System software Foundations of Computing

Module 3- Basic Linux – introcuction

• Linux, a Unix-like operating system, employs the Command
Basic Linux commands

Line Interface (CLI) through a program called the shell.

• The shell acts as an intermediary between the user and the
Linux kernel, executing commands and returning results.
• Among the various Linux shells available, the Bourne Again
Shell (bash) is the most popular.
• Developed under the GNU Project, bash is an enhanced
version of the original Bourne shell (sh), designed by Steve
Bourne at Bell Labs.
 Module 3- Basic Linux – introcuction
• In Linux, the CLI appears as a login prompt where users
Basic Linux commands

must enter their username and password to access the

system.
• Upon successful login, a prompt appears, indicating the
system is ready for commands.
• This prompt format varies based on the user type:
– For regular users: $
– For root (administrator) users: #
 Module 3- Basic Linux – introcuction
• For example:
Basic Linux commands

• [sanvik@Linuxhost /home/sanvik]$ or
• [sanvik@Linuxhost ~]$
• In this format:
– sanvik — the logged-in user's name
– Linuxhost — the system's hostname
– ~ — shorthand for the user's home directory
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• Understanding the correct syntax of Linux commands is
Basic Linux commands

crucial when working with the command line interface

(CLI).
• The basic syntax for a Linux command is as follows:
• $ <command_name> <-options> <list_of_arguments>
• This structure defines the sequence and separation of
options and arguments in relation to the command
name, which determines the command's execution
behavior.
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• Command Name:
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• This is a valid Linux command that can be a built-in

shell script, system call, or user-defined program stored
in a directory listed in the PATH environment variable.
• The command name is mandatory; other parts (options
and arguments) are optional depending on the
command's operation.
• Example:
• $ ls
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• Options:
Basic Linux commands

• Options are used to modify the behavior of a

command.
• They are specified after the command name and are
preceded by one (-) or two hyphens (--).
• Options can either be mentioned separately or
combined in a single hyphen
• $ ls -l
• Displays detailed information about files in long format.
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• $ ls -l -t
Basic Linux commands

– Displays detailed information sorted by modification time.

• $ ls -lt
– Combines -l and -t options in one command for the same
output.
• $ ls -lt -r
– Displays detailed information sorted by modification time in
reverse order.
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• Arguments:
Basic Linux commands

• Arguments are inputs provided to the command. They

may refer to directories, files, or patterns.
• Arguments are optional and depend on the command’s
functionality.
• Example:
• $ ls -l *.c
– Displays details of all .c files in the current working directory.
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• $ ls -l /etc
Basic Linux commands

– Displays detailed information about the contents of the /etc

directory.
• $ cat /home/abc
– Displays the contents of the file abc located in the /home
directory.
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• Linux provides a vast range of commands categorized
Basic Linux commands

into different types based on their functionality.

– 1. User Commands
– 2. Universal Commands
– 3. System Commands
– 4. Communication and Networking Commands
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• 1. User Commands
Basic Linux commands

• Commands commonly used by users for file management,

navigation, and general system interaction.
• Examples:
– ls → List directory contents
– cp → Copy files
– mv → Move or rename files
– cat → Display file contents
– grep → Search within files
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• 2. Universal Commands
Basic Linux commands

• Commands that are available across all major Linux

distributions like Ubuntu, Fedora, CentOS, etc.
• These commands ensure consistent functionality
irrespective of the Linux variant.
• Examples:
– pwd → Display the current directory
– mkdir → Create a new directory
– rmdir → Remove empty directories
– man → Display manual pages for commands
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• 3. System Commands
Basic Linux commands

• Commands that manage system processes, resources, and

kernel-related functions.
• These commands are often used by system administrators
to control system operations.
• Examples:
– ps → Display active processes
– top → Monitor system performance in real-time
– kill → Terminate a process
– shutdown → Power off or restart the system
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• 4. Communication and Networking Commands
Basic Linux commands

• Commands used for network management, monitoring,

and file transfers across networks.
• Examples:
– ping → Check network connectivity
– scp → Securely copy files over a network
– ftp → Transfer files between systems using FTP
– wget → Download files from the internet
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• Depends on how the commands are executed by the
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system, they are classified in to two

– Internal commands and
– External commands
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• Internal Commands
Basic Linux commands

• Internal commands are built directly into the shell itself.

They are loaded when the shell starts and do not exist
as separate files.
• Since these commands are part of the shell, they do
not require a separate process for execution.
Consequently, internal commands do not have a
process ID (PID) during execution.
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• Examples:
Basic Linux commands

• cd — Change the current directory

• pwd — Display the current working directory
• echo — Print text to the terminal
 Module 3- Command Syntax, Options, and Arguments
• External Commands
Basic Linux commands

• External commands are not built into the shell; instead,

they are standalone programs stored as binary files in
specific system directories.
• The shell initiates a separate sub-process to execute these
commands.
• External commands are typically stored in:
– /bin — Common user commands (e.g., ls, mv, cat)
– /sbin and /usr/sbin — Commands requiring root privileges,
generally for system administration.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 1. ls Command (List Directory Contents)
Basic Linux commands

• The ls command is used to list files and directories in

the current or specified location.
• ls [options] [path_names]
• $ ls

• $ ls -l
 Module 3- Linux commands
• total 0
Basic Linux commands

• This indicates the total number of blocks used by the

files in this directory. Since no significant data is stored
(small files or empty directories), it shows 0 blocks.
• -rw-r--r-- (File Permission)
• The first character represents the type of file:
• - → Regular file
• d → Directory
• l → Symbolic link
 Module 3- Linux commands
• The remaining 9 characters are file permissions, divided
Basic Linux commands

into 3 groups:
• rw- → Owner's permissions (Read + Write)
• r-- → Group's permissions (Read only)
• r-- → Others' permissions (Read only)
• 1 (Link Count)
• This shows the number of hard links pointing to this file.
• For regular files, it's typically 1.
• For directories, it reflects the number of subdirectories
(including . and ..).
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 2. mkdir Command (Create Directory)
Basic Linux commands

• The mkdir command is used to create new directories.

• Syntax:
• mkdir [directory_name]
• Example
• mkdir dir1 — Create a directory named dir1.
• mkdir dir1 dir2 — Create multiple directorie
• mkdir -p parent/child — Create parent and child directories
togethers.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 3. cd Command (Change Directory)
Basic Linux commands

• The cd command is used to navigate between directories.

• Syntax:
• cd [directory_path]
• Examples:
• cd dir1 — Change to dir1 directory
• cd .. — Move one directory back (parent directory)
• cd /home/user — Move to the specified absolute path.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 4. pwd Command (Print Working Directory)
Basic Linux commands

• The pwd command displays the current working

directory.
• Syntax:
• Pwd
• Example:
• $ pwd
• /home/sudheer
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 5. cp Command (Copy Files and Directories)
Basic Linux commands

• The cp command is used to copy files and directories

from one location to another.
• Syntax:
• cp [options] <source> <destination>
• Examples:
• cp [Link] [Link]
– Copy [Link] to [Link]
 Module 3- Linux commands
• cp [Link] dir1/
Basic Linux commands

– Copy [Link] to dir1 folder

• $ cp [Link] dir1/
• cp -r dir1 dir2
– Copy all contents of dir1 into dir2
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 6. mv Command (Move/Rename Files)
Basic Linux commands

• The mv command is used to rename or move files and

directories.
• Syntax:
• mv [options] <source> <destination>
• Examples:
• mv [Link] [Link] — Rename [Link] to [Link]
 Module 3- Linux commands
• mv [Link] dir1
Basic Linux commands

– Move [Link] to dir1 directory

• mv dir1 dir2
– Move the entire dir1 into dir2.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 7. cat Command (Concatenate and Display Files)
Basic Linux commands

• The cat command is used to display the contents of a file or

combine multiple files.
• Syntax:
– cat [options] [file_name]
• Examples:
• cat [Link]
– Display the contents of [Link]
• cat [Link] [Link] > [Link]
– Combine two files into one.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• Redirection in Linux (> and >> Operator)
Basic Linux commands

• The > operator in Linux is used for output redirection,

allowing the output of a command to be saved into a
file instead of being displayed on the terminal.
• The operator
• > Overwrites the file and
• >> Appends data to the file.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• Syntax:
Basic Linux commands

• <command> > <filename>

• Example:
• $ ls > [Link]
– The ls command lists the contents of the current directory.
– The > operator redirects this output to the file named
[Link].
– If [Link] already exists, its contents will be overwritten.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• Input Redirection in Linux
• Input Redirection is a method of providing input to a
Shell scripting

command directly from a file instead of typing the

input manually.
• This is useful for processing the content of files using
commands that normally expect input from the
keyboard.
• The < symbol is used for input redirection.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• Syntax:
Basic Linux commands

• $ command < inputfile

• Example:
• Wc < [Link]
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 8. grep Command (Search for Patterns)
Basic Linux commands

• The grep command searches for specific text patterns

within files.
• Syntax:
• grep [options] "pattern" [file_name]
• Example:
– grep "error" [Link]
– grep -i "warning" [Link] — Case-insensitive search for
"warning".
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 9. man Command (Manual Pages)
Basic Linux commands

• The man command displays the manual page for a

given command.
• Syntax:
• man [command_name]
• Example:
• man ls — Display the manual for the ls command
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 10. chmod Command (Change File Permissions)
Basic Linux commands

• The chmod command is used to change file

permissions.
• Syntax:
• chmod [permissions] [file_name]
• Examples:
• chmod 755 [Link]
• Assign read (r), write (w), and execute (x) permissions.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• Understanding the Numbers in chmod
Basic Linux commands

• The numeric code (like 755) is called the octal

representation of file permissions.
• The three digits represent the permissions for three
different user categories:
– 1st digit → Owner permissions
– 2nd digit → Group permissions
– 3rd digit → Others (everyone else) permissions
 Module 3- Linux commands
• Permission Values in Octal:
Basic Linux commands

• Each permission type is assigned a numeric value:

– Read (r) → 4
– Write (w) → 2
– Execute (x) → 1
• To set multiple permissions
– Read + Write + Execute → 4 + 2 + 1 = 7
– Read + Execute → 4 + 1 = 5
– Read + Write → 4 + 2 = 6
 Module 3- Linux commands
• chmod 755 [Link] →
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– 7 → Owner permissions (rwx) → Read + Write + Execute

– 5 → Group permissions (r-x) → Read + Execute
– 5 → Others permissions (r-x) → Read + Execute
• Result:
– Owner can read, write, and execute the file.
– Group can read and execute the file.
– Others can read and execute the file.
 Module 3- Linux commands
• Alternative: Symbolic Mode (Human-readable form)
Basic Linux commands

• Instead of numeric values, symbolic notations can be

used
• Syntax:
• chmod u=rwx,g=rx,o=rx [Link]
• chmod g+w [Link]
 Module 3- Linux commands
• 11. rmdir Command (Remove Directory)
Basic Linux commands

• The rmdir command is used to delete empty

directories.
• Syntax:
• rmdir [directory_name]
• Example:
• $ rmdir S2
 Module 3- Linux commands
• For non-empty directories
Basic Linux commands

• rm -r dir1
• Example:
• rm -r S2
Basic Linux commands Module 3- Linux commands