CHAPTER 4 : BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
4.1 CARBOHYDRATES, FATS AND PROTEINS
The human body is mostly water (about 62%).
About 16% is protein, 16% is fat, and 1% is carbohydrate.
The remaining 6% consists of minerals like calcium and phosphorus (mainly
in bones) and other elements such as potassium, sodium, phosphate, and
chloride.
DNA makes up less than 1% of body mass.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates include starch, cellulose, and sugars.
They are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The simplest carbohydrates are sugars, which are sweet and soluble in
water.
An example is glucose, which has the formula C₆H₁₂O₆ and its atoms form a
hexagon shape.
Glucose is the form in which carbohydrates are transported in the human
body through the blood plasma.
Cells use glucose for energy.
In animals, glucose molecules join together to form glycogen, which is
stored in the liver and can be broken down into glucose when needed.
In plants, glucose molecules join to form starch, which is stored in plant
cells and can also be broken down into glucose when required.
Plants produce another carbohydrate called cellulose.
Cellulose is made of many glucose molecules linked in straight chains.
It is used to form plant cell walls.
Iodine solution is used to test for starch; it changes from brown to blue-
black if starch is present.
Most sugars can be detected using Benedict’s solution.
It is used to detect most sugars, specifically reducing sugars (e.g., glucose).
The solution is naturally blue in color.
The solution must be heated with the sugar sample to cause a reaction.
A presence of reducing sugar changes the color to orange-red.
The color change is not instant; it moves through a spectrum of green and
yellow before reaching the final orange-red state.
FATS AND OILS
Definitions and States
Lipids: This is the general scientific term used for both fats and oils.
Fats: Lipids that remain solid at room temperature.
Oils: Lipids that remain liquid at room temperature.
Both fats and oils are composed of three primary elements: carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
Comparison to Carbohydrates: While carbohydrates share these same
three elements, fat molecules contain significantly less oxygen by
comparison.
Lipid molecules are built from two types of smaller subunits:
1. Glycerol
2. Fatty acids These 2 molecules joined together
to make fat molecule
Importance of Fats
Fats are important in the formation of cell membranes.
They serve as long-term energy stores for the body.
In mammals, fat-containing tissue beneath the skin acts as a heat insulating
layer to maintain body temperature.
The Ethanol Emulsion Test-FATS
This test relies on the fact that lipids (fats and oils) dissolve in ethanol but do not
dissolve in water.
The Process:
1. Shake the food sample with ethanol so any fats present dissolve into the
liquid.
2. Pour the ethanol solution into a clean tube of water.
3. If fats are present, they precipitate out of the solution to form tiny droplets.
4. These droplets turn the liquid a cloudy or milky white. This mixture is called
an emulsion.
PROTEINS
All protein molecules contain four main elements: carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen.
Some proteins also contain a small amount of sulfur.
Building Blocks: Proteins are made of long chains of smaller molecules
called amino acids.
There are 20 different kinds of amino acids.
Each specific protein is defined by a precise order of these amino acids.
Changing just one amino acid or moving its position creates an entirely
different protein.
Because of the countless ways amino acids can be arranged, there is an
almost infinite variety of proteins that can exist.
Proteins perform a wide variety of essential roles, including:
Biological Catalysts: All enzymes are proteins.
Immune Defense: Antibodies are proteins that protect the body against
pathogens.
Transport: Haemoglobin is a protein (red pigment) that carries oxygen in
mammalian blood.
Structure: They are necessary for forming cell membranes.
Physical Features: In humans, hair and fingernails are made of a specific
protein called keratin.
The Biuret Test for Proteins
This chemical test is used to detect the presence of protein in a substance.
Biuret reagent is naturally blue.
If proteins are present, the reagent changes from blue to violet (purple).
4.2 THE STRUCTURE OF DNA
What is DNA?
Full Name: Deoxyribonucleic acid.
Found in the nucleus of every cell (except red blood cells).
It is the material that makes up genes and chromosomes, inherited from
parents.
How DNA Works (The Genetic Code)
DNA carries a "code" that tells the cell exactly which amino acids to link
together and in what order to create specific proteins.
Because it controls protein production, DNA determines an organism's
physical body structure and how its metabolic reactions function.
The Structure of DNA
Building Blocks: DNA is made of smaller units called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide contains one of four bases: A, C, G, and T.
Double Helix: A DNA molecule consists of two chains (strands) of
nucleotides coiled around each other in a spiral shape.
Complementary Base Pairing: The two strands are held together by bonds
between opposite bases. These bases always pair in a specific way:
o A always bonds with T
o C always bonds with G
SUMMARIZING ALL THE BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
AND FOOD TESTS
Elements Building Blocks
Molecule Key Functions
Present (Subunits)
Simple sugars (e.g.,
Carbohydrates C, H, O Primary energy source
glucose)
C, H, O (Low Glycerol & Fatty Energy storage, insulation,
Fats & Oils
Oxygen) acids cell membranes
C, H, O, N (some Amino acids (20 Enzymes, antibodies,
Proteins
Sulfur) types) hemoglobin, keratin
Nucleotides (A, C, Genetic code, protein
DNA C, H, O, N, P*
G, T) synthesis instructions