Ancient Societies Notes

Module 01 - Age of the Earth - the Evolution of Man in Africa, Europe and
Asia - Origin and growth of Primitive cultures.

Questions Including – Out of Africa 1 and Out of Africa 2, Biocultural

Evolution (Cranial, Post Cranial, Anatomical, Tool Making) in Africa, Origins
of Bipedalism,

Evolution of Humans

Human evolution is a matter of debate in between those who believe it is

a creation and who believe it as a evolution process. Creationist believe in
biblical traditions and said that human evolution is a readymade evolution.
James Usser (Irish Archbishop) and John Lightfoot (Scientist) belive human
evolution started around 4004 BCE. There was emergence of Geology and
Archaeology in mid-18th Century. Human fossils and tools were found from
the regions of Germany. Charles Darwin gave the theory of Natural
selection and human evolution and survival of the fittest in his book
“Origin of the Species” (1859) and “Descent of Man” (1871).

Better Adaptability of Humans

Charles Darwin gave the theory of natural selection. Humans Coexisted

with other organisms and has competition for same set of resources.
Human evolution consisted of biological evolution as well as cultural
evolution and both are inter related process. Biological evolution includes
Bipedalism and larger brain size and cultural evolution include tool
making, social Interaction and acquisition of languages.

Environment and Human Evolution: The Ice Ages

Environment has significant impact on the emergence and extinction of

organisms. There was prolonged period of cold and warm climate led to
migration of organisms from one continent to another continent. The
weather conditions were also unusal like extreme cold or droughts and
floods. This made better adaptability must for the survival. The
Pleistocene epoch existed from 1.6 million years to 11000 years ago and
this period is called as the “Ice Ages”. There were frequent changes in the
Glacial and Inter glacial phases. In the last 8 lakhs years there were 9
phases of glacial and inter glacial period. In the Pleistocene epoch in the
glacial phase there was decline in the sea levels and decline in the forests
and rise of savanna (open grasslands) and extinction of the forest species
and emergence of species in the areas of tundra that area with minimum
vegetation region. In the Pleistocene epoch in the inter glacial phase there
was rise in the sea level and spread of the rain forest and emergence of
sylvan (forest species). Pleistocene was the “age of humanity” and during
this time the process of human evolution accelerated. Environment
facilitated the natural selection of humans and this was the crucial point
for the biological and cultural features.
Emergence of Primates and Advanced Primates

Humans were part of the order of the primates around 69 million years
ago. Prosimii was the primitive primate around 69 million years ago.
Lemurs, Tarsiers, Lorises, Tree shrews were restricted to the parts of Africa,
Southeast Asia and Madagascar. They all were suited to to the arboreal
that is tree habitat and due to their prehensible hands and feet they did
extensive use of forelimbs and had stereoscopic vision (3 Dimensional).
Anthropoids/ Anthropoidea were advanced primates existed around 40
million years ago consisted of Monkeys, Apes and Humans. They were
suitable for the territorial(land) habitat. Monkeys were small in size, long
and developed forelimbs, better vision and had ability to jump with
precision and suitable for arboreal living. Apes and Humans were larger in
size, longer hand limbs than forelimbs and contains powerful body
structure that suited for the terrestrial living. Anthropoidea consisted of
old-world monkeys like Cercopithecoidea that emerged around 40 million
years ago and new world Monkeys like Ceboidea and Hominoidea.
Hominoidea were further classified into Pongidae consisted of Apes that
emerged around 30 million years ago like Chimpanzees, Gorillas, Gibbons
and Orangutan and Hominidae includes all human species that are extinct
and modern.

Evolution of Pongidae Apes

Pongidae apes separated from the monkeys around 30 million years ago.
There was emergence of Aegyptopithecus in the Nile Valley of Egypt
around 30 million years ago. Several apes emerged in Africa in between 23
to 20 million years ago. “Proconsul” an ape that emerged around 20
million years ago in Africa consisted of Ape like teeth but body like
monkey. Around 17 million years ago there were environmental changes
and environment got much cooler and land brides were formed. There
were continental drift Africa and Arabia linked with Europe and Asia led to
intermixing of Apes and Mutation processes that further created new
evolutionary paths. Dryopithecus was an African ape that emerged around
20 million years ago and moved to Asia and seprated into several species.
Ramapithecus was an Asian ape that emerged around 14 million years ago
along with Kenyapithecus in East Africa. Anthropologists in context to
molecular biological changes conducted DNA analysis and compared the
Albumin protein and concluded that humans are closer to African apes
than Asian apes and humans are closer to apes than monkeys. There was
separation of monkeys from apes around 25 million years ago. There was
differentiation of bigger apes than smaller apes around 17 million years
ago. The gorillas differentiated from chimpanzees around 8 million years
back whereas Hominids separated from chimpanzees around 7 million
years ago.

Evolution of Hominids

Bipedalism was the major biological difference in between apes and

hominids. As per the traditional notion of “Savanna Hypothesis”
bipedalism emerged in the African Savanna type of environment due to
open grasslands and reduction in forests. As per the m modern belief of
“Climate Variability Hypotheses” the emergence of bipedal hominids
(Ardipithecus and Australopithecus Anamnesis) happened in the wooded
and mixed grassland and forest environment. The beginning of bipedalism
is a matter of debate due to lack of fossil evidence between the period of
7 million years to 4 million years ago. Later fossil evidence and molecular
biological studies concluded that bipedalism emerged around 7 million
years ago. Hominoidea classified into Australopithecus/ Australopithecines
also called as “Southern ape” and Homo. There was emergence of several
bipedal apes in between 7 to 4 million years ago in Africa like Ardipithecus
Ramidus emerged around 4.5 million years ago was bipedal but had ape
like skull. Australopithecus Anamnesis emerged around 4.2 million years
ago was a mix of human and ape like features. There were finding of
several fossils of Austrolopithecus species between 3.75 to 1 million years
ago. Australopithecus was final stage of bipedalism and the species Homo
evolved from Australopithecus around 2.5 million years ago.

Australopithecus Species

A. Australopithecus Afarensis

Australopithecus Afarensis was also called as the “Southern Ape of Afar”

was the oldest among the Australopithecus species found in Hadar (Afar
region) of Ethiopia (Eastern Africa) and Laetoli in the Northern Tanzania
(South Africa). According to the potassium argon dating the fossil dated
between 3.75 to 3 million years ago. A complete skeleton of a female
spcies found named as “Lucy” in the Hadar region and was much smaller
in size as compared to other species found. There was evidence of
bipedalism as evident from the footprints found at Laetoli and suggests
that lower limbs were smaller than the upper limbs and suggests that they
spent more time on trees though forged for the plant foods on the ground.
The brain size was of 410 CC as evident from Chimpanzee. Other features
include ape like face, forward thrashing jaws and brow ridges and
narrower birth canal among female ones. Recent evidences found in2009
in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia suggests there were tool marks on the
animal bones so they may be the earlies tool users and they were
considered as “anatomic mosaic” of apes and humans. After 3 million
years ago the afarensis group split into two lines that is the Gracile
(towards Homo) and Robust (toward modern apes).

B. Australopithecus Africanus
Australopithecus Africanus was also called as the “Southern Ape of Africa”.
The fossils were found by Raymond Dart in 1924 in South Africa dated
between 3 to 1 million years ago. It was a bipedal small and gracile
creature having brain size of around 450 CC like apes but with strong neck
muscles and also has delicate skull and different brain structure as evident
from the fossils found from “Area 10”. They have the ability to take
decisions and to make advance planning and initiatives. They wee closer
to hum ans than other Australopithecus species.

C. Australopithecus Robustus

Australopithecus Robustus the “robust southern ape” also called as

“Paranthropus” or “beside man”. The fossils are found from Eastern and
South Africa lived between 2.5 to 1 million years ago. They have a strongly
built body structures with average height of 5.3 feet and heavier with
average body weight of 50 kilograms. They have the brain size of 500 CC
with flatter skull. They have large teeth and can consume coarse and
fibrous plant and hard seeds. As per the skull comparison they are
considered as ancestral to modern gorillas.

D. Australopithecus Boisei

Australopithecus Boisei was the “Boise southern Ape” also called as

“Zinzanthropus” or the “East Africa Man”. Fossils were found by Louis and
Mary Leaky in the Tanzania region of South Africa and Kenya region of
Eastern Africa and lived around 2.5 to 1 million years ago. The average
brain size was around 550 CC with large skull and flatter face, small
canines but having molars and pre molars. It was considered as the larger
version of Africanus with average height around 5.3 to 5.8 feet and weight
around 60 to 80 kilograms. There were clear evidences of sexual
dimorphism. Crude stone tools were found near the bones but they were
possibly not the tool makers.

E. Australopithecus Garhi

Australopithecus Garhi – “Garhi” means sunrise in the local dialect. The

fossils are found in the Awash dessert of the Ethiopia of Eastern Africa in
1990 and they lived around 2.5 million years ago. They were neither
categorised as gracile nor as robust having the brain size around 450 CC
to 500 CC with features like chimpanzee and lower limns like humans and
upper limbs like apes. Butchered animal bones were found near the
skeleton fossils and were efficient user of tools and consumers of meat. B
Fagan suggests that high protein diet led to increase in the brain size and
changes in the hominid skull after 2.5 million years ago. The increasing
use of stone tools may have impact on the brain size but Australopithecus
Garhi as a direct ancestor of Homo is not conclusively proven.

Homo Species – Biological and Cultural Evolution

Evolution from the gracile forms of Australopithecus either Africanus or

Garhi. The species Homo had features like perfect bipedalism, larger brain
size, ability to acquire language, an opposite thumb facilitating the
precision grip, small and crowded teeth and they have the ability to
manufacture tools along with using it and had better social interaction.
They evolved around 2.5 million years ago to 40,000 years ago and
classified as Homo Habilis, Homo Ergaster/Homo Erectus, Homo
Heidelbergensis, Homo Neanderthalensis (Neanderthals) and Homo
Sapiens.

A. Homo Habilis

Homo Habilis also called as “Handy Man” lived around 2.5 to 1.5 million
years ago. The fossil evidence was found in 1960 by Mary Leaky and Louis
Leaky at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania at East Africa and also in South Africa
(Telanthropous) and Southeast Asia (Meganthroups). They have similarities
with Australopithecus like terrestrial bipedalism and were expert in the
tree climbing (arboreal habitation). They posses low body mass, similar
tooth d design and sexual dimorphism but were kept in the different
category than other Homo species. There were differences in the cranial
capacity they have brain size of 650 CC, brain structure and facial
features. They have round and higher head with smaller jaws and less
protruding face. Ape like thumb led to manufacture of tools due to
powerful gripping and manipulation of objects. The Broca area was a
speech producing area with a variety of sounds. They were manufacturers
of tools as large number of tools were found from Olduvai Gorge dated 2
million years ago of Olduwan culture. They made crude tools from pebbles
like choppers, scrapers, burins and harmers stones to cut, scrape or dig.
There were tool marks on animal bones concluding that they were regular
meat eaters. Due to the crude tools, they were not an expert hunter and
usually hunts small animals and were primarily a scavenger. Tools were
not standardised and there was absence of articulate speech the
assemblage of tools from the Olduvai region suggests that animals’
carcasses were brought from distance and butchered here and there were
evidences of social organisation and cooperation. They coexisted with
other 5 to 6 species of Homo alongside Habilis before Pleistocene that is
1.64 million years ago. But coexistent of Homo Habilis as per the latest
fossil evidence from the Kobi Fora region of Kenya and Erectus doubts on
evolution of Erectus from the Habilis.

B. Homo Eragaster “Working Man”

Homo Eragaster existed between 1.8 to 1.5 million years ago as evident
from the fossil evidence of a complete skeleton of a boy from Nariokotom
in Lake Turkana in Kenya named as Turkana Boy found by Richard Leaky in
1984 dated around 1.6 million years ago. They were powerfully built with
large face and low skull and had a brain size of 800 CC. They have larger
legs and shorter arms helping them in terrestrial living and narrower hips
making them able running faster over long distances that is crucial for
terrestrial living and they were the first modern hominin. They use tools
like hand axe and cleavers and that were better than crude tools of
Habilis. They use natural fire for the protection against cold climate,
carnivores and used for cooking food. The sexual dimorphism was
diminished and only 20 percent was left. The females have narrower birth
canal gave early birth to babies with close bonding and had direct link with
erectus species.

B. Homo Erectus (Upright Man)

Homo Erectus (Upright Man) flourished between 1.75 to 0.4 million years
ago. There was formation of mountain chains (Alps and Himalayas) and
raising of land masses. There was emergence of new species like Horse,
Wild Cattle, Camels, and Elephants. The Homo Erectus emerged in Africa
and dispersed to Asia and Europe. Fossil evidence found from Africa in
Eastern Turkana around 1.75 million years old. In Asia in Trinil Beds on Solo
River in northeastern Indonesia there were fossil evidences of
Pithecanthropus erectus – upright ape man and Java Man dated 0.7 million
years ago. In Zhoukoudian caves near Beijing in China there were fossil
evidences of Sinanthroups also called as Peking Man dated between 0.5 to
0.25 million years ago. The fossil evidences from Spain, France, Germany,
England and Hungary dated between 1 to 0.4 million years ago. Ther was
radiation of erectus min different regions and various environmental
conditions like in tropical Savvana (Eastern Africa, Forests (Indonesia),
temperate climates (North Africa and Europe0 and extreme cold conditions
(China and Northern Europe) led to physical variations among erectus
species. The average brain size of Homo erectus was 1000 CC with
average height of 5 to 6 feet and along with average weight of 40 to 75
kilograms. The other physical features include long and low skulls with a
bony bump behind along with a sloping forehead and thick brow ridges
and big protecting jaws and smaller teeth than Habilis with strong neck
muscles at the back of the neck and there was no sagging of head while
running. Homo Erectus had well developed Broca area and a more
advanced vocal tract with articulate speech. The Homo erectus use the
tools of Acheulean culture as large number of tools were found in the St.
Acheul region of northern France. Among them handaxe was the most
prominent one as it was a multi-purpose tool use for hunting and meat
processing and there were also flake tools and choppers. The Homo
Erectus were aware of standardised tools, articulate speech and transfer of
tool technology. Well developed speech helped in better cooperation in
hunting of big animals like Horse, Bison, Rhinoceros and Boars. They were
also gatherers and use to build shelters.

C. Homo Heidelbergensis (Heidelberg Man)

Homo Heidelbergensis (Heidelberg Man) lived during 0.6 to 0.2 million

years ago. Fossils are found from the sites in Eastern Africa, North Africa
and South Africa and in Europe fossils are found from Germany, Spain and
England. Largest fossil founding belongs to the Mauer region of Southeast
Heidelberg in Germany. Some scholars say they are ancestors to
Neanderthals and modern humans whereas some opines that they are
only ancestors to Neanderthals (an exclusive European species).
Heidelberg man were the earliest colonizers of Europe containing brain
size of 1250 CC with average height of 5 to 6 feet and average weight of
50 to 70 kilograms. Their core tool technology includes Handaxe, Point and
Flake tools and they also use specialised tools like wooden spear for
hunting of the carnivores like bison, horse, rhino and animals of colder
climate. They have well-articulated speech but their no much evidence of
social activities. In Spain archaeologist found an unused handaxe made up
of pink quartzite possibly for the ritual usage.

D. Homo Neanderthalensis (Neanderthal Man)

Homo Neanderthalensis (Neanderthal Man) lived around 1 lac 35 thousand

to 30,000 years ago as evident from the fossils found from Europe and
Eurasia. The major finding was from the Neander Valley in Dusseldorf in
Germany. The evidence of Neanderthals was also found in France,
Yugoslavia, Italy, Belgium, Britain, Spain and Czechoslovakia in Russia as
well as in Southwest Asia, Africa and Central Asia. The Neanderthals were
further classified into Archaic and Advanced Neanderthals. The features
are larger brain size of 1500 CC with large, thick skull and with height of
5.5 feet and weight 70 kilograms along with sloping forehead and brow
ridges and distinct cheek bones and flat or bulbous nose and Neanderthals
were only confined to Europe, the Fossils found at Isarel in Qafzeh Caves
and in Iraq at Shanidar Caves had considerable variation among them. The
Neanderthals inhabited the last phase of the ice age and lived in
extremely cold conditions and heavily relied on meat consumption. They
use the tools of Mousterian culture as evident from Le Moustier Rock
Shelter from Southwest France and this tool culture was an improvement
over Acheulean tool culture. They used a variety of tools made up from
flakes and were expert and opportunistic learner. They use to kill large
animals like Bison, Cave bear, Horse, Reindeer, wild cattle and Wolly
Mammoths and they also used snares and composite tools to catch birds
and fishes. They use to live in caves, rock shelters and open encampments
and were able to live in different climatic conditions and were exploiters of
the natural resources. They very carefully bury the dead and there was
development of abstract thoughts like “Life after Death” as evident from
the grave goods like stone tools, pillows, flowers and burnt pieces of meat.
B. Fagan suggests language and speech was not much developed and
culture remained unchanged.

The extinction of Neanderthals happened some 30,000 years ago. And

their extinction is a matter of debate. As per the evidence from Western
Europe they disappeared soon after the emergence of Homo Sapiens
(wiped out by modern man) whereas evidence from the western Asia
suggests it cohabited with Homo Sapiens (Neanderthals interbred with the
contemporary Homo sapiens species or themselves evolved into Homo
sapiens). The generally accepted consensus that the disappearance was
not sudden and they contributed in the emergence of the Homo Sapiens
through gene transfer.

E. Homo Sapiens (Modern/Wise Man)

There is debate among the Paleoanthropologist regarding the emergence

of Homo Sapiens.

As per the Out of Africa/ African Origin/ Total Replacement Model, the
Homo Sapiens first emerged only in Africa and few thousands travelled out
of Africa and colonised the other regions and replaced the all-existing
homo species without the genetic inter change.

Another model Multi Regional Evolution model suggests that there was
independent evolution of modern humans in Africa, Asia and Europe from
the archaic homo sapiens and spread to different parts of the world around
1 to 2 million years ago and emerged as Homo Sapiens due to mating and
mutation. There was physical divergence among Africans, Europeans and
Asians due to the local environment. 0

The third model that is Assimilation/ Intermediate Model accepts the

African origin but rejects the total replacement, instead suggests genetic
hybridisation, gene flow and regional pattern of evolution is genetically
African but shows regional continuity.

In present times the importance is given to Multi regional evolution model.

There were large fossil findings of Archaic and modern Homo Sapiens from
Western Europe and Southwest Asia leading to two points of Origin. There
were also evidences of archaic Neanderthals in Europe and Advanced
Neanderthals in Southwest Asia. As per the recent researches of DNA
analysis there were pattern of genetic variation among modern humans.
As per the study of Mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA) done by Rebecca Cann,
Mark Stoneking and Allan Wilson in 1987 suggests DNA passes from
mother to daughter as fossils of 182 women from Africa, Europe, Asia,
Australia, and New Guinea have small differences in DNA and were from
single female ancestor (Mt. Eve) or a small group of females from Africa
that migrated to the other part of the world with no intermixing or
interbreeding with the existing archaic Homo Sapiens around 2 lac years
ago. F. Cruciani and others analysed Y Chromosomal DNA in 2011 and
concluded that DNA passes from father to son as most common African
male Ancestor (Y Chromosomal Adam) lived around 1 lac 44 thousand
years ago. Africans have diverse kind of mitochondrial DNA. As per the
study of normal DNA, the DNA split from Africans to Non-Africans and later
between Eurasians and Southwest Asians.

F. Modern Homo Sapiens

Modern Homo Sapiens emerged from Archaic and advanced Homo

Sapiens. The Archaic Homo Sapiens emerged around 2 lac years ago as
evident from the fossils found from Omo Valley in Ethiopia and fossils
found from Broken Hill in Zambia are 1 lac 10 thousand years old. The
advanced Homo sapiens emerged around 1 lac years ago as per the fossil
evidence from Qafzeh cave in Israel. The classification between the
archaic and advanced was based on structure of skull and not cultural
differences. The earliest evidence of modern Homo Sapiens was from Cro
Magnon rock shelter in Southwest France that evolved around 40 thousand
years ago and they are the ancestors of present-day Europeans. The
physical features include smaller and taller head with rounded brain size
of 1400 CC with an average height of 5.6 to 5.7 feet and had thinner
bones. They have upright forehead along with straight face (not jutting
forward)) with slight brow ridges and smaller nose and jaws and more
crowded teeth with well developed chin.

Cultural Aspects

Modern Homo Sapiens have culturally improved than Neanderthals. They

colonised all the continents of the old and new world and adjusted in
varying climatic conditions. They use versatile types of tools made from
stone, bone, antler and wood and developed new technique of tool making
that is blade technology. They were familiar with tool cultures like
Perogordian/Chattelperonian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean and
Magdalenian. Steven Mithen described these developments as cultural
explosion included increased economic specialisation, development of
fully articulate speech, restructuring of social relationships between social
groups, development of art development of fully articulate speech,
restructuring of social relationships between social groups, development of
art.