IGCSE Chemistry Revision Notes IGCSE Chemistry Revision Notes

YOUR NOTES

THE CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF ACIDS & BASES Acids with Bases (Alkalis)

TYPES OF OXIDES • Metal oxides and metal hydroxides can act as bases

SALTS & CHEMICAL ANALYSIS • When they react with acid, a neutralisation reaction occurs
PREPARATION OF SALTS • Acids and bases will react together in a neutralisation reaction and produce a salt and
IDENTIFICATION OF IONS & GASES water:

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Examples of Reaction Between Acids and Bases:

ACID NAME OF PRODUCTS EQUATION FOR REACTION

HYDROCHLORIC ACID METAL CHLORIDE AND WATER MOH + HCL → MCL + H2O

SULFURIC ACID METAL SULFATE AND WATER MO + H2 SO4 → MSO4 + H2O

Properties of Acids
NITRIC ACID METAL NITRATE & WATER M(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → M(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Properties of acids

• Acids have pH values below 7, have a sour taste and are corrosive
Acids with Metal Carbonates
• In acidic conditions, blue litmus paper turns red and methyl orange indicator turns red
• Acids will react with metal carbonates to form the corresponding metal salt, carbon
• Acids are substances that can neutralize a base, forming a salt and water dioxide and water:

• When acids react, they will lose electrons to form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water

• The presence of H+ ions is what makes a solution acidic

Examples of Reaction Between Acids and Bases:
Example: Hydrochloric Acid

HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) ACID NAME OF PRODUCTS EQUATION FOR REACTION

HYDROCHLORIC METAL CHLORIDE, CARBON MCO3 + 2HCL → MCL2 + CO2 + H2O

Typical reactions of acids ACID DIOXIDE AND WATER

Acids and metals SULFURIC ACID METAL SULFATE, CARBON MCO3 + H2SO4 → MSO4 + CO2 + H2O
DIOXIDE AND WATER
• Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids
NITRIC ACID METAL NITRATE, CARBON MCO3 + 2HNO3 → M(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
• When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:
DIOXIDE AND WATER
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

Examples of Reaction Between Acids and Metals:

ACID NAME OF PRODUCTS EQUATION FOR REACTION

HYDROCHLORIC ACID METAL CHLORIDE AND HYDROGEN M + 2HCL MCL2 + H2

SULFURIC ACID METAL SULFATE AND HYDROGEN M + H2SO4 MSO4 + H2

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• This reaction is used as a chemical test to confirm the presence of the ammonium ion
Properties of Bases
(NH4 +)
Properties of bases • Alkali is added to the substance with gentle warming followed by the test for ammonia
gas using damp red litmus paper
• Bases have pH values of above 7
• The litmus paper will turn from red to blue if ammonia is present.
• A base which is water soluble is referred to as an alkali

• In basic (alkaline) conditions red litmus paper turns blue and methyl orange indicator turns
yellow
Neutrality & Relative Acidity & Alkalinity
• Bases are substances which can neutralise an acid, forming a salt and water
The pH scale
• Bases are usually oxides or hydroxides of metals
• The pH scale is a numerical scale which is used to show how acidic or alkaline a solution
• When alkalis react, they gain electrons to form negative hydroxide ions (OH–) is
• The presence of the OH– ions is what makes the aqueous solution an alkali • It goes from 1 – 14 (extremely acidic substances can have values of below 1)
Example: Sodium Hydroxide • All acids have pH values below 7, all alkalis have pH values of above 7
NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) • The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution is

• The higher the pH, the more alkaline the solution is

Typical reactions of bases
• A solution of pH 7 is described as being neutral e.g. water
Bases and acids

• When they react with an acid, a neutralisation reaction occurs

• Acids and bases react together in a neutralisation reaction and produce a salt and water:

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Examples of Reaction Between Bases and Acids:

ACID NAME OF PRODUCTS EQUATION FOR REACTION

HYDROCHLORIC ACID METAL CHLORIDE AND WATER MOH + HCL → MCL + H2O

SULFURIC ACID METAL SULFATE AND WATER MO + H2 SO4 → MSO4 + H2O The pH scale shows acidity, neutrality and alkalinity

NITRIC ACID METAL NITRATE & WATER M(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → M(NO3)2 + 2H2O
Universal indicator

Alkalis and ammonium salts • Universal indicator is a mixture of different indicators which is used to measure the pH

• Ammonium salts undergo decomposition when warmed with an alkali • A drop is added to the solution and the colour is matched with a colour chart which
indicates the pH which matches specific colours.
• Even though ammonia is itself a weak base, it is very volatile and can easily by displaced
from the salt by another alkali

• A salt, water and ammonia are produced

Example:

NH4Cl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O + NH3

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 IGCSE Chemistry Revision Notes IGCSE Chemistry Revision Notes

OXIDES

Classifying Oxides
Types of oxide

Acid and basic oxides

• Acidic and basic oxides have different properties and values of pH

• The difference in their pH stems from whether they are bonded to a metal or a nonmetal
element

• The metallic character of the element influences the acidic or alkaline behavior of the
molecule

The pH scale with the Universal Indicator colours which can be used to determine
the pH of a solution

The importance of pH and soil acidity

• Soil pH is analysed to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of soil Metals form basic oxides and hydroxides while nonmetals form acidic oxides
• Most plants favour a pH value of between 5.5 and 8
Acidic oxides
• Changes in soil which cause a pH to be outside this range adversely affect plant processes
resulting in reduced growth and crop yield • Acidic oxides are formed when a nonmetal element combines with oxygen

• Soils may become acid from acid rain, overuse of fertilisers which contain ammonium • They react with bases to form salt and water
salts or by the excessive breakdown of organic matter by bacteria
• When dissolved in water they produce an acidic solution with a low pH
• Crushed or powdered limestone (calcium carbonate) or lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide) is added to neutralise the excess acidity in the soil • Common examples include SO2 and SiO2

• The addition process must be carefully monitored though, as if added in excess, further Basic oxides
damage could be done if the pH goes too high
• Basic oxides are formed when a metal element combines with oxygen

• They react with acids to form a salt and water

• When dissolved in water they produce a basic solution, not all of the basic oxide are soluble

• Common examples include NaOH, KOH and Ca(OH)2

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YOUR NOTES
8.1.2 TYPES OF OXIDES

8.2.1 PREPARATION OF SALTS

Good to know

Preparation, Separation & Purification of Salts

Neutral & Amphoteric Oxides
Salts
Neutral oxides
• A salt is a compound that is formed when the hydrogen atom in an acid is replaced by a
• Some oxides do not react with either acids or bases and thus are said to be neutral metal

• Examples include N2O, NO and CO • For example if we replace the H in HCl with a potassium atom, then the salt potassium
chloride is formed, KCl

Amphoteric oxides • Salts are an important branch of chemistry due to the varied and important uses of this
class of compounds
• Amphoteric oxides are a curious group of oxides that can behave as both acidic and
basic, depending on whether the other reactant is an acid or a base • These uses include fertilisers, batteries, cleaning products, healthcare products and
fungicides
• In both cases a salt and water is formed
Naming salts
• Two most common amphoteric oxides are zinc oxide and aluminum oxide
• The name of a salt has two parts
• The hydroxides of both of these elements also behave amphoterically
• The first part comes from the metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate used in the reaction
• Example of aluminium oxide behaving as a base:
• The second part comes from the acid
Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
• The name of the salt can be determined by looking at the reactants
• Example for an aluminium oxide behaving as an acid:
• For example hydrochloric acid always produces salts that end in chloride and contain the
Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O
chloride ion, Cl–

• Other examples:

• Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride

• Zinc oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to produce zinc sulfate

Preparing salts

• Some salts can be extracted by mining but others need to be prepared in the laboratory

• There are two key ideas to consider when preparing salts:

• Is the salt being formed soluble or insoluble in water?

• Is there water of crystallisation present in the salt crystals?

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8.2.1 PREPARATION OF SALTS cont... 8.2.1 PREPARATION OF SALTS cont...

Solubility of the common salts Preparing soluble salts
Method A: adding acid to a solid metal, base or carbonate
SALTS SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE

SODIUM, ALL NONE

POTASSIUM AND
AMMONIUM

NITRATES ALL NONE

ETHANOATES ALL NONE

CHLORIDES MOST ARE SOLUBLE SILVER AND

LEAD (II)

SULFATES MOST ARE SOLUBLE BARIUM,

CALCIUM AND
LEAD (II)

CARBONATES CARBONATES OF SODIUM, MOST ARE INSOLUBLE

POTASSIUM AND AMMONIUM

HYDROXIDES HYDROXIDES OF SODIUM, MOST ARE INSOLUBLE

POTASSIUM AND CALCIUM
(CALCIUM HYDROXIDE IS SLIGHTLY
SOLUBLE)

Diagram showing the preparation of soluble salts

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8.2.1 PREPARATION OF SALTS cont...

8.2.1 PREPARATION OF SALTS cont...

Method: Method B: reacting a dilute acid & alkali

• Add dilute acid into a beaker and heat using a bunsen burner flame

• Add the insoluble metal, base or carbonate, a little at a time, to the warm dilute acid and
stir until the base is in excess (i.e. until the base stops disappearing and a suspension of
the base forms in the acid)

• Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess base

• Heat the solution to evaporate water and to make the solution saturated

• Check the solution is saturated by dipping a cold, glass rod into the solution and seeing if
crystals form on the end

• Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize

• Decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry

Preparation of Pure, Hydrated Copper (II) Sulfate Crystals using Method A

Acid = Dilute Sulfuric Acid Insoluble Base = Copper (II) Oxide

Method:

• Add dilute sulfuric acid into a beaker and heat using a bunsen burner flame

• Add copper (II) oxide (insoluble base), a little at a time to the warm dilute sulfuric acid and
stir until the copper (II) oxide is in excess (stops disappearing)

• Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess copper (II) oxide

• Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize

• Decant excess solution

• Blot crystals dry

Equation Of Reaction:

Copper (I I) Oxide + Dilute Sulfuric Acid → Copper (II) Sulphate + Water

CuO (s) H2 SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (s) H2O (l)

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to prepare a salt by titration

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8.2.1 PREPARATION OF SALTS cont...

8.2.1 PREPARATION OF SALTS cont...
Method:

• Use a pipette to measure the alkali into a conical flask and add a few drops of indicator
(phenolphthalein or methyl orange)
EXTENDED/ GOOD TO KNOW
• Add the acid into the burette and note the starting volume

• Add the acid very slowly from the burette to the conical flask until the indicator changes to
appropriate colour

• Note and record the final volume of acid in burette and calculate the volume of acid added
(starting volume of acid – final volume of acid)

• Add this same volume of acid into the same volume of alkali without the indicator

• Heat to partially evaporate, leaving a saturated solution

• Leave to crystallise decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry

Preparing Insoluble Salts

solid salt being formed must be insoluble in water

Diagram showing the use of titration to prepare a salt

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8.2.1 PREPARATION OF SALTS cont... 8.2.2 IDENTIFICATION OF IONS & GASES

Identification of Cations

Test for aqueous cations

• Metal cations in aqueous solution can be identified by the colour of the precipitate they
form on addition of sodium hydroxide and ammonia
Method: • If only a small amount of NaOH is used then normally the metal hydroxide precipitates

• In excess NaOH some of the precipitates may dissolve

• A few drops of NaOH is added at first and any colour changes or precipitates formed are
noted

• Then the NaOH is added in excess and the reaction is observed again

• The steps are repeated for the test using ammonia solution
Preparation Of Pure, Dry Lead (II) Sulfate Crystals using a precipitation reaction

Method:

stirring rod in a beaker

excess solution is added.

Equation of Reaction:

Pb(NO3)2 (s) K 2 SO 4 (s) PbSO4 (s) 2KNO3 (s) Analyzing results

• The table below contains the results for each of the cations included in the syllabus
• If a precipitate is formed from either NaOH or aqueous ammonia, then the hydroxide
is insoluble in water

• Zinc for example reacts as such:

ZnCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Zn(OH)2 + H2O(l)

salt being produced is soluble or insoluble
• Ca2+ions can be distinguished from Zn2+ and Al3+ as Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide precipitate
does not dissolve in excess NaOH but both zinc hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide do
soluble salt
• Zn2+ ions can be distinguished from Al3+ ions as Zn(OH)2 dissolves in excess
aqueous ammonia but Al(OH)3 does not

• Most transition metals produce hydroxides with distinctive colors

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Tests for cations

METAL EFFECT OF ADDING EFFECT OF ADDING
• The flame test
CATION NaOH AMMONIA SOLUTION
• is used to identify the metal cations by the colour of the flame they produce
ALUMINIUM WHITE PRECIPITATE, DISSOLVES WHITE PRECIPITATE, INSOLUBLE
(Al3+) IN EXCESS NaOH TO FORM A IN EXCESS AMMONIA, WHITE • A small sample of the compound is placed on an unreactive metal wire such as nichrome
COLOURLESS SOLUTION PRECIPITATE REMAINS
or platinum

AMMONIUM AMMONIA PRODUCED - • The colour of the flame is observed and used to identify the metal
(NH4+) IF WARMED

CALCIUM WHITE PRECIPITATE, INSOLUBLE SO VERY FAINTLY VISIBLE WHITE

(Ca2+) REMAINS IN EXCESS NaOH PRECIPITATE

CHROMIUM (III) GREEN PRECIPITATE WHICH FORMS GREY-GREEN PRECIPITATE,

(Cr3+) A GREEN SOLUTION IN EXCESS INSOLUBLE IN EXCESS

COPPER (II) LIGHT BLUE PRECIPITATE, LIGHT BLUE PRECIPITATE,

(Cu2) INSOLUBLE IN EXCESS SOLUBLE IN EXCESS TO FORM
DARK BLUE COLOUR

IRON (II) GREEN PRECIPITATE, INSOLUBLE IN GREEN PRECIPITATE, INSOLUBLE

(Fe2+) EXCESS IN EXCESS

IRON (III) RED-BROWN PRECIPITATE, RED-BROWN PRECIPITATE,

(Fe3+) INSOLUBLE IN EXCESS INSOLUBLE IN EXCESS
The different coloured flames produced by metal cations during flame tests
ZINC WHITE PRECIPITATE, DISSOLVES WHITE PRECIPITATE,
(Zn2+) IN EXCESS TO FORM COLOURLESS DISSOLVES IN EXCESS TO FORM
SOLUTION COLOURLESS SOLUTION
CATION COLOUR OF FLAME

Li+ RED

Na+ YELLOW

K+ LILAC

Ca2+ ORANGE-RED

Cu2+ BLUE-GREEN
A solution that loses its color has become colorless.

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Identification of Aqueous Anions Identification of Gases

Tests for gases
ANION TEST RESULT
• Several tests for anions and cations produce gases which then need to be tested
CARBONATE ADD DILUTE ACID AND TEST THE EFFERVESCENCE, GAS
(CO 2-)
3 GAS RELEASED PRODUCED IS CO2 WHICH TURNS • The table below indicates the tests for the gases included in the syllabus
LIMEWATER MILKY

CHLORIDE ACIDIFY WITH DILUTE NITRIC ACID WHITE PRECIPITATE FORMED GAS APPEARANCE OF TEST TEST RESULT
(Cl-) AND ADD AQUEOUS SILVER NITRATE
AMMONIA COLOURLESS, PUNGENT DAMP RED LITMUS TURNS BLUE
BROMIDE ACIDIFY WITH DILUTE NITRIC ACID CREAM PRECIPITATE FORMED (NH3) SMELL PAPER
(Br-) AND ADD AQUEOUS SILVER NITRATE
CARBON DIOXIDE COLOURLESS AND BUBBLE THROUGH LIMEWATER
IODIDE ACIDIFY WITH DILUTE NITRIC ACID YELLOW PRECIPITATE FORMED (CO2) ODOURLESS LIMEWATER TURNS MILKY/
(I-) AND ADD AQUEOUS SILVER NITRATE CLOUDY

NITRATE ADD AQUEOUS NaOH AND ALUMINIUM GAS GIVEN OFF IS AMMONIA, HAS PALE GREEN, CHOKING DAMP BLUE LITMUS
CHLORINE TURNS RED
(NO32-) FOIL, WARM GENTLY AND TEST THE A PUNGENT SMELL AND TURNS (Cl2) SMELL PAPER
GAS RELEASED MOIST RED LITMUS PAPER BLUE
HYDROGEN COLOURLESS AND HOLD A LIGHTED BURNS WITH
SULFATE ACIDIFY WITH DILUTE NITRIC ACID WHITE PRECIPITATE FORMED (H2) ODOURLESS SPLINT IN MOUTH A “SQUEAKY
(SO 2-) AND ADD AQUEOUS BARIUM NITRATE
4 OF TEST TUBE POP” SOUND

SULFITE ADD DILUTE ACID, WARM GENTLY GAS DECOLOURISES PURPLE OXYGEN COLOURLESS AND HOLD A GLOWING SPLINT
(SO32-) AND TEST THE GAS RELEASED ACIDIFIED AQUEOUS POTASSIUM (O2) ODOURLESS SPLINT RELIGHTS
MANGANATE(VII) SOLUTION

SULFUR DIOXIDE COLOURLESS, PUNGENT ADD TO ACIDIFIED TURNS FROM

(SO2) CHOKING SMELL AQUEOUS PURPLE TO
POTASSIUM COLOURLESS
MANGANATE(VII)

Oxygen.

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