Chapter 10.

Sequences, Series, and Power Series 1

§10.1 Sequences (Here, n is a positive integer)

Definition For a sequence {an} if lim an exists, we say the sequence

n→∞
converges (or is convergent). Otherwise, the sequence diverges (or is
divergent).

Definition A sequence {an} has the limit L and we write

lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞

if ∀ > 0, ∃ N such that

if n > N then |an − L| < 

Theorem If lim f (x) = L & f (n) = an, then lim an = L.

x→∞ n→∞

ln n
Example 6. Calculate lim .
n→∞ n
ln x ln n 1/x
(sol)Let f (x) = . Then = f (n) and lim f (x) = lim =
x n x→∞ x→∞ 1
ln n
0 ∴ lim =0
n→∞ n
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 2

Definition lim an = ∞ if ∀ M > 0, ∃ an integer N such that

n→∞

if n > N then an > M

Squeeze Theorem
an ≤ bn ≤ cn for n ≥ n0 & lim an = lim cn = L ⇒ lim bn = L
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Theorem lim |an| = 0 ⇒ lim an = 0.

n→∞ n→∞

(Proof)−|an| ≤ an ≤ |an| & lim (−|an|) = lim |an| = 0 ⇒ lim an =

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
0 ( by squeeze theorem )

(−1)n
Example 8. Evaluate lim if it exists.
n→∞ n
(sol)
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 3

Theorem If lim an = L and the function f is continuous at L, then

n→∞

lim f (an) = f (L).

n→∞

Example 9. Find lim sin(π/n).

n→∞
(sol)

n!
Example 10. Discuss the convergence of the sequence an = n .
  n
1 × 2 × 3 × ··· × n 1 2 3 n
(sol) Let an = = · ··· . Then, 0 < an ≤
n × n × n × ··· × n n n n n
1 1
& lim = 0,
n n→∞ n

lim an = 0 (by the squeeze theorem.) ∴ an converges.

n→∞

Note : {rn} is convergent if −1 < r ≤ 1 and divergent for all other values.
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 4

Definition A sequence {an} is increasing (decreasing) if an < an+1

(an > an+1) for all n ≥ 1.
A sequence {an} is monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing.

n
Example 13. Show that an = is decreasing.
n2 + 1
(sol1)
n+1 n
an+1 < an ⇔ <
(n + 1)2 + 1 n2 + 1
⇔ (n + 1)(n2 + 1) < n[(n + 1)2 + 1]
⇔ 1 < n2 + n.
Since n ≥ 1, the inequality n2 + n > 1 is true. ∴ an+1 < an

x 0 1 − x2
(sol2)Consider f (x) = 2 . Then f (x) = 2 2
< 0 if x2 > 1.
x +1 (x + 1)
Thus f is decreasing on (1, ∞) and so f (n) > f (n + 1).
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 5

Definition
{an} is bounded above if ∃ M such that an ≤ M, ∀n ≥ 1
{an} is bounded below if ∃ m such that m ≤ an, ∀n ≥ 1
{an} is a bounded (sequence) if it is bounded above and below.

Note : The sequence an = n is bounded below but not above.

n
The sequence an = is bounded (sequence).
n+1

Completeness Axiom If S is a nonempty set of real numbers that has

an upper bound M (x ≤ M for all x ∈ S), then S has a least upper
bound b.

1 1
• S = {1, , , ···} ⇒ b = 1
2 3
1
• S = {2 − | n = 1, 2, 3, · · · } ⇒ b = 2
n
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 6

Note :
1 Not every bounded sequence not convergent (e.g., an = (−1)n).
2 Not every monotonic sequence is convergent (e.g., an = n).

Monotonic Sequence Theorem Every bounded, monotonic sequence

is convergent.
In particular, a sequence that is increasing and bounded above converges,
and a sequence that is decreasing and bounded below converges.
(Proof) Suppose {an} is an increasing sequence. Since {an} is bounded,
the set S = {an|n ≥ 1} has an upper bound. By the Completeness Axiom,
it has a least upper bound L.

(Claim : ∀  > 0, ∃N such that | L − an | <  whenever n > N )

Given  > 0, aN > L −  for some integer N . But {an} is increasing

so an ≥ aN ∀ n > N .
Thus,
an ≥ aN > L − , ∀ n > N
So, 0 ≤ L − an < . (∵ an ≤ L, ∀ n ≥ 1).

∴ |L − an| <  whenever n > N so lim an = L.

n→∞
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 7

Example 14. Show that {an} defined by the recurrence relation

1
a1 = 2, an+1 = (an + 6) for n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
2
is convergent.
(sol) (i) {an} is increasing. (⇔ an+1 > an for all n ≥ 1)
n = 1 ⇒ a2 > a1
Suppose that it is true for n = k, then ak+1 > ak .
1 1
⇒ (ak+1 + 6) > (ak + 6)
2 2
⇒ ak+2 > ak+1
Hence an+1 > an is true for n = k + 1. By induction, an+1 > an, ∀ n ≥ 1.

(ii) {an} is bounded. ( Guess an < 6. a1 = 6 ⇒ an = 6 ∀n ≥ 1)

Since an is increasing, {an} is bounded below.
n = 1 ⇒ a1 < 6.
Suppose that it is true for n = k, then ak < 6
1 1
ak+1 = (ak + 6) < (6 + 6) < 6.
2 2
By induction, an < 6, ∀n ≥ 1.
Since {an} is increasing and bounded, by MST it has a limit L.
1 1
lim an+1 = lim (an + 6) ⇒ L = (L + 6) ⇒ L=6
n→∞ n→∞ 2 2
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 8

§10.2 Series
∞
X
Definition A series an = a1 +a2 +· · · is convergent if for the partial
n=1
n
X
sum sn = ai = a1 + a2 + · · · + an, the sequence {sn} is convergent.
i=1
Moreover, if lim sn = s then s is called the sum of the series.
n→∞

∞
X
Example a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 + · · · = arn−1, a 6= 0 is
n=1
a geometric series.
a(1 − rn) a
If |r| < 1, then lim sn = lim = .
n→∞ n→∞ 1−r 1−r
If | r | ≥ 1, then the geometric series is divergent.
∞ ∞  n−1
X X 4
Example 4. 22n · 31−n = 4· is divergent.
n=1 n=1
3
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 9
∞
X 1 1 1
Example 8. Show that the harmonic series. =1+ + + · · · is
n=1
n 2 3
divergent.
(sol)
 
1 1 1 1 1
S1 = 1 S2 = 1 + S4 > 1 + + + =1+
2 2 4 4 2
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
S8 > 1 + + + + + + + =1+
2 4 4 8 8 8 8 2
...
n
S2n > 1 +
2
This show that S2n → ∞ as n → ∞. So {sn} is divergent. ∴ Harmonic
series is divergent.
∞
X
Theorem If the series an is convergent, then lim an = 0.
n→∞
n=1

(Proof)
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 10

Test for Divergence If lim an does not exist or if lim an 6= 0, then

n→∞ n→∞
∞
X
the series an is divergent.
n=1
∞
X n2
Example 9. Show that the series diverges.
n=1
5n2 + 4
(sol)

P P
Theorem If an and bn are convergent series, then so are the series
P P
can (where c is a constant), and (an ± bn), and
X∞ X∞ ∞
X X∞ X∞
(i) can = c an (ii) (an ± bn) = an ± bn
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 11

§10.3 The Integral Test and Estimates of Sums

∞
X 1 1 1 1
• Is the series 2
= 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ · · · divergent or convergent ?
n=1
n 1 2 3

∞ Z ∞  ∞
X 1 1 1
2
< 1 + 2
dx = 1 + − =2
n=1
n 1 x x 1
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 12
∞
X 1 1 1 1
• The series √ = √ + √ + √ + · · · is divergent.
n=1
n 1 2 3

∞ Z ∞
X 1 1
√ > √ dx = ∞
n=1
n 1 x
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 13

The Integral Test Suppose f is a continuous, positive, decreasing func-

P
tion on [1, ∞) and let an = f (n).
R ∞Then the series an is convergent if
and only if the improper integral 1 f (x)dx is convergent. In other words:
Z ∞ ∞
X
(i) If f (x)dx is convergent, then an is convergent.
1 n=1
Z ∞ ∞
X
(ii) If f (x)dx is divergent, then an is divergent.
1 n=1
(Proof) From the properties
Z n of the function f , we see that
a2 + a3 + · · · + an ≤ f (x)dx ≤ a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1.
1
Z ∞ n
X Z ∞
(i) If f (x)dx is convergent, then sn = a1 + ai ≤ a1 + f (x)dx =
1 i=1 1
M . That is, sn ≤ M for all n, so {sn} is bounded above. Also, since
sn+1 = sn + an+1 ≥ sn, {sP n } is an increasing bounded sequence. By MST,
{sn} is convergent. Hence an is convergent.
Z ∞ Z n
(ii) If f (x)dx is divergent, then f (x)dx ≤ sn−1 → ∞ as n → ∞.
1 P1
This implies that sn → ∞ and so an is divergence.
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 14
∞
X 1
Example 2. For what values of p is the series (p− series) p
convergent?
n=1
n
(sol)

∞
X 1
The p-series p
is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p ≤ 1.
n=1
n

Note : For large N , if f is decreasing on [N, ∞) then we can apply IT.

∞
X ln n
Example 4.
n=1
n
(sol)
ln x
f (x) = is positive and continuous for x > 1.
x
1 − ln x
f 0(x) = < 0 if ln x > 1, that is, x > e ⇒ f is decreasing
x2
when x > e.
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 15

 Estimating the Sum of a Series

n
X
• Let sn = ai and lim sn = s. Rn = s − sn = an+1 + an+2 + · · · is the
n→∞
i=1
remainder.

Remainder Estimate for the Integral Test Suppose f (k) = ak ,

P
where f is a continuous, positive, decreasing function for x ≥ n and an
is convergent. If Rn = s − sn, then
Z ∞ Z ∞
f (x)dx ≤ Rn ≤ f (x)dx
n+1 n
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 16
X 1
Example 5. (a) Approximate the sum of by using the sum of the
n3
first 10 terms. Estimate the error involved in this approximation.
(b) How many terms are required to ensure that the sum is accurate to
within 0.0005?∞
X 1 1 1 1
(sol) (a) ∴ 3
≈ s 10 = 3
+ 3
+ · · · + 3
≈ 1.1975
n=1
n 1 2 10
Z ∞
1 1 1
Put f (x) = 3 . ∴ R10 ≤ 3
dx = .
x 10 x 200
(b)
Z ∞
1 1 √
Rn ≤ 3
dx = 2 < 0.0005 ⇒ n > 1000 ≈ 31.6 ∴ n = 32
n x 2n
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 17

§10.4 The Comparison Tests

P P
Theorem an and bn are series with positive terms.
X X
(i) bn is convergent & an ≤ bn ⇒ an is convergent.
X X
(ii) bn is divergent & an ≥ bn ⇒ an is divergent.
n
X n
X ∞
X
(Proof) (i) Let sn = ai, tn = bi , t = bn .
i=1 i=1 n=1
Since an > 0, {sn} is increasing.
Since ai ≤ bi, sn ≤ tn ≤ t.
Hence {sn} P is increasing and bounded above and therefore converges by
MST. Thus an converges.
P
(ii) If bn is divergent, then tn →P
∞.
Since sn ≥ tn, sn → ∞. Therefore an diverges.
∞
X 5
Example 1. Is the series convergent?
n=1
2n2 + 4n + 3
(sol)
∞
5 5 X 5 5X 1
< and = is convergent. (∵ p = 2 > 1)
2n2 + 4n + 3 2n2 n=1
2n 2 2 n 2

X 5
∴ is convergent by C.T.
2n2 + 4n + 3
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 18

an
Limit Comparison Test If an > 0, bn > 0 and lim = c > 0,
P P n→∞ b n
then either both an and bn are convergent or divergent.
an
(Proof) m < c < M ⇒ m < < M for sufficiently large n
bn
⇒ mbn < an < M bn
X X
∴ bn converges ⇒ an converges
X X
bn diverges ⇒ an diverges

X 2n2 + 3n
Example 4. √
5 + n5
2n2 + 3n 2n2 2
(sol)Let an = √ and bn = √ = 1/2
5 + n5 n5 n
an X X 1 1
lim =1 & bn = 2 is divergent. (∵ p = < 1)
n→∞ bn n1/2 2
P
∴ an is divergent by the L.C.T.
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 19

 Estimating Sums (X)

P P
• Suppose that 0 < an ≤ bn, bn = t and an = s.
Then Rn = s − sn = an+1 + an+2 + · · · , Tn = t − tn = bn+1 + bn+2 + · · ·
Since 0 < an ≤ bn for all n, we have Rn ≤ Tn.
∞
X 1
Example 5. Use the sum of the first 100 terms to approximate .
n=1
n3 + 1
Estimate the error involved in this approximation.
Z ∞
1 1 1 1
(sol) 3 < 3 , Tn ≤ 3
dx = 2
(∵ Remainder Estimate
n +1 n n x 2n
for Integral-Test)
1 1
Rn ≤ Tn ≤ , R 100 ≤ = 0.00005.
2n2 20000
∞ 100
X 1 X 1
≈ ≈ 0.6864538 (∵ using caculator)
n=1
n3 + 1 n=1 n3 + 1

with error less than 0.00005.

 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 20

§10.5 Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence

Alternating Series Test If the alternating series

∞
X
(−1)n−1bn = b1 − b2 + b3 − b4 + · · · (bn > 0)
n=1

satisfies (i) bn+1 ≤ bn, ∀n and (ii) limn→∞ bn = 0

then the series is convergent.
(Proof) Note that
s 2 = b1 − b2 ≥ 0
s4 = s2 + (b3 − b4) ≥ s2
...
s2n = s2n−2 + (b2n−1 − b2n) ≥ s2n−2
Thus {s2n} is increasing. Since
s2n = b1 − (b2 − b3) − · · · − (b2n−2 − b2n−1) − b2n ≤ b1, ∀n,
{s2n} is bounded above. Thus lim s2n = s (∵ MST)
n→∞
Also, since lim s2n+1 = lim (s2n + b2n+1) = s + 0 (∵ lim bn = 0)
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

∴ lim sn = s. Hence the series is convergent.

n→∞
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 21
∞
1 1 1 X (−1)n−1
Example 1. 1 − + − + · · · =
2 3 4 n=1
n
1
(sol) Let bn = . Then bn+1 < bn & lim bn = 0.
n
X (−1)n−1
∴ By A.S.T, is convergent.
n

∞
X (−1)n+1n2
Example 3.
n=1
n3 + 1
(sol)
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 22

 Estimating Sums

(−1)n−1bn is the sum of an alternating series that

P
Theorem If s =
satisfies
(i) bn+1 ≤ bn and (ii) lim bn = 0
then |Rn| = |s − sn| ≤ bn+1.
(Proof) | s − sn | = | bn+1 − bn+2 + bn+3 − · · · |
= | bn+1 − (bn+2 − bn+3) − ( ) − · · · | ≤ bn+1 (X)
-------------------------------------------------
{s2n} is increasing and {s2n−1} is decreasing.
Hence |s − sn| ≤ |sn+1 − sn| = bn+1.
X (−1)n
Example 4. Find the sum of correct to three decimal places.
n!
1 1 1
(sol) Note that bn+1 = < = bn and 0 < bn = →0
(n + 1)! n! n!
X (−1)n
By AST, is convergent. Also, since
n!
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s = − + − + − + − + ···
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
1 1 1
b7 = = < = 0.0002
7! 5040 5000
we have s6 ≈ 0.368056 (∵ |s − s6| ≤ b7 < 0.0002)
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 23

 Absolutely Convergence and Conditionally Convergence

Definition
P P
• an is absolutely convergent if | an| is convergent.
P
• an is conditionally convergent if it is convergent but not absolutely
convergent.

P
Theorem If a series an is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.

(Proof) Since 0 ≤ an + | an| ≤ 2| an|

X X
|an| is convergent ⇒ 2| an| is convergent
X
⇒ (an + | an|) is convergent. by C.T
X X X
⇒ an = (an + | an|) − | an| is convergent.
∞
X cos n
Example 7.
n=1
n2
(sol)
cos n 1 X 1 X cos n
≤ & is convergent. ⇒ is convergent.
n2 n2 n2 n2
X cos n
∴ is absolutely convergent.
n2
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 24

§10.6 The Ratio and Root Tests

The Ratio Test

an+1 X
(i) lim =L<1 ⇒ an is absolutely convergent.
n→∞ an

an+1 an+1 X
(ii) lim = L > 1 or lim =∞⇒ an is divergent.
n→∞ an n→∞ an

an+1
(iii) lim = 1 ⇒ the Ratio Test is inconclusive.
n→∞ an

3
nn
X
Example 1. (−1) n
3
3
n
(sol) Let an = (−1)n n
3
 3
an+1 1 n+1 1
= −→ <1 ∴ absolutely convergent.
an 3 n 3
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 25

The Root Test

p X
n
(i) lim | an| = L < 1 ⇒ an is absolutely convergent.
n→∞
p p X
n n
(ii) lim | an| = L > 1 or lim | an| = ∞ ⇒ an is divergent.
n→∞ n→∞
p
(iii) lim n | an| = 1 ⇒ the Root Test is inconclusive.
n→∞

X  2n + 3 n
Example 4.
3n + 2
 n
2n + 3
(sol)Let an = .
3n + 2
p
n 2n + 3 2
|an| = −→ < 1 ∴ absolutely convergent.
3n + 2 3

P
(X) Note : If an is absolutely convergent with sum s, then any re-
P
arrangement of an has the same sum s. However, any conditionally
convergent series can be rearranged to give a different sum.
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 26

§10.7 Power Series

∞
X
• cn(x − a)n = c0 + c1(x − a) + c2(x − a)2 + · · · is called a power
n=0
series in (x − a) or a power series centered at a or a power series
about a. The constants cn ( n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) are called by coefficients.
∞
X (x − 3)n
Example 1. For what values of x does the series converges?
n=1
n
an+1 1
(sol) an = 1+ n1
| x − 3| −→ | x − 3| as n → ∞

| x − 3| < 1 ⇔ 2 < x < 4 ⇒ convergent

| x − 3| > 1 ⇔ x < 2 or x > 4 ⇒ divergent
∞ ∞
X (−1)n X
(i) x = 2 ⇒ converges. (ii) x = 4 ⇒ diverges.
n=1
n n=1
∴ 2≤x<4
∞
X
Example 2. For what values of x is the series n!xn convergent?
n=0
n
(sol) Let an = n!x .
an+1
x 6= 0 ⇒ lim = lim (n + 1)|x| = ∞
n→∞ an n→∞
X∞
x=0 ⇒ n! = 1
n=0
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 27
∞
X xn
Example 3. For what values of x does the series converges?
n=0
(2n)!
(sol)
an+1 x2
= → 0 for all x as n → ∞ ∴ (−∞, ∞)
an 4(n + 1)2
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 28

∞
X
Theorem For cn(x − a)n, there are only 3 possibilities:
n=0

(i) The series converges only when x = a.

(ii) The series converge for all x.
(iii) ∃ R > 0 such that the series converges if |x − a| < R and diverges if |x − a| > R.
Note : 1 R is called the radius of convergence of the power series.
2 In case (iii), ∃ 4 possibilities for the interval of convergence :
(a − R, a + R), (a − R, a + R], [a − R, a + R), [a − R, a + R]

Example 4. Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of

∞
X (−3)nxn
the series √ .
n=0
n + 1
(−3)nxn an+1
r
1+ n1
(sol) Let an = √ an = 3 1+ 2 · |x| → 3|x| as n →
 n+1 n
1

 | x| < ⇒ convergence.
3


∞ So, ∴ R = 13 (i) x =

 1
 | x| > ⇒ divergence.

3
∞
1 X 1 1 1
− ⇒ √ = √ + √ + · · · diverges. ( ∵ p−
3 n=0
n + 1 1 2
1
series with p = )
2
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 29

§10.8 Representations of Functions as Power Series

∞
1 2 3
X
• = 1 + x + x + x + ··· = xn, |x| < 1
1−x n=0

1 1
• 2
= 2
= 1 + (−x2) + (−x2)2 + · · · = 1 − x2 + x4 − x6 + · · ·
1+x 1 − (−x )
X∞
= (−1)nx2n, | − x2 | < 1 ⇔ | x | < 1
n=0

x3 3
 
1 x  x   x 2
• = x3 x


= 1+ − + − + ···
x+2 2 1 − −2 2 2 2
∞
x3 x4 x5 X (−1)n n+3 x
= − 2 + 3 + −··· = n+1
x , − < 1 ⇔ |x| < 2
2 2 2 n=0
2 2
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 30

 Differentiation and Integration of Power Series

cn(x − a)n has radius of convergence R > 0, then

P
•
f (x) = c0 + c1(x − a) + c2(x − a)2 + · · ·
is differentiable on (a − R, a + R) and
∞
X
0
(i) f (x) = c1 + 2c2(x − a) + · · · = ncn(x − a)n−1, | x−a |<R
n=1
∞
(x − a)2 (x − a)n+1
Z X
(ii) f (x)dx = C + c0(x − a) + c1 +· · · = C + cn ,
2 n=0
n + 1
| x−a |<R
1
Example 4. Express as a power series. What is the radius of con-
(1 − x)2
vergence?
(sol)
 0 ∞ ∞
1 1 X X
= = 1+2x+3x2+· · · = nxn−1 = (n+1)xn, R = 1.
(1 − x)2 1−x n=1 n=0
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 31

Example 5. Find a power series representation for ln(1 + x) and its radius
of convergence.
(sol)

0 −1 2 x2 x3
[ln(1−x)] = = −1−x−x −· · · ⇒ ln(1−x) = C−x− − −· · ·
1−x 2 3
Since x = 0 ⇒ 0 = C
x2 x3
∴ ln(1 − x) = −x − − − · · · |x| < 1
2 3
Note
∞
1 1 1 1 X 1
x= ⇒ ln 2 = + + + ··· = n
.
2 2 8 24 n=1
n2
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 32
Z
1
Example 7.(a) Evaluate 7
dx as a power series.
Z 0.5 1 + x
1
(b) Approximate 7
dx correct to within 10−7.
0 1+x
1
(sol) (a) Since 7
= 1 − x7 + x14 − x21 + · · · .
1+x
x8 x15 x22
Z
1
7
dx = C + x − + − + − · · · , | − x7| < 1 ⇒ |x| < 1
1+x 8 15 22
(b)
Z 0.5 1/2
x8 x15 x22

1
dx =x− + − + −···
0 1 + x7 8 15 22 0
1 1 1 1 (−1)n−1
= − + − + ··· + + ···
2 8 · 28 15 · 215 22 · 222 (7n − 6)27n−6
By ASET
3
X (−1)n−1 1 −7
≤ b 4 = < 10
n=1
(7n − 6)27n−6 22 · 222
Z 0.5
1 1 1 1
∴ dx ≈ − +
0 1 + x7 2 8 · 28 15 · 215
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 33

 Functions Defined by Power Series

Note : Some of the most important functions in the sciences are defined by
power series and are not expressible in terms of elementary functions. Many
of these arise naturally as solutions of differential equations. One such class
of functions is the Bessel functions, named after the German astronomer
Friedrich Bessel (1784–1846). These functions first arose when Bessel solved
Kepler’s equation for describing planetary motion.
∞
X (−1)nx2n
Example 8. The Bessel function of order 0 is defined by J0(x) = .
n=0
22n(n!)2
(a) Find the domain of J0.
(b) Find the derivative of J0.
(sol)
an+1 x2
= → 0 for all x as n → ∞ ∴ (−∞, ∞)
an 4(n + 1)2
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 34

§10.9 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Theorem If f has a power series representation at a, that is, if

∞
X
f (x) = cn(x − a)n, | x−a | < R
n=0

f (n)(a)
then its coefficients are given by the formula cn = .
n!
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 35

Definition
0 f 00(a) 2 f (n)(a)
• f (a) + f (a)(x − a) + (x − a) + · · · + (x − a)n + · · ·
2! n!
is the Taylor series of the function f at a.

0 f 00(a) 2 f (n)(a)
• Tn(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x − a) + (x − a) + · · · + (x − a)n
2! n!
is the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f at a.

• Rn(x) = f (x) − Tn(x) is called the remainder of the TS.

0 f 00(0) 2
• For a = 0, f (x) = f (0) + f (0)x + x + ···
2!
is the Maclaurin Series.

Note
x x2 x3
• e =1+x+ + + ··· (−∞, ∞)
2! 3!
x3 x5
• sin x = x − + + ··· (−∞, ∞)
3! 5!
x2 x4
• cos x = 1 − + + ··· (−∞, ∞)
2! 4!
−1 x3 x5
• tan x = x − + − ··· [−1, 1]
3 5
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 36

Example . Find the Maclaurin series of the function f (x) = ex and its radius
of convergence.
(sol)

Theorem If f (x) = Tn(x) + Rn(x) & lim Rn(x) = 0 for |x − a| < R,

n→∞
then f is equal to the sum of its Taylor series on the interval |x − a| < R.
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 37

Taylor’s Inequality If |f (n+1)(x)| ≤ M for |x − a| ≤ d, then the

remainder Rn(x) satisfies the inequality
M
|Rn(x)| ≤ |x − a|n+1 for |x − a| ≤ d.
(n + 1)!
M
(Proof for n = 1) Claim that if | f 00(x)| ≤ M then | R1(x)| ≤ |x − a|2.
2
First we assume that f 00(x) ≤ M then
Z x Z x
f 00(x) ≤ M ⇒ f 00(t)dt ≤ M dt ⇒ f 0(x) − f 0(a) ≤ M (x − a)
Za x Z ax
⇒ f 0(t)dt ≤ [f 0(a) + M (t − a)]dt
a a  2 x
t
⇒ f (x) − f (a) ≤ f 0(a)(x − a) + M − at
2 a
M
⇒ f (x) ≤ f (a) + f 0(a)(x − a) + (x − a)2
| {z } 2
=T1 (x)
M
⇒ R1(x) ≤ (x − a)2
2
M
Similarly f 00(x) ≥ −M ⇒ R1(x) ≥ − (x − a)2
2
M
∴ |R1(x)| ≤ |x − a|2
2
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 38

xn
Note : lim = 0. ( ∵ Example 1 )
n→∞ n!

√
Example 2. (a) Approximate f (x) = 3 x by a Taylor Polynomial of de-
gree 2 at a = 8.
(b) How accurate is this approximation when 7 ≤ x ≤ 9?
1 1 10
, f 00(8) = −
(sol) (a) f (8) = 2, f 0(8) = , f 000(x) = x−8/3
12 144 27
0 f 00(8) 1 1
⇒ T2(x) = f (8)+f (8)(x−a)+ (x−8)2 = 2+ (x−8)− (x−8)2
2! 12 288
√ 1 1
∴ 3 x ≈ T2(x) = 2 + (x − 8) − (x − 8)2
12 288

(b) Note that the Taylor Series is not alternating when x < 8.
We can use Taylor Inequality :
M
|Rn(x)| ≤ |x − 8|3 where |f 000(x)| ≤ M.
3!
10 1 10 1
x ≥ 7 ⇒ x8/3 ≥ 78/3 ⇒ f 000(x) = ≤ · < 0.0021 = M
27 x8/3 27 78/3

0.0021 3
∴ |R2(x)| ≤ · 1 = 0.0004
3!
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 39

Example 4. Find the Taylor series for f (x) = ex at a = 2.

(sol)f (n)(2) = e2.
∞ ∞
X f (n)(2) X e2
∴ (x − 2)n = (x − 2)n, (−∞, ∞)
n=0
n! n=0
n!

Example 5. (a) Find the Maclaurin series for sin x and (b) prove that it
represents sin x for all x.
(sol) (a) f (x) = sin x ⇒ f (0) = 0. f 0(x) = cos x ⇒ f 0(0) = 1.
f 00(x) = − sin x ⇒ f 00(0) = 0.
3 5 n x2n+1
∴ x − x3! + x5! − + · · · = ∞ (b) |f (n)(x)| ≤ 1 = M .
P
n=0 (−1) (2n+1)!
M |x|n+1 n
⇒ |Rn(x)| ≤ (n+1)! |x n+1
| = (n+1)! → 0 as n → 0 ( ∵ limn→∞ xn! =
x3 x5
0 ) ∴ sin x = x − 3! + 5! + · · · by Thm8
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 40

k  
X k k−n n
Note : 1 (a + b)k = a b , k is a positive integer,
n=0
n
  
k k
where = 1, = k Cn
0 n

k  
X k
2 (1 + x)k = xn .
n=0
n

3 For a real k, if f (x) = (1 + x)k , then

f (0) = 1, f 0(0) = k, f 00(0) = k(k − 1), · · · , and

∞   ∞ ∞
k
X k n X f (n)(0) n X k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n
(1 + x) = x = x = x
n=0
n n=0
n! n=0
n!

is called the binomial series.

k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n
4 If an = x , then
n!
an+1 |k − n|
lim = lim |x| = |x|
n→∞ an n→∞ n + 1

By the RT, the binomial series converge if |x| < 1 and diverge if |x| > 1.
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 41

1
Example 9. Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = √ and its radius of
4−x
convergence.
(sol)
∞ 
x −1/2 1 X − 12

1 1 x
√ = 1− = (− )n = · · ·
4−x 2 4 2 n=0 n 4

This series converges when | − x4 | < 1 ⇒ |x| = 4 ∴ R = 4.

∞ n n
n2 x
X
Example 11. Find the function represented by the power series (−1) .
n=0
n!
(sol)

ex − 1 − x
Example 14. Evaluate lim .
x→0 x2
(sol)
x2 x3
+ + ··· 1
lim 2! 3! =
x→0 x2 2
 Chapter 10. Sequences, Series, and Power Series 42

 Multiplication and Division of Power Series

Example 15. Find the first three nonzero terms in the Maclaurin series for
(a) ex sin x and (b) tan x.

(sol) a)
x2 x3 x5 x2 x3
  
2
1+x+ + ··· x− + − ··· = x + x + ( − ) + ···
2! 3! 5! 2! 3!
(b)
x3 x5
sin x x − 3! + 5! + · · · 1 3 2 5
tan x = = = x + x + x + ···
cos x x2 x4 3 15
1− + + ···
2! 4!