CHAPTER 2 : PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
2.1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
The Periodic Table
As you move from left to right and down the Periodic Table, atomic mass
increases.
Each element has:
(i) An atomic number, which shows the number of protons (it increases by
one for each element).
(ii) A mass number, which shows the total number of protons and neutrons.
Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and
neutrons have no charge.
An atom has no overall charge because it has an equal number of protons
and electrons.
Arranging electrons
Scientists such as J.J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford helped develop early
models of the atom.
In 1913, Niels Bohr improved Rutherford’s model by suggesting that electrons
move in fixed shells (energy levels) around the nucleus.
Bohr’s idea, which earned him a Nobel Prize, led to the modern model of the
atom we use today.
The electrons are arranged in electron shells around the nucleus. (electronic
structure)
The 1st electron shell only has room for 2 electrons
2nd and 3rd shells have room for up to 8 electrons
The crosses represent the ELECTRONS
Electrons are held in place by electrostatic forces.
2.2 Trends in groups within the Periodic Table
Group 1 : The alkali metals
1st group – alkali metals – includes elements Lithium, Sodium and Potassium.
The atomic number increases as you go down the group
The mass number also increases as you go down the group
Increasing in numbers telling you that the size of the atom is increasing
Melting points go down as you go down the group.
The structure of Group 1 metals
Lithium, sodium, and potassium have similar properties because they have similar
atomic structures.
Lithium (Li): Atomic number 3, mass number 7. It has 3 protons, 3 electrons,
and 4 neutrons. Electron arrangement: 2,1
Sodium (Na): Atomic number 11, mass number 23. It has 11 protons, 11
electrons, and 12 neutrons. Electron arrangement: 2,8,1
Potassium (K): Atomic number 19, mass number 39. It has 19 protons, 19
electrons, and 20 neutrons. Electron arrangement: 2,8,8,1
Group 7 : The halogens (extension material)
Halogens – fluorine, chlorine and bromine.
Fluorine and chlorine – gas at room temperature
Bromine is liquid
The most reactive- fluorine the chlorine
Bromine is least reactive
The structure of fluorine and chlorine
Fluorine(F): Atomic number 9, mass number 19. It has 9 protons, 9 electrons,
and 10 neutrons. Electron arrangement: 2,7
Chlorine(Cl): Atomic number 17, mass number 35. It has 17 protons, 17
electrons, and 18 neutrons. Electron arrangement: 2,8,7
Group 8 : The noble gases
Noble gases- helium, neon,argon
They are unreactive and do not form compound
The structure of helium, neon and argon
Helium(He): Atomic number 2, mass number 4. It has 2 protons, 2 electrons,
and 2 neutrons. Electron arrangement: 2
Neon(Ne): Atomic number 10, mass number 20. It has 10 protons, 10
electrons, and 10 neutrons. Electron arrangement: 2,8
Argon(Ar): Atomic number 18, mass number 40. It has 18 protons, 18
electrons, and 22 neutrons. Electron arrangement: 2,8,8
2.3 Why elements react to form compounds
Why do elements react together?
The elements in compound are held together by chemical bonds
(i) The atoms can lose or gain electrons
(ii) Atoms can share electrons
Losing electrons
Sodium reacts with other elements by losing an electron
When this happens, the sodium atom forms an ion.
When a sodium atom loses its outer electron, the next shell becomes the
outer shell and is full, making the ion more stable.
A neutral sodium atom is written as Na. After losing one electron, it becomes
a positively charged ion with one more proton than electrons, written as Na⁺.
Gaining electrons
When a chlorine has 7 electrons in the outermost shell, the chlorine atom
gains an electron and forms a chlorine ion.
the outer shell and is full, making the ion more stable.
A chlorine atom is written as Cl.
When chlorine gains one electron, it has one more electron than protons and
becomes negatively charged. The chlorine ion is written as Cl⁻.
Ionic Bonding
A sodium ion and a chlorine ion can form an ionic chemical bond to form the
compound sodium chloride.
Ionic bond- attraction between the positively charged ion, SODIUM and the
negatively charged ion, CHLORINE
When sodium loses one electron, it becomes a Na⁺ ion with 11 protons and
10 electrons, giving it a +1 charge. Its electron arrangement becomes [2,8].
When chlorine gains one electron, it becomes a Cl⁻ ion with 17 protons and
18 electrons, giving it a −1 charge.
The opposite charges of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ attract each other, forming an ionic bond
and creating sodium chloride (NaCl).
The charges on the ions of sodium and chlorine form a bond and the two
elements are held together to form sodium chloride (NaCl).
Potassium is the most reactive and lithium is the least reactive.
Reactivity is determined by how easily an atom loses its outermost electron.
Electrons are held by electrostatic forces between positive protons and
negative electrons.
Potassium: Its outer electron is furthest from the nucleus, weakening the
electrostatic pull and making it easiest to lose.
Lithium: Its outer electron is closest to the nucleus, making the electrostatic
force hardest to overcome.
Fluorine is more reactive than chlorine.
Electron Gain: Fluorine gains an electron in its outermost shell more easily
than chlorine does.
Electrostatic Forces: Electrons are held in their shells by electrostatic forces
between the positive protons and negative electrons.
Atomic Structure: The outermost electron shell of fluorine is closer to the
protons in the nucleus than in chlorine.
Attraction Force: Because it is closer to the nucleus, an additional electron is
attracted by electrostatic forces more readily in fluorine than in chlorine.
Other ionic compound
Ionic compound made from ions.
They form when a metal reacts with a non-metal
Ionic Bonding (Magnesium Oxide)
Electronic Structures:
(i) Magnesium has the electronic structure 2,8,2, with two electrons in its
outer shell.
(ii) Oxygen has the electronic structure 2,6, with six electrons in its outer
shell.
Ion Formation:
(i) The magnesium atom loses its two outer electrons to become a
magnesium ion, Mg2+
(ii) The oxygen atom gains those two electrons to become an oxygen ion,
O2-
Compound Formation: The two oppositely charged ions are attracted to
each other, forming an ionic bond to create the compound magnesium oxide
MgO.
Ionic Bonding: Magnesium Chloride MgCl
Ratio of Ions: When magnesium reacts with chlorine, it forms two chlorine
ions for every one magnesium ion.
Transfer Process:
(i) The magnesium atom loses 2 electrons from its outer shell to become
Mg2+
(ii) Two separate chlorine atoms each gain 1 electron to become 2Cl-
Result: The Mg2+ ion and the 2Cl- ions are attracted to each other, forming the
ionic compound MgCl2
Sharing electrons
When nonmetals from compounds with other non-metals they do so by sharing
electrons to fill their outermost electron shells.
Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)
Atom Composition: Hydrogen has one outer electron (room for two), and
chlorine has seven outer electrons (room for eight).
Sharing: Instead of transferring, the atoms share a pair of electrons so both
achieve full outer shells.
The Molecule: This sharing forms a molecule of hydrogen chloride with the
formula HCl.
Electronic Room: A hydrogen atom has one electron (needs one more for a
full shell of two); a chlorine atom has seven electrons (needs one more for a
full shell of eight).
Mechanism: Instead of transferring electrons, the atoms share a pair of
electrons so both reach full shells.
Covalent Bond: A bond where electrons are shared is called a covalent
bond.
Dot and Cross Diagrams: These diagrams use dots for one atom's electrons
and crosses for the other to show how they are shared.
Hydrogen and Hydrogen, H2
Covalent molecule are formed when atoms of different non-metals join
together to form compound and when atoms of the same non-metal join
together,
Hydrogen Molecule (H2 )- Two hydrogen atoms share a pair of electrons,
making the shell full and the molecule more stable.
Hydrogen and Nitrogen, NH3
Ammonia , NH3One nitrogen atom (with 5 outer electrons) shares three pairs
of electrons with three hydrogen atoms.
Other example of covalent bond compound
2.4 Simple and giant structures
Giant structures in ionic compound
Sodium ions Na+ and chloride ions Cl- have equal and opposite charges,
creating strong electrostatic attraction.
These forces act in all directions, forming a giant structure known as a lattice.
In this lattice, each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions.
The regular arrangement of ions gives sodium chloride crystals their regular
shape.
Giant covalent structures
While the covalent bonds holding a molecule together are very strong, the forces
between separate molecules (like Oxygen,Carbon dioxide and methane) are weak
and are called intermolecular forces.
Giant structures of carbon
Giant Covalent Structures (Carbon): In diamond, each carbon atom forms four
strong covalent bonds. This creates a rigid, three-dimensional lattice, making it the
hardest material on Earth.
The large structure are called macromolecules.
Carbon also forms of a giant structure for a very soft material-graphite.
Graphite is used for the lead in pencils and for lubricating moving parts in
machines
Graphite: Carbon atoms form layers by bonding with three other atoms. The
layers are held by weak bonds, allowing them to slide over each other, which
makes the material soft enough to leave marks on paper.