Origin and Evolution of Life and Introduction to Classification MODULE - 1

Diversity and Evolution

of Life

1
Notes
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE AND
INTRODUCTION TO CLASSIFICATION

The planet earth came into existence sometime between 4 and 5 billion years ago.
Life evolved on planet earth about 3.5 billion years ago. Since then, approximately
15 million different species of organisms have evolved. But only about two million
have been identified so far. In this lesson we will learn how life of these, at first
originated on earth and how such a vast variety of organisms, popularly known as
biodiversity, evolved through variation and natural selection.

The study of such a wide variety of organisms becomes convenient only when they
are grouped according to similarities and differences, named, and their evolutionary
relationships established. We will also learn about the importance and method of
classification of organisms in this lesson and understand the position of viruses and
viroids vis-a-vis the web of the living world.

OBJECTIVES

After completing this lesson, you will be able to :

z describe the widely accepted ‘theory of origin of life’;
z explain what is organic evolution;
z give morphological, palaeontological, embryological and molecular evidences
in favour of organic evolution;
z state modern theory of evolution;
z explain the sources of organic variations (gene and chromosomal mutations,
recombination, gene flow and genetic drift);
z explain natural selection with examples;
z explain the role of isolation in evolution;
z list the various isolating mechanisms;
z explain speciation;
z understand Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium to relate genetics and evolution.
z define classification;

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of Life zjustify the need for classification of organisms;
z list the bases of classification;
z trace the changes in bases of classification from morphotaxonomy to systematics.
z State the position of virus and differentiate between virus and viroids.

1.1 ORIGIN OF LIFE

The earth was formed about five billion years ago. At that time it was extremely
Notes
hot. The existence of life in any form at that high temperature was not possible.
As such, two questions arise pertaining to life:
1. How did life originate on earth?
2. How did primitive organisms evolve into new forms resulting in the evolution
of a variety of organisms on earth.
Origin of life means the appearance of simplest primordial life from non-
living matter.
Evolution of life means the gradual formation of complex organisms from
simpler ones.

1.1.1 Chemosynthetic Theory of Origin of Life

Several theories have been put forth to explain the origin of life. The widely accepted
theory is the Chemosynthetic theory of origin of life, proposed by A.I. Oparin. Other
theories such as the theory of Spontaneous Generation are of historical importance
only.
Chemosynthetic Theory
Life might have originated at first on earth through a series of combinations
of chemical substances in the distant past and it all happened in water.

z The earth originated about 5 billion years ago.

z It was initially made up of hot gases and vapours of various chemicals.
z Gradually it cooled down and a solid crust was formed.
z The early atmosphere contained ammonia (NH3), water vapour (H2O), hydrogen
(H2), methane (CH4). At that time there was no free oxygen. This sort of
atmosphere (with methane, ammonia and hydrogen) is still found on Jupiter and
Saturn (Fig. 1.1).
z Heavy rains fell on the hot surface of earth, and over a very very long period
the water bodies appeared that still contained hot water.
z Methane and ammonia from the atmosphere dissolved in the water of the seas.
z In this water, chemical reactions occurred and gave rise to amino acids,
nitrogenous bases, sugars and fatty acids which further reacted and combined
to give rise to biomolecules of life such as proteins and nucleic acids.

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Notes

Fig. 1.1 Primitive conditions on earth

1.1.2 Probable stages in the origin of life

First stage
The sources of energy were the ultraviolet rays or electric discharge (lightening)
or heat. Either alone or a combination of these energy sources caused reactions that
produced complex organic compounds (including amino acids) from a mixture of
ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), water (H2O) and hydrogen (H2). The amino acids
are the building blocks of proteins which are the main components of protoplasm.
Stanley Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953 set up an experiment with an
air-tight apparatus (Fig. 1.2) in which four gases (NH4, CH4, H2 and H2O)
were subjected to an electric discharge for one week. On analyzing the
liquid, they found a variety of organic substances in it, such as amino acids,
urea, acetic acid, and lactic acid (Fig. 1.2).
Second Stage
Simple organic molecules combined to form large molecules which included peptides
(leading to the formation of proteins), sugars, starch and fat molecules.
Third stage
The large molecules of different kinds combined together to form multi-molecular
heaps or complexes. Some simple fat molecules arranged themselves around this
molecular complex in a sort of membrane. It was observed in the laboratory
experiments that when such complexes reached a certain size they separated from
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 MODULE - 1 Origin and Evolution of Life and Introduction to Classification
Diversity and Evolution
of Life the surrounding solution in the form of what were termed “coacervate drops” of
microscopic size, moving in the liquid with a definite boundary (coacervate means
“heap” referring to the combining together of the molecules).
Coacervate like aggregates were probably the precursors of the first living
cells.

Notes Electrodes

Spark discharge
To vacuum line

Condensor

Boiling water
Trap

Fig.1.2 The apparatus used by Stanley Miller and Harold C. Urey to demonstrate the
synthesis of amino acids under conditions that existed on the primitive earth
Now, some sort of “metabolism” could occur within these coacervates with synthesis
of certain substances and breakdown of others. The latter (i.e. breakdown reactions)
could provide energy.
Some of the earliest formed proteins might have acted like enzymes and would have
affected the rates of reactions. It is also believed that RNA molecules might have
shown enzymatic activity in the “primordial soup” of chemical compounds. Such
molecules have been termed ribozymes.
Fourth stage
Some sort of nucleoproteins or nucleic acids may have evolved by random
combinations which have provided two more properties to coacervate–like bodies.
These include :
(i) chemical reactions from the nucleic acids, and
(ii) the capacity to reproduce through duplication of the nucleic acids
(Fig. 1.3).
Thus, cells were produced that could be called the simplest primordial life. Figure
1.3 depicts the probable stages of origin and evolution of living beings.
The primitive “drop”–like forms of life were all heterotrophs, unable to manufacture
their own food but derived it from environment.
One of the innumerable changes in genetic make up of the primitive heterotrophs
led to the formation of chlorophyll (green colouring matter of the leaves)
molecules.
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– The chlorophyll–bearing units of life for the first time started using solar energy of Life
for production of food as well as for the first time started liberating free oxygen
into the atmosphere.
Early atmosphere of earth had no free oxygen, the forms until then could
at best be only “anaerobic”. Chlorophyll–bearing organisms later released
free oxygen which gave greater possibilities for life to evolve.
Notes

Modern virus Photosynthesizing To modern protists and

organisms multicellular

Primitive virus-like structures, First true cells, bacteria

Protein + Nucleic acid like, able to respire

Aggregates with nucleic acid and

possible respiratory mechanism

Aggregates with nucleic acid and

membrane

Molecular aggregate
Nucleic acids Carbohydrates
Fatty acids amino acids

Fig. 1.3 Steps of the events which led to the origin of life
Thus, the simplest form of life originated through four main stages. Thereafter, a
wide variety of organisms came into existence through biological evolution.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1

1. Approximately how many years ago was the earth formed?
............................................................................................................................
2. Who gave the Chemosynthetic Theory for origin of life?
............................................................................................................................
3. Name the four gases present in the primitive atmosphere of the earth.
............................................................................................................................

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 MODULE - 1 Origin and Evolution of Life and Introduction to Classification
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of Life 4. Name one source of energy which was used for chemical combination in
primitive atmosphere.
............................................................................................................................
5. Where did life originate in water or on land?
............................................................................................................................
Notes
6. What are ‘coacervates’?
............................................................................................................................
7. In the origin of life, first large molecules were formed from inorganic
compounds. Name any two such large molecules.
............................................................................................................................
8. Name the two scientists who experimentally tried to verify Oparin’s hypothesis.
............................................................................................................................

1.2 ORGANIC EVOLUTION

1.2.1 What is Evolution ?
The formation of complex organisms through ‘gradual change’ from simple ancestral
types over the course of geological time is termed Evolution or Organic Evolution.
According to the Theory of Organic Evolution
z The various present day organisms were not created in the same form in which
they exist today, but have gradually evolved from much simple ancestral forms
from a common ancestor.
z The characteristics of organisms had been changing in the past; they are changing
even today, and will continue to do so in the future as well. This is due to the
fact that the environment in which organisms live also changes and organisms
need to adapt to the changed environment in order to survive.
z Several living organisms of the past have become extinct.
z The origin of the various forms (species) found on earth has been a gradual and
extremely slow process, requiring hundreds or even thousands of years.
However, the evolution of black peppered moth or polyploid varieties of some
crops or pesticide resistant mosquitoes happened in much shorter periods of
time.

This process of slow and gradual change is called Organic Evolution.

The theory of organic evolution states that “All living things on earth are
here as a result of descent, with modifications from a common ancestor”.

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1.2.2 Evidences of organic evolution of Life

The evidences supporting organic evolution are derived from a number of fields of
Biology. Those discussed here are :
1. Morphological evidences 2. Embryological evidences
3. Palaeontological evidences 4. Molecular evidences

1. Evidences from Morphology Notes

Though organisms of different species and groups are quite different from each
other, they still retain certain common features. Morphological evidences for
evolution are derived from -
(i) Homologous and analogous organs (Fig. 1.4 and Fig. 1.5)
(ii) Vestigial organs
(iii) Connecting links
The comparative study of various organs in different groups of vertebrates exhibit
common features which show that they evolved from a common ancestor. Take for
example the heart of the vertebrates (Fig. 1.4).

Fig. 1.4 Comparative study of heart of different groups of vertebrates

(ii) Homologous Organs

Homologous organs are the organs which are similar in structure and origin but may
look very different and perform different functions.
– Forelimbs of vertebrates are a good example of homologous organs. They are
built on the same fundamental plan yet they appear different and perform
different functions (Fig. 1.5).
– In each case the forelimb consists of humerus, radius and ulna, carpals,
metacarpals and phalanges. This basic similarity in the structure of the apparently
different forelimbs of different kinds of vertebrates is due to the fact that all these
limbs have evolved from a common type called the pentadactyl (five-fingered)
limb.

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of Life Bird Whale Cat Horse Human

Humerus

Radioulna
Notes
Carpals
Metacarpals

Phalanges

Fig. 1.5 Homology and adaptation in bones of the forelimbs

of some vertebrates
The homologous organs, therefore, prove that different kinds of organisms came
into existence through evolution.
Analogous organs
The structures which are functionally similar but structurally different are called
analogous organs.
The wing of an insect, and that of a bird or bat or pterodactyl are examples of
analogous organs (Fig. 1.6). The function of the wing is the same (for flying) but
the insect wing has no structural resemblance with that of the vertebrates.

Insect Bird
Pterodactyl Bat

(a) Wing of insect (b) Wing of bird

Fig. 1.6 Analogy between wings of insects and of different vertebrates
(iii) Vestigial Organs
Vestigial organ is any small degenerate or imperfectly developed (non-functional)
organ or part which may have been complete and functional in some ancestor.

Wisdom tooth

Body hair in male Appendix

Tail vertebrae

Fig. 1.7 Some vestigial organs in human body

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The only rational explanation for the presence of these non-functional organs is that of Life
they have been inherited from ancestors in which they were functional. Fig. 1.7
shows some of the vestigial structures in the human body.
(iv) Connecting Links
The animals or plants which possess
characters of two different groups of
organisms are known as connecting links. Notes
The connecting links establish continuity
in the series of organisms by proving that
one group has evolved from the other. A
good example is that of a fossil bird
Archaeopteryx, which was a connecting
link between reptiles and birds. This bird
had a beak with teeth and a long tail (with
bones) like the lizards. It had feathers on
the wings and on the body like the birds. Fig. 1.8 An extinct bird - Archeopteryx
(Fig. 1.8).
2. Evidences from Embryology

Embryology is the study of development of an organism

The aspects of embryology which support the doctrine of organic evolution are :
z similar stages of early development (morula, blastula or gastrula) in all the
animals;
z the embryos of all vertebrates are similar in shape and structure in their early
stages.
This resemblance is so close that it is difficult to tell them apart (Fig. 1.9).
z All the vertebrates start their life from a single cell, the zygote.
z All of them during their life history, pass through two-layered blastula and three
layered gastrula stage and then through fish like stage with gill-slits.
All the different aspects of embryology strongly support the fact that the different
classes of vertebrates had common ancestors.
3. Evidences from Paleontology

Paleontology is the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains or traces of

animal and plant life of the past, found embedded in rock either as petrified
hard parts or as moulds, casts or tracks.
The fossils of the earliest era in the geological time scale were those of bacteria,
then invertebrates and then successively of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and lastly of
birds and mammals and among mammals primitive fossils of humans are the most
recent.

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Notes

Fig. 1.9 Series of vertebrate embryos in comparable stages of their development

a-Fish, b-Chick, c-Man

The discovered fossils of the horse, elephant, camels, and humans provide their
ancestral history (Fig. 1.10). The number of toes decreased for greater speed, size
gradually increased and teeth adapted to eat grass.

Mery hippus Mesohippus Eothippus

Equus

Fig. 1.10 Fossil record of bone of hind legs of horses from Eohippus to Equus showing
decrease in the number of toes

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4. Molecular Evidence of Evolution of Life
z All organisms have cell as the basic unit of life. The cell is made of biomolecules
common to all organisms.
z Ribosomes, the cellular organelles are of universal occurrence in organisms.
z DNA is the hereditary material of all organisms, except for some viruses.
z ATP is the molecule which stores and releases energy for biological processes.
Notes
z The same 22 amino acids form the constituents of proteins of almost all
organisms.
z The genetic code is universal (exceptions are very few).
z The central dogma which deals with the transfer of genetic information in cells
is the same.
z The basic steps of transcription and translation for protein synthesis are similar
in all organisms.
z The sequence of nucleotides such as that for the promoter gene (TATA box)
is common to all organisms.
However, organisms sharing same chemical characteristics show closer evolutionary
relationships. For example (i) human blood proteins are most similar to those of
the chimpanzee among all apes, or (ii) only plants and some algae have chlorophyll
so they are more closely related. Similarity in chemical constituents between
organisms is termed molecular homology or biochemical homology and are used
in recent times, to establish evolutionary relationships and form the basis of
systematics.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2

1. Define organic evolution.
............................................................................................................................
2. Name one fossil animal which forms a connecting link between reptiles and aves.
............................................................................................................................
3. Which organ of man is homologous to the wings of birds?.
............................................................................................................................
4. Define vestigial organ.
............................................................................................................................
5. Give one example of a connecting link among the living beings.
............................................................................................................................
6. Give two examples from molecular biology which support organic evolution.
............................................................................................................................

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of Life 1.2.3 Mechanism of Evolution
Various theories about the mechanism of evolution have been proposed; some of
them such as Lamarck’s theory of “Inheritance of acquired characters” and
De Vries’ theory of ‘mutation’ are now of historical importance only.
Darwin’s theory of Natural selection still holds ground but was modified with
progress in genetics and developed into the Modern synthetic theory which is
Notes regarded as the most valid theory of evolution.
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
An English Scientist, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) explained the mechanism of
evolution through his theory of natural selection. He is still regarded as ‘the father
of evolution’ because of two very significant contributions. He suggested (i) that
all kind of organisms are related through ancestry and (ii) he suggested a mechanism
for evolution and named it natural selection.
According to Darwin, organisms produce more offspring than can survive. Because
environmental resources are limited there ensues struggle for existence. Organisms
with advantageous variations are protected and allowed to reproduce while the
disadvantageous variants are eliminated from nature. This is what was termed
natural selection by Darwin.
According to Darwin when the environment changes, new adaptations get selected
in nature and after many generations sufficient characteristics will have been changed
so as to alter the species into a new one (origin of species).
Darwin talked about variation but did not know about the sources of variation. With
progress in genetics the sources of variation were discovered and Darwin’s original
theory of Natural Selection modified. This new theory was termed Neo-Darwinism
or Modern Synthetic Theory.

According to this theory :

1. The unit of evolution is ‘population’ which has its own gene pool. Gene pool
is the group of all different genes of a population.
2. Heritable genetic changes appear in the individuals of a population.
These heritable changes or variations occur due to small mutations in the genes
or in the chromosomes and their recombinations.
3. Natural selection selects the variations which helps in adapting to the environment.
4. A change in the genetic constitution of a population selected by natural selection
is responsible for evolution of a new species, since through interaction of
variation and Natural Selection more offsprings with favourable genetic
changes are born. This is called ‘differential reproduction’.
5. Once evolved, Reproductive Isolation helps in keeping species distinct.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.3

1. Who gave the theory of natural selection?
............................................................................................................................
2. What is the modern interpretation of Darwin’s theory of evolution called? Notes
............................................................................................................................
3. What are the two major contributions of Charles Darwin regarding evolution?
............................................................................................................................
4. Give two main features of Neo-Darwinism.
(i) ...........................................................................................................
(ii) ..........................................................................................................
5. What do you mean by “differential reproduction”?
............................................................................................................................

1.2.4 Elemental Forces of Organic Evolution

Evolution is caused by action of forces on Natural Selection of Variation.
Reproductive Isolation keeps the species distinct therefore the elemental forces of
Organic Evolution are: (i) Variation (ii) Natural Selection (iii) Isolation.
(i) Sources of organic variation
Variation arises in an individual member of a population, and if favourable, spreads
into the population through “differential reproduction” by the action of natural
selection. Variations may occur by
1. Mutation, which is a sudden genetic change. It may be a change in a single
gene (genic mutation or point mutation) or may affect many genes (chromosomal
mutation).
2. Genetic recombination, which occurs in sexually reproducing organisms at every
reproduction. The chromosomes and thus genes of the parents mix at random
during zygote formation. That is why offspring of same parents are different from
each other as they have different combinations of parental genes. Variation is also
brought about when crossing over occurs during gamete formation.
3. Gene flow is when there is chance mixing of genes of closely related species
through sexual reproduction.
4. Genetic drift occurs in small populations when a part breaks off from a large
population. Only representative genes of the large population are present which
undergo change at a right time and the small population may evolve into a new
subspecies or species.

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of Life (ii) Natural Selection
Natural selection considered to be responsible for “differential reproduction of
genes” which means that more of favourable genes get reproduced in a population.
Many examples of natural selection in action are available now. Given below are
three such examples.

Notes Example 1 : DDT resistant mosquitoes

About 50 years back, the mosquito population had been kept in control with the
help of DDT. Thereafter, it was found that mosquitoes could not be killed with DDT
any longer. There appeared DDT-resistant mosquitoes. What had happened was that
a gene mutation (variation) had conferred (given) on the mosquito, the ability to
resist the effect of DDT. While DDT killed other mosquitoes, those with the gene
mutation survived and slowly within a few generations DDT resistant mosquitoes
replaced the DDT-sensitive ones. In other words, the DDT resistant mosquitoes
‘reproduced differentially’ by the action of natural selection.

Example 2 : Metal tolerance in grasses

Certain metal residues sometimes collect in the soil near some industries using heavy
metals. Being poisonous they kill the grasses. However, resistant grasses are found
to evolve after some time through the action of genetic variation and natural
selection.
From the above example, can you explain the evolution of the heavy metal-tolerant
grasses?

Example 3 : Industrial melanism

A commonly quoted example of natural selection in action is that of the peppered
moth, Biston betularia. The moth with its light coloured wings dotted with spots
blended well with the lichens growing on the houses and trees on which it rested.
Once in a while if a mutated form of the moth which was black in colour appeared,
it was eaten up by birds as it was conspicuous because of its black wings. This was
observed in the British Isles before the industrial revolution. After the industrial
revolution, the genes for black wings proved favourable on the soot covered lichens
growing on the walls of houses. Natural selection acted through the agency of the
birds which now ate up the conspicuous light coloured winged peppered moth.
These were therefore, soon replaced by the black variety (Fig. 1.10).
There are several such examples in which human activities have changed the
environment and natural selection has been observed to play its role. But it is an
established fact now that all of biodiversity over these millions of years have also
evolved through the interaction of variation and natural selection.

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Notes

Fig. 1.11 Light and dark forms of Biston betularia

(iii) Role of Reproductive Isolation

Once new species arise from the parental species due to the effect of variation and
natural selection, reproductive barriers prevent the two species from exchanging
genes through reproduction.

Thus two related species cannot mate with each other and remain distinct. Isolation
means separation and reproductive isolation simply means that the two species are
prevented from successful reproduction and kept genetically distinct from each
other. Reproductive isolation operates in the following ways:

Ecological isolation : The two species are unable to mate as they live in
geographically different areas.

Seasonal isolation : Mating is prevented because the reproductive organs

mature at different times.

Ethological (Behavioural) : The songs in birds of two species or the colouration

isolation of two fishes are so different that female of one
species is able to recognise only the male of its own
species.

Mechanical isolation : The male and female organs for mating differ in
different species and prevent their union.

Physiological isolation : The sperms of one species are not able to survive in
the female tract of another species.

Zygotic and developmental: If all the above mechanisms fail and a “hybrid zygote”
Isolation (zygote from mating of two different species) is
formed, it dies after some time. If the hybrid zygote
survives it dies during development.

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of Life Hybrid sterility : Mule, the offspring of a female horse and male donkey
is a good example. It leads a normal life but is sterile
and cannot reproduce.
F2 breakdown : In rare cases, all the above mechanisms fail and a
hybrid (offspring of parents belonging to different
species) is fertile, it can reproduce only for one
Notes generation.

1.2.4 Speciation
The evolution of new species is termed speciation. Speciation occurs in the
following ways and is termed accordingly.

Allopatric speciation takes place when a part of the population becomes

geographically separated (geographical isolation) from the parental population. For
example a group of birds lives at the base of the mountain, some members fly up
and get geographically isolated. Variation and natural selection act differently on
the two because the environment in which the two live is different. Gradually genetic
changes render them to be reproductively isolated.

Sympatric speciation
Sometimes a genetic barrier (reproductive barrier) prevents reproduction between
a section of a population of a species with other members. Such a section of
population usually arises in plants because of polyploidy. Polyploidy is a mutation
in which the normal diploid number of chromosomes become doubled or trebled
(2n becomes 3n, 4n, 5n etc) in a section of the population of a species due to certain
irregularities during cell division. The polyploid section of the population is then
unable to interbreed (mate and reproduce) with their diploid ancestors and becomes
a new species.

Models of speciation
There are two accepted models of speciation that have given rise to the biodiversity

1. Phyletic Gradualism model

Two species from common ancestor gradually become more and more structurally
different acquiring adaptations unique to each other (Fig. 1.12a). Darwin also
believed that evolution is a slow and gradual process.

2. Punctuated equilibrium
A new species arises through major changes in the beginning and then remain
constant for long periods before changing again. (Fig. 1.12b). This model was
suggested by palaeontologists (scientists who study fossils), Niles Eldredge and
Stephen Jay Gould.
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Notes
Species 3 Species A
Time

Time
Species 2 Species B
Species 1 Species C

Variation Variation
Fig. 1.12 Models of speciation (a) Phyletic gradualism, (b) Punctuated equilibrium

1.2.5 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

This is a concept related to both genetics and evolution and was proposed by G.
H. Hardy and W. Weinberg.
A population of sexually reproducing organisms in which genes combine at random
due to random mating is called panmictic. In other words, a panmictic population
is one in which mating partners are not specifically selected. For example, we humans
usually do not look for specific blood group when a marriage is arranged so we
are panmictic with respect to blood types.
The Hardy Weinberg Principle states that in a panmictic population if there is no
pressure of mutation, selection, genetic drift etc. then the relative frequency of any
pair of genes remains constant, generation after generation. For example, a gene
has two alleles, p and q in the population and no mutation or selection etc. takes
place, then the frequency of these two alleles will remain constant generation after
generation. This can be mathematically represented as:
(p+q)2 =1 or p2 +2pq+q2 =1

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.3

1. List the sources of organic variation.
............................................................................................................................
2. What is ‘industrial melanism’ about? Answer in one or two sentences.
............................................................................................................................
3. State one point of difference between (a) allopatric & sympatric speciation (b)
Ecological and Ethological Isolation
............................................................................................................................
4. What is a panmictic population?
............................................................................................................................

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