CHAPTER FOUR

MEMORY AND FORGETTING

Learning Outcomes
 At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Define memory and forgetting.
 Describe the stages and memory structures proposed by theory of memory.
 Explain the processes that are at work in memory functions.
 Identify how learned materials are organized in the long term memory.
 State the factors underlying on the persistence, and loss of memory.
 Explain different theories of forgetting.

4.1 Memory

4.1.1 Meaning and Processes of Memory

Memory is the retention of information/what is learned earlier over time. It is the

way in which we record the past for later use in the present. Memory is a blanket
label for a large number of processes that form the bridges between our past and
our present.

Processes of Memory

Three basic steps:

1. Encoding It is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form

usable to memory.
2. Storage: To be remembered the encoded experience must leave some record in
the nervous system.
3. Retrieval: is the point at which one tries to remember to dredge up a particular
memory trace from among all the others we have stored.

4.1.2 Stages/Structure of Memory

Memory structure is the nature of memory storage itself- how information is
represented in memory and how long it lasts and how it is organized. Although

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people usually refer to memory as a single faculty, the term memory actually
covers a complex collection of abilities and processes.

According to Atkinson and Shiffrin, memory has three structures:

1) Sensory Memory/Sensory Register:

It is the entry way to memory. It is the first information storage area. Sensory
memory acts as a holding bin, retaining information until we can select items for
attention from the stream of stimuli bombarding our senses.

2) Short-term Memory:

Is part of our memory that holds the contents of our attention. Unlike sensory
memories, short-term memories are not brief replicas of the environmental
message. Instead, they consist of the by-products or end results of perceptual
analysis. STM is important in a variety of tasks such as thinking, reading,
speaking, and problem solving.

Short term memory is distinguished by four characteristics:

1. It is active- information remains in STM only so long as the person is

consciously processing, examining, or manipulating it.
2. Rapid accessibility - Information in STM is readily available for use.
3. Preserves the temporal sequence of information- STM usually helps us to
maintain the information in sequential manner for a temporary period of time.
4. Limited capacity-STM memory holds information (sounds, visual images,
words, and sentences and so on) received from SM for up to about 30 seconds
by most estimates.
3. Long Term Memory

It is a memory system used for the relatively permanent storage of meaningful

information. The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical limits.

The vast amount of information stored in LTM enables us to learn, get around in
the environment, and build a sense of identity and personal history. LTM stores
information for indefinite periods. It may last for days, months, years, or even a
lifetime.

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The LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub systems:

Declarative/ explicit memory- the conscious recollection of information such as

specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated. It is further subdivided
into semantic and episodic memories.

Semantic memory- factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts and
our ability to do math. They are internal representations of the world, independent
of any particular context.

Episodic memory- memories for events and situations from personal experience.
They are internal representations of personally experienced events.

Non-declarative/ implicit memory- refers to a variety of phenomena of memory

in which behavior is affected by prior experience without that experience being
consciously recollected. One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is
procedural memory. It is the how to knowledge of procedures or skills: Knowing
how to comb your hair, use a pencil, or swim.

4.1.3 Factors Affecting Memory

Memory as stated already, is a process which includes learning, retention and

remembering. As such all the three processes are important for good memory.

Eleven Factors that Influence Memory Process in Humans are as follows:

a. Ability to retain: This depends upon good memory traces left in the brain by
past experiences.

b. Good health: A person with good health can retain the learnt material better
than a person with poor health.

c. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged.

d. Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember complex material.

e. Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better retention.

f. Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memory than a dull
person.

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g. Interest: If a person has more interest, he will learn and retain better.

h. Over learning: Experiments have proved that over learning will lead to better
memory.

i. Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention,

j. Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials remain in our memory

for longer period than for nonsense material,

k. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens connections

in the brain and helps for clear memory.

4.2 Forgetting
4.2.1 Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting
Most of us forget the names of individuals, names of places and other
information‘s. In our daily living, we encounter so much information. If we
attempt to encode, store and recall all the information we face daily, we are in
trouble.

Sometimes we are motivated to forgot something and recall what we want to

remember. Psychologists generally use the term forgetting to refer to the apparent
loss of information already encoded and stored in the long-term memory.

The most rapid forgetting occurs in the first hours, and particularly in the first
hour. After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows and declines little, even after the
passage of many days.

4.2.2. Theories of Forgetting

Psychologists have proposed five mechanisms to account for forgetting: decay,

replacement of old memories by new ones, interference, motivated forgetting, and
cue dependent forgetting.

[Link]. The Decay Theory

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The decay theory holds that memory traces or engram fade with time if they are
not accessed‖ now and then. This explanation assumes that when new material is
learned a memory trace or engram- an actual physical change in the brain- occurs.

In decay, the trace simply fades away with nothing left behind, because of the
passage of time. We have already seen that decay occurs in sensory memory and
that it occurs in short term memory as well, unless we rehearse the material.
People commonly forget things that happened only yesterday while remembering
events from many years ago.

[Link]. Interference

Interference theory holds that forgetting occurs because similar items of

information interfere with one another in either storage or retrieval. The
information may get into memory, but it becomes confused with other information.

There are two kinds of interference that influence forgetting: proactive and
retroactive.

[Link]. New Memory for Old/ Displacement Theory

Holds that forgetting occurs because similar items of information interfere with
one another in either storage or retrieval.

[Link]. Motivated Forgetting

Sigmund Freud maintained that people forget because they block from
consciousness those memories that are two threatening or painful to live with, and
he called this self-protective process Repression. Today many psychologists prefer
to use a more general term, motivated forgetting.

[Link]. Cue Dependent Forgetting

When we need to remember, we rely on retrieval cues, items of information that

can help us find the specific information we‘re looking for.

For example if you are intoxicated when something happens, you may remember it
better when you once again have had a few drinks than when you are sober.

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4.3. Improving Memory

Some simple mnemonics can be useful, but complicated ones are often more
bothersome than they are worth. A better approach is to follow some general
guidelines.

Pay Attention: It seems obvious, but often we fail to remember because we never
encoded the information in the first place. When you do have something to
remember, you will do better if you encode it.

Encode information in more than one way: The more elaborate the encoding of
information, the more memorable it will be.

Add meaning: The more meaningful the material, the more likely it is to link up
with information already in long-term memory.

Take your time: If possible, minimize interference by using study breaks for rest
or recreation. Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce interference.

Over learn: Studying information even after you think you already know it- is one
of the best ways to ensure that you‘ll remembers it.

Monitor your learning: By testing yourself frequently, rehearsing thoroughly, and

reviewing periodically, you will have a better idea of how you are doing