6.1 Fundamentals: Basic knowledge of center of gravity, moment of inertia: stresses and strains, theory of torsion and flexure. Analysis of beams and frames: bending moment, shear foree and deflection of beams and frames. Centre of Gravity ‘The Centre of gravity isa theoretical point in the body where the body's total weight is thought to be concentrated. In a uniform gravitational field, the centre of gravity is identical to the centre of mass. Yet, the two points do not always coincide. For simple shaped object, the centre of gravity can be determined by the following: * When we balance an object with the help of a string or an edge, the point at which the object balances is the centre of gravity. Moment of Inertia Moment of inertia is defined as the quantity expressed by the body resisting angular acceleration hich is the sum of the product of the mass of every particle with its square of a distance from the axis of rotation. Or in more simple terms, it can be described as a quantity that decides the amount of torque needed for a specific angular acceleration in a rotational axis. Moment of Inertia is also known as the angular mass or rotational inertia. The SI unit of moment of inertia is kg m*, Moment of inertia is usually specified with respect to a chosen axis of rotation. It mainly depends on the distribution of mass around an axis of rotation. MOI varies depending on the axis that is chosen, In General form Moment of Inertia is expressed as I =m » 7 where, m= Sum of the product of the mass. = Distance from the axis of the rotation. fat = fos? dm and, Integral form:fe role of te moment of mera is the same as the Tole OF mass mi Tear Monon Nis ‘measurement of the resistance of a body to a change in its rotational motion. It is constant for a particular rigid frame and a specific axis of rotation, © =Moment of inertia, I= Imin?.......(1) Kinetic Energy, K= 44102 @ The moment of inestia depends on the following factors: © The density of the material © Shape and size of the body Axis of rotation (distribution of mass relative to the axis) Stresses and Strains Stress Stress is defined as force per unit area within materials that arises from extemally applied forces, ‘uneven heating, or permanent deformation and that permits an accurate description and prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid behaviour. Stress is given by the following formula: F ome a where, ois the stress applied, Fis the force applied and A is the area of the force application. The unit of stress is N/m’. The types of stress are: Tensile Stress © Compressive Stress Strain ‘Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force applied, divided by the initial dimensions of the body. The following equation gives the relation for deformation in terms of the length of a solid: wl‘where, € is the strain due to the stress applied, 81 is the change in length and L is the original length of the material The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative change in shape. The types of stress are: Tensile Strain © Compressive Strain Stress-Strain Curve ‘The material's stress-strain curve gives its stress-strain relationship. In a stress-strain curve, the stress and its corresponding strain values are plotted. An example of a stress-strain curve is given below: The different regions in the stress-strain diagram are: 1. Proportional Limit: Itis the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the stress-strain ratio gives us @ proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph represents the proportional limit 2. Elastic Limit: It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the load acting on itis completely ren a irl ili termi g doesn’t retum to its original position, and a plastic deformation starts to appear init. 3. Wield Points The yield point is defined as the point at which the material stars to defen plastically. After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs. There are4, Ultimate Stress Point: It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure, Beyond this point, failure occurs 5. Fracture or Breaking Point: It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place. ‘Theory of Torsion and Flexure Theory of Torsion A shaft is a rotating part of a machine which transmits power from one point to another. When a force acts tangentially at a point on the surface of the shaft it rotates or twists. The twisting is due to the moment of a tangential force at the axis of rotation. The shaft is said to be in torsion. ‘The study of behaviour of the shaft in torsion without taking into account bending moment due to self-weight or other longitudinal forces known as pure torsion. Due to torsion shearing stress is induced in the material of the shaft. Every point in the material of the shaft is subjected to pure shear. ‘The assumptions made in the Theory of Pure Torsion or made in deriving the equation for pure torsion are as follows: © The material is homogeneous and isotropic © Hooke's law is obeyed by the material. © The shaft is circular in section. © The cross-section of the shaft remains uniform throughout, ‘© The shaft is subjected to pure torque only. © The shat is not subjected to any initial torque. © The transverse sections which were plane before application of torque remain plane even after application of torque. Torsional Formula or Torque Twist Shear Stress or Equation of Pure Torsion: oe tt Lip R Where, Where, @ T= Torque or Turning moment (N-mm) @ Ip =x + ly Polar moment of inertia of the shaft section (mm*) © G=Modulus of rigidity of the shaft material (N/mm?)¢ @=Angle through which the shaft is twisted due to torque ie. angle of twist (radians) ¢ L=Length of the shaft (mm) ¢ t=Maximum shear stress induced at the outermost layer of the shaft (N/mm ) ¢ R= Radins of the shaft (mm) Theory of Flexure In the process of analysis and design of R.C.C sections, there are some assumptions which we use to make the process simple. Some basic assumptions are ‘# Plane sections before bending remain plane even after bending. The tensile strength of concrete is neglected © The stress strain curve for concrete and steel both are kmown prior to the analysis and design. ¢ Ata particular level the strain is equal in both conerete and steel ‘¢ The value of E is the same in both tension and compression zone. In the case of pure bending the value of shear force is zero in the complete domain and the value of bending moment is uniform at every cross section of the beam section, Let us consider an example where a beam is initially in an unstressed position as shown in figure. ‘Now when a uniform bending moment is applied along the length of the beam, then the beam will ‘bend. When the beam bends the top surface of the beam is in tension and the bottom surface is in compression. So it is quite evident that at some mid surface the value of stress will be zero ive., neutral axis, So we assume these assumptions so as to eliminate the possibility of twisting of the ‘beam.‘Analysis of beams and frames: Bending Moment Bending moment is the resistance against the rotation of a member caused by applying load on the structure to the distance from the reference point. The applied moment depends on intensity of the load, nature of the load and distance from the reference point and support type cause the effect on ending moment, Bending moment is classified in two terms as positive and negative, When all loads defleet the structure downward it is known as a positive bending moment or sagging moment. When all loads deflect the structure in upward direction it is known as negative bending moment or hogging bending moment. x Si sist et ae ve Basan ne ne In the bending moment equation, the bending moment has a relationship with: Mi=fy=ER Where: ‘M= Bending moment, £=Bending Stress y=Distance of outer fibre from C.G E=Modulus of Elasticity R= Radius of Curvature ‘Moment of Inertia A typical bending moment diagram for a beam is shown below: = SS ' sDeflection isthe representation of deflection of the structure from its original unloaded position, Deflection of beams is the transverse deformation that occurs due tothe shear force and bending moment. The deflection of beams due tothe shear force is insignificant compared tothe deflection of beams due to the bending moment. Therefore, the deflection of beams due to shear force is ignored. The slope and deflection of beams is calculated by: ‘TEAM NEPAL ENGINEERING LEARNING CENTER ‘teamnepal com np © 9841464945 6.1 Fundamentals: Y is the vertical defection ofthe beam The objective ofthe beam is defined asthe shape given ty: e dyidx The moment Curvature equation is wed to calculate the defection of beams, UReMEI Wher M= Rendine Momentv= ayrax The moment Curvature equation is used to calculate the deflection of beams. UR=MEL Where, M = Bending Moment R= Radius of Curvature of deformed shape EI = Flexural Rigidity of the beam 1/R = Curvature of beam Grade of Steel Limiting MoR Xomed 250 0.148¢.abd? 0.53 4s 0.130abd* 0.48 500 0.133¢abd* 0.46designated by length, width, and thickness Wielding © Size of butt weld is specified by effective throat thickness ( or more accurately by penetration thickness) ‘TEAM NEPAL ENGINEERING LEARNING CENTER [Link] © 9841464945 62 Steel structures (basic design and calculations ‘© Effective throat thickness is the thickness of the thinner part joined for complete penetration butt weld ‘© Effective length of butt weld should not be less than four times the size of weld Effective area-efifective length effective throat thickness ‘© Length of intermittent butt weld should not be less than 4 times the weld size and spacing. should not be more than the 16 times the thickness of the thinner part joined © Size of the fillet weld.>3mm_ Bolting/Riveting © Nominal diameter of rivet: the diameter of rivet when cold Gross diameter of tivet: the diameter of rivet when hot and equal to the diameter of hole 4 Pitch of sivets/ bolts (P) is e/c distance between any consedutive fivets/bolts of adjacent chains in the direction of forces © Minimum pitch(p)-2.5*dia of boltstivets st ‘© Minimum edge distance=1.$ dia of holes. & © Gauge distance is the e distance between tWo comsecutiverivet/bolts of adjacent chai, < rig angle to the direction of force6.3 Introduction, basic principles and classification of surveys: Linear measurement techniques; Leveling; Calculation of area and volume: methods of area calculation of land, methods of area and volume calculation of cut and fill. Types of estimates and their specific uses. ‘Methods of calculating quantities. Key components of estimating norms and rate analysis. Preparation of bill of quantities. Purpose, types and importance of specification. (AArc0603) Linear measurement techniques Distance measurement is generally regarded as the most fundamental of ‘all surveying observations. In traditional ground surveys, even though many angles may be read. the length of at least one line must be measured to supplement the angles in locating points. In plane surveying, the distance between two points means the horizontal distaice. Tf the points are at different clevations, the distance is the horizontal length between vertical lines at the points. Two principles of measuring the distance Lit takes two pits to form a line 2 The shortest distance between two point is a straight line Methods of Linear Measurement 1 Pacing. [Link] readings, 3 Optical rangefinders 4-Tachestnetry (stadia), [Link] bars, [Link]. 7 Electronic distance measurement (EDM), 8 Satellite systems, ‘Types of Measurements 1 Horizontal angles mee [Link] distances =[Link] angles 4 Vertical distances [Link] distance Levelling Levelling isthe general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of points or differences in elevation are determined. It is a vital operation in producing necessary data for ‘mapping, engineering design, and construction, Levelling results are used to: 1 design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems. and bther facilites having grade lines that best conform to existing topography: lay out construction projects according to planned elevations; [Link] volumes of earthwork and other materials; 4 investigate drainage characteristics of an area; [Link] maps showing general ground configurations: [Link] earth subsidence and crustal motion. Vertical line - A line that follows the local ditection of gravity as indicated by a plumb line, Level surface - A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line (the direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spherical in shape. Level line - A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line Horizontal plane - A plane perpendicular tothe local direction of gravity. In plane surveying it is aplane perpendicular to the local vertical line local vertical s ‘Horizontal line - A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying. it is a line perpendicular og Cc ‘Vertical datum - Anv level surface to wiiich elevations are referenced.Benchmark (BM) - A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point whose elevation above or below a reference datum is known or assumed. Vertical control - A series of benchmarks or other points of known elevation established ‘throughout an area, also termed basic control or level control, Geoid - A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all elevations and astronomical observations. The method of computation of area depends upon the shape of the boundary of the tract and accuracy required. The area of the tract of the Jand is computed from its plan which may be ‘enclosed by straight, irregular or combination of straight and imegular boundaries. When the boundaries are straight the area is determined by subdividing the plan into simple geometrical figures such as triangles, rectangles, trapezoids, ete. For imegular boundaries, they are replaced by short straight boundaries, and the areas computed using approximate methods or Planimeter when the boundaries are very irregular. Standard expressions as given belCIw are available for the areas of straight figures. Area of triangle = ab sin. C in which C is the ineluded angle between the sides a and b, Area of Trapezium = =n, in which # and b are the parallel sides separated by perpendicular distance h. Area Enclosed by Irregular Boundaries © Trapezoidal Rule In trapezoidal rule, the area is divided into a mumber of trapezoids, boundaries being assumed to bbe straight between pairs of offsets. The area of each trapezoid is determined and added together to derive the whole area. If there are n offsets at equal interval of then the total area isA= df 28 034 05+ ens Ont] While using the trapezoidal rule, the end ordinates must be considered even if they happen to be zer0, © Simpson's Rule In Simpson's rule it is assumed that the irregular boundary is made up of parabolic ares. The areas of the successive pairs of intercepts are added together to get the total area. A= S(O1+ 04) + MO24 OF* so ecens * Opa) +2008 4 05 Fearne * Ona] Since pairs of intercepts are taken, it will be evident that the mumber of intercepts n is even. If is odd then the first or last intercept is treated as a trapezoid, Volume Earthwork operations involve the determination of volumes of material that is to be excavated in an engineering project to bring the ground surface to a predetermined grade. Volumes can be determined via cross-sections, spot levels or gontour. It is convenient to determine the volume from 'standard-type' cross-sections, provided that the original ground surface is reasonably uniform in respect ofthe cross-fall,or Gradient transverse to the longitudinal centre line. Having computed the cross-sections at given intervals of chainage along the centre line by standard expressions for various cross-sections, or by planimeter, te., volumes of cut in the ease of excavation or volumes of fill in the case of embankment, can be determined using end-area rule or prismoidal rule which are analogous to the trapezoidal rule and Simpson's rule, respectively. If the cross-sections are considered to be apart by distance d then by end-areas rule and prismoidal rule the volume is given by the following formulae: End-Areas Rule Ve gf 2 ASH AS cca + AadPrismoidal Rule Vm BEAL + Ag) AAR AGF oa Ana) + AS FAST co ~ een amt ‘ ewe rt rowne yteeintsnne ye a (e) Temes evel section (4) Par cana it (©) Maiev seein +Ant)] Types of estimates and their specific uses. Methods of calculating quantities. Key components of estimating norms and rate analysis. Preparation of bill of quantities. Purpose, types and importance of specification Estimation and Specification Estimating is the technique of calculating or computing the various quantities and the expected Expenditure to be incurred on a particular work or project. In case the funds available are less than the estimated cost the work is done in part or by reducing it or specifications are altered, the following requirements are necessary for preparing an estimate, 41) Drawings like plan, elevation and sections of important points ) Detailed specifications about workmanship & properties of materials ete. ¢) Standard schedule of rates of the current vear: €‘Needs of Estimating and Costing 1. Estimates give an idea of the cost of the work and hence its feasibility can be determined .¢ whether the project could be taken up within the funds available or not. Estimate gives an idea of time required for the completion of the work. Estimates are required to invite the tenders and Quotations and to arrange contracts Estimation is also required to control the expenditure during the execution of work, Estimates decide whether the proposed plan matches the funds available or hot Methods of Estimating Estimating involves the following operations 1. Preparing a detailed Estimate. 2. Calculating the rate of each unit of work 3. Preparing abstract of estimate Data required to prepare Estimation 1. Drawings i plans. elevations, sections ete 2. Specifications 3. Rates. Methods of taking out Quantities in Estimating The quantities like earth work, foundation concrete, brickwork in plinth and super structure ete., can be workout by any 6f following two methods: ) Long wall - short wall method In this method, the wall along the length of the room is considered to be a long wall while ‘the-wall perpendicular to the Long wall is said to be a short wall. To get the length of a long swall or short wall, calculate first the centre line lengths of individual walls. Then the length of the long wall, (out to out) may be calculated after adding half breadth at each end to its centre line length. Thus the length of the short wall is measured into and may be found by deducting half breadth from its centre line length at each end. The length of the long wall ‘usually decreases from earth work to brick work in superstructure while the short wall increases. These lensths are maltinlied by breadth and deoth to vet anantities.b) Centre line method. This method is suitable for walls of similar cross sections. Here the total centre line length is multiplied by breadth and depth of respective item to get the total quantity at a time. When eross walls or partitions or verandah walls join with mainall, the centre line length gets reduced by half of breadth for cach junction. such junctions or joints are:studied carefully while calculating total centre line length. The estimates prepared by this method are most accurate and quick ©) Partly centre line and short wall method This method is adopted when the extemal (je. all around the building) wall is of one thickness and the internal walls have different thicknesses. In stich cases, the centre line method is applied to extemal walls and the long wall-short wall method is used to internal walls. This method suits different thickness walls. and different levels of foundations. Because of this reason, all Engineering departments are practising this method. Rate Analysis In order to determine the rate of a particular item, the factors affecting the rate of that item are studied carefully and then finally a rate is decided for that item. This process of determining the rates of an item is termed as analysis of rates or rate analysis. The rates of particular items of work depend on the following” 1, Specifications of works and material about their quality, proportion and constructional operation method. 2, Quantity of materials and their costs. 3. Costof labourers and their wages. 4, Location of site of work and the distances from source and conveyance charges. 5. Overhead and establishment charges 6. Profit Specification Specification is defined as a statement of a particular. The objects of specification are as follows: |To provide written instructions limiting and describe in detail the construction work to be undertaken, To describe construction work to be done, the quality of mater the labour to be employed To explain the method of construction to be adopted, method of tests, inspection to bbe done, ee. s to be used and Importance of specification ‘The cost of a unt quality of work is govemed by its specification. Specification is an essential contract document and is required for court cases. To verify and check the strength of materials for a work involved in a project. To specify the equipment and plants to be engaged for a work and thus enables to procure or hire them beforehand Tendering without specification of work is incomplete, baseless and invalid Any changes in specification changes the tendered rates. To procure materials required forthe project as well as the owner can check the quality of materials confirming the specification, avoiding dispute with the contractor. In the event of confliet betwee the specification and drawings, specification shall govemete,