Service (SPS) Signal-in-

space Ranging Errors (SISRE) Performance
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Other Constellations
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Plot visible satellites

• Open GNSS planning online
• [Link]
#/settings
• Set your location and time.
• Select constellations
• Plot visible satellites
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Position Determination with TOA

• The system utilizes the concept of one-way time of arrival
(TOA) ranging. Satellite transmissions are referenced to highly
accurate atomic frequency standards onboard the satellites,
which are in synchronism with a GPS time base.
• If the receiver clock were synchronized with the satellite clocks,
only three range measurements would be required. However, a
crystal clock is usually employed in navigation receivers to
minimize the cost, complexity, and size of the receiver. Thus,
four measurements are required to determine user latitude,
longitude, height, and receiver clock offset from internal system
time.
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Position Determination with TOA

A ship determines its location from a set on lighthouses that
gAGE send an acoustic signal at a known time.

Knowing the emission time

“t0” in the lighthouse and
the reception time “t1” in
the ship, the traveling time
“t1-t0”, and the geometric
range “U=v(t1-t0)” may be
computed.
U=v(t1-t0)
With only one lighthouse there
is a whole circumference of
possible locations
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Position Determination with TOA

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GNSS Principles

r1 = ( X 1 - xu )2 + (Y 1 - yu )2 + ( Z 1 - zu ) 2

r 2 = ( X 2 - xu )2 + (Y 2 - yu )2 + ( Z 2 - zu )2

r 3 = ( X 3 - xu )2 + (Y 3 - yu )2 + ( Z 3 - zu )2
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Stand-alone Positioning
• Using only user receiver, without dependence on other
facilities/receivers/sensor, user estimate its own position with
pseudorange or carrier phase measurements
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Linearizing Pseudoranges
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Linearization

a is a function of the elevation angles.

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Performance of Stand-Alone Positioning

The accuracy with which a user receiver can
determine its position or velocity, or
synchronize to GPS system time, depends on
the quality of the pseudorange and carrier
phase measurements as well as the broadcast
navigation data.

Usually, the error components are

considered independent, and is
approximated as a zero mean
Gaussian random variable where
its variance is determined as the
sum of the variance of each of its
components.
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1 nanosecond equivalent to ~30cm distance!

GNSS Measurement
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GNSS Measurement
• Pseudorange
• Geometric range ": true distance between satellite and receiver
• Range: geometric range plus path delays
• Pseudo- + range: range plus effects of clock errors
&'() = + + - ∗ -/0-1 (2202' + - ∗ (4567 8(/59')
• Ranging code
• GNSS signals contain ranging codes to allow the users to compute the
travel time time ∆$ of signal from satellite to receiver
• ∆$ multiply the speed of light % gives us pseudorange

&'() = - ∗ ∆; = - ∗ (6! ;" − 6# (;$ ))

Time of signal reception Time of signal transmission
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GNSS Measurement
• Carrier phase
• Another GNSS signal carrier is also used to obtain pseudorange
• Using carrier phase difference ∆= between satellite and receiver
multiply wavelength > gives pseudorange

&'() = ? ∗ ∆@ = ? ∗ (@! ;" − @# (;$ ))

Phase of signal reception Phase of signal transmission

• Comparison between code and carrier measurement

• Carrier measurement is much more precise than code measurement,
• Ambiguous by an unknown integer number of wavelengths exists in
carrier measurement
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Carrier-cycle integer
ambiguity
• Even though the receiver carrier-
phase measurement can be made
with some precision (better than
0.01 cycle for receivers in the
marketplace) and any advance in
carrier cycles since satellite
acquisition by the receiver can be
accurately counted, the overall
phase measurement contains an
unknown number of carrier-cycles.
This is called the carrier-cycle
integer ambiguity (N).
• This ambiguity exists because the
receiver merely begins counting
carrier cycles from the time a
satellite is placed in active track.
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Sources of GNSS Errors

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Receiver Clock Error on Measurement

• Assume that the vessel’s clock
is advanced with respect to the
GPS time base by 1 second.
The timing offsets are the same
for each measurement.
• Instead of the three range
circles intersecting at a single
point, the position is
somewhere within the
triangular error space.
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Satellite Clock Error

• The satellites contain atomic clocks that control all onboard timing
operations, including broadcast signal generation. Although these
clocks are highly stable, the clock correction fields in the
navigation data message are designed to ensure higher accuracy.

The control segment

determines and transmits
clock correction parameters to
the satellites for rebroadcast
in the navigation message
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Satellite Clock Error

• Since these parameters are computed using a curve-fit to
predicted estimates of the actual satellite clock errors, some
residual error remains. This residual clock error, δt, results in
ranging errors that typically vary from 0.3–4m, depending
on the type of satellite and age of the broadcast data.
• Range errors due to residual clock errors are generally the
smallest following a control segment upload to a satellite,
and they slowly degrade over time until the next upload
(typically daily).
• At zero age of data (ZAOD), clock errors for a typical
satellite are on the order of 0.8m. Errors 24 hours after an
upload are generally within the range of 1–4m.
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Ephemeris Error
• Estimates of ephemerides for all
satellites are computed and uplinked to
the satellites with other navigation
data message parameters for
rebroadcast to the user. Similar as the
satellite clock corrections, these
corrections are generated using a curve
fit of the control segment’s best
prediction of each satellite’s position
at the time of upload.
• The effective pseudorange and carrier-
phase errors due to ephemeris
prediction errors can be computed by
projecting the satellite position error
vector onto the satellite-to-user LOS
vector.
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Ionosphere Delay

• The ionosphere delay is related with the signal frequency, since

the ionosphere is dispersive. The delay is a function of the electron
density along the propagation path of the signal, which varies at
different time and location, impacted by the solar activity.
• The ionosphere varies and is difficult to predict or model
• The solar storm generates large ionosphere delay that is large
enough to endanger aviation user safety.
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Troposphere Delay
• The troposphere is the lower part of the atmosphere that is
nondispersive for frequencies up to 15 GHz
• The refractivity is often modeled as including both a dry (hydrostatic)
and wet (nonhydrostatic) component, which is dependent on the local
temperature, pressure, and relative humidity.
• The dry component, which arises from the dry air, gives rise to about
90% of the tropospheric delay and can be predicted very accurately.
The wet component, which arises from the water vapor, is more
difficult to predict due to uncertainties in the atmospheric distribution.
• Both components extend to different heights in the troposphere; the dry
layer extends to a height of about 40 km, while the wet component
extends to a height of about 10 km.
• Since troposphere is related with weather parameters and easier to
model than ionosphere, different troposphere models are developed to
compensate for this effect.
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Receiver Noise
• Measurement errors are also induced by the receiver tracking
loops, where the dominant sources of pseudorange measurement
error are thermal noise jitter, the effects of interference and
multipath.
• Typical modern receiver 1σ values for the noise and resolution
error are on the order of a decimeter or less in nominal conditions
(i.e., without external interference) and negligible compared to
errors induced by multipath.
• Receiver noise and resolution errors affect carrier phase
measurements, which are on the order of 1.2 mm (1σ) when
tracking the C/A code and 1.6 mm (1σ) when tracking the P(Y)
code in nominal conditions.
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Multipath
• One of the most significant errors incurred in the receiver
measurement process is multipath.
• Multipath errors vary significantly in magnitude depending on the
environment within which the receiver is located, satellite
elevation angle, receiver signal processing, antenna gain pattern,
and signal characteristics.
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Dilution of Precision (DOP)

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DOP
• DOP is used to specify error propagation as a function of a
satellite geometry on positioning precision
• Satellite evenly distributed in the sky has lower DOP.
• The lower the DOP, the better the geometry of the available
satellites, and more precisely determined are the parameters
assumed to be.
• In general, the more satellites used in a solution, the smaller
the DOP values
• VDOP values are generally larger than HDOP values
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DOP Definition
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Example DOP values, elevation mask 15