CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The global demand for energy has continued to rise due to rapid industrialization, population
growth, and increasing standards of living. Fossil fuels particularly crude oil and natural gas
remain dominant in the global energy mix despite the gradual transition toward renewable
energy systems. In oil-producing operations, especially in upstream activities, the extraction
of crude oil is often accompanied by the production of associated natural gas. When this gas
cannot be economically captured, processed, or transported, it is commonly disposed of
through a process known as gas flaring.

The open air combustion of fuel gas i.e. “Gas flaring” is produced by various processes such
as oil and gas retrieval, petrochemical processes, and extraction of discharge gases (World
Bank, 2021). It is the method of burning unwanted or unused combustible gas that would
otherwise be immediately discharged into the atmosphere. Gas flaring is done to convert the
CH4 content of the gas, into the products which are less fatal to the persons in the flare site’s
surroundings (Olusegun, 2016). The flare system itself consists of pipelines, knockout drums,
and a flare tip designed to enhance mixing between gas and air for efficient combustion.
Although flaring serves important safety functions such as pressure relief during process
upsets and disposal of hazardous gases it has evolved into a routine operational practice in
many oil producing regions.

In 2024, global flare volumes rose to 151 billion cubic meters (bcm), the highest level since
2007, continuing the upward trend in flaring that began in 2023. Compared to 2012, this
represents a 5 percent increase, or 8 billion cubic meters more flared gas. Flaring intensity,
the amount of associated gas flared per barrel of oil produced, has remained largely
unchanged for the last fifteen years, and the decoupling between flaring and oil production
seen since the early 2000s has stalled (Global Gas Flaring Tracker Report, 2025)

Nigeria is located in western Africa, sharing borders with the Republics of Niger and Chad to
the north, the Republic of Benin to the west, and the Republic of Cameroon to the east. It is
fortunate to have a large oil reserve, which has supplied the funding for development in other
areas. Nigeria is Africa’s leading oil provider and the world’s thirteenth largest oil supplier,
with crude oil accounting for about 65 per cent of total government revenue. Nigeria has the
ability to produce up to 1.64million barrels of crude oil per day at full operating capacity (IPPG
chairman at Nigeria International Energy Summit 2026 (NIES)).

Nigeria is one of the largest oil-producing countries in Africa and has historically been among
the top gas-flaring nations globally. Gas flaring in Nigeria dates back to 1956 at the Oloibiri oil
field, where associated gas was initially considered a nuisance by product due to the absence
of utilization infrastructure (OUP Academic). Nigeria experienced a 12 percent increase in
flaring volume in 2024, the second largest increase globally. With oil production rising by just
3 percent, flaring intensity increased by 8 percent. This marks the second consecutive year
of rising flare levels in Nigeria. Flaring at oil and gas facilities operated by the national oil
company, Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), and several smaller companies,
likely with limited expertise or funding for gas utilization, accounted for 60 percent of Nigeria’s
gas flaring and 75 percent of the increase in 2024(Global Gas Flaring Tracker Report, 2025)

The persistence of gas flaring in Nigeria is attributed to several interrelated factors. One of the
primary causes is the lack of adequate gas gathering, processing, and transportation
infrastructure, which limits the ability to commercialize associated gas (OUP Academic).
Additionally, the economic framework of the oil and gas sector historically favoured crude oil
production over gas utilization, making flaring a cheaper alternative for operators. Studies
have also shown that weak enforcement of environmental regulations and low penalties for
non-compliance contribute significantly to continued flaring practices
([Link]).

The environmental and socio-economic impacts of gas flaring are severe. Flaring releases
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, contributing to climate change and
global warming. It also emits harmful pollutants, including sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
and particulate matter, which degrade air quality and pose serious health risks to nearby
communities. In Nigeria, gas flaring has been linked to environmental degradation, reduced
agricultural productivity, and adverse health outcomes in host communities (MDPI).
Furthermore, the economic losses associated with flaring are substantial, as valuable natural
gas resources are wasted instead of being monetized. Estimates suggest that billions of
dollars are lost annually due to the flaring of associated gas (Samphina Academy).

In response to these challenges, there has been increasing global and national emphasis on
the development and deployment of gas utilization technologies. One of the most promising
solutions is the Flare Gas Recovery System (FGRS). A flare gas recovery system is designed
to capture gases that would otherwise be flared and redirect them for beneficial use, such as
fuel gas, power generation, or feedstock for petrochemical processes. This technology not
only reduces environmental pollution but also enhances the economic performance of oil
and gas operations by converting waste into valuable products (Biomedres).

Recent studies have demonstrated that flare gas recovery systems can significantly improve
process efficiency and profitability. By integrating compression, gas treatment, and utilization
units, these systems enable the recovery of low-pressure flare gases and their reintegration
into the production cycle. Economic analyses indicate that such systems can yield high rates
of return and short payback periods, making them attractive investments under appropriate
conditions (Opast Publishing Group). However, the feasibility of implementing flare gas
recovery systems depends on several factors, including gas composition, flow rate,
infrastructure availability, and market demand for recovered products.

Despite the proven benefits of flare gas recovery technologies, their adoption in Nigeria and
other developing countries remains limited. This is largely due to high capital costs,
technological complexity, and uncertainties in regulatory and economic frameworks.
Moreover, many onshore oil fields are characterized by small and dispersed flare sites, which
pose additional challenges for large-scale gas recovery systems. As a result, there is a
growing need for innovative, cost-effective, and scalable solutions tailored to the specific
conditions of such fields.
 Given these challenges, the process design and techno-economic evaluation of flare gas
recovery systems have become critical areas of research. Process design involves the
development of an optimal configuration of equipment and operating conditions to maximize
gas recovery efficiency, while techno-economic evaluation assesses the financial viability of
the system by analysing capital and operating costs, revenue potential, and profitability
indicators such as net present value and payback period.

This study is therefore motivated by the need to address the persistent problem of gas flaring
in Nigeria’s onshore oil fields through the application of engineering design and economic
analysis. By developing a robust flare gas recovery system and evaluating its techno-
economic performance, this research aims to contribute to sustainable energy utilization,
environmental protection, and improved economic outcomes in the oil and gas sector.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Ideally, associated natural gas produced during crude oil extraction should be efficiently
captured, processed, and utilized as a valuable energy resource for power generation,
petrochemical feedstock, or reinjection to enhance oil recovery. Such practices would
promote optimal resource utilization, improve energy efficiency, reduce environmental
pollution, and generate additional economic value within oil-producing nations like Nigeria.

However, the current reality in Nigeria’s onshore oil production facilities deviates significantly
from this ideal. A significant proportion of associated gas in Nigeria is still routinely disposed
of through flaring, with approximately 203.9 billion standard cubic feet (≈5.8–6 bcm) flared in
2025 alone, primarily due to inadequate gas gathering infrastructure, limited processing
capacity, and weak gas commercialization frameworks (NUPRC, 2025 Gas Production Status
Report). This practice not only results in substantial economic losses but also contributes to
environmental degradation through the emission of greenhouse gases and harmful
pollutants.

Although various policies and initiatives have been put forward to reduce gas flaring in
Nigeria’s oil and gas sector, significant gaps persist in practice, particularly with regard to the
integration of effective flare gas recovery technologies into existing production systems. Many
facilities were originally designed without provisions for gas recovery systems, making
retrofitting both technically complex and costly, and leading operators to continue prioritizing
flaring for safety and operational convenience rather than resource recovery. Retrofitting
projects often require extensive engineering modifications to existing infrastructure, which
can delay implementation and deter investment decisions. (PMarket Research)

In addition to technical barriers, there is a lack of readily accessible and detailed process
design frameworks and decision support tools that integrate technical, economic, and
regulatory considerations for flare gas utilisation. Researchers have noted that existing tools
and models often fail to offer practical, comprehensive frameworks that combine economic
feasibility analysis with technical optimization tailored to local operating contexts, further
impeding effective flare gas management. (MDPI)

Moreover, while some techno-economic studies suggest that certain flare gas recovery
systems can be financially viable, the economic feasibility of implementing these
 technologies at scale in Nigeria remains underexplored and uncertain, with only limited
project-level evaluations published and few that account for institutional challenges,
infrastructural deficits, and market conditions that influence investment decisions. (MDPI)

These limitations technical complexity of integration, insufficient design and decision

frameworks, and underdeveloped techno-economic evidence in real operational
environments collectively contribute to the continued reliance on disposal through flaring
rather than systematic recovery and utilisation. (PMarket Research)

To address the persistent flaring of associated gas in Nigeria, this study proposes the process
design and techno-economic evaluation of a flare gas recovery system specifically tailored
for an onshore oil production facility. By developing a detailed process design, the project will
identify the optimal configuration and integration of recovery technologies suitable for
existing production infrastructure, ensuring both technical feasibility and operational safety.

Simultaneously, the study will perform a comprehensive techno-economic assessment,

quantifying the expected capital and operating costs, potential revenue from recovered gas,
payback periods, and overall project viability. This dual approach not only addresses the
current lack of locally adapted design frameworks but also provides actionable insights into
the economic feasibility of flare gas recovery in Nigerian conditions.

By combining technical process optimization with rigorous economic evaluation, the project
aims to demonstrate practical, cost-effective strategies to reduce gas flaring, improve
resource utilization, and support the country’s environmental and energy objectives.

1.3 Research Questions

The following are the research questions for this study;

1. How can an effective flare gas recovery system be designed and integrated into an
existing onshore oil production facility in Nigeria to optimize gas utilization while
maintaining operational safety?
2. What is the economic feasibility of implementing a flare gas recovery system in an
onshore Nigerian production facility, considering capital and operating costs, potential
revenue from recovered gas, and payback period?
3. To what extent can the implementation of a flare gas recovery system reduce gas flaring,
enhance resource utilization, and mitigate environmental impacts in Nigerian onshore oil
production operations?

1.4 Objective of the Study

1. Adopt a representative associated gas composition typical Niger Delta reservoir for the
design analysis.
2. Perform material and energy balance calculations for the proposed flare gas recovery
process.
3. Design key components of the flare gas recovery system including the knock out and the
compression unit and simulate the process using Aspen HYSYS to evaluate system
performance.
4. Estimate the reduction in greenhouse emissions achievable through flare gas recovery.
 5. Conduct a techno economic evaluation including Capital expenditure (CAPEX),
Operational expenditure (OPEX), Net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and
payback period.
1.5 Justification for the Study.

The justification for this study is grounded in the need to transition from routine gas disposal
to sustainable and economically viable gas recovery practices. Although flare gas recovery
technologies are widely recognized and applied in other oil-producing regions, their adoption
in Nigeria has been limited due to challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, high capital
investment requirements, and uncertainties surrounding economic returns (World Bank,
2024; IEA, 2023). Consequently, many existing production systems continue to prioritize
flaring for safety and operational simplicity rather than resource recovery.

Furthermore, existing literature reveals a gap in integrated studies that combine detailed
process design with comprehensive techno-economic evaluation, particularly within the
context of Nigerian onshore facilities. Many studies either focus on theoretical design without
economic validation or provide generalized economic analyses without sufficient
consideration of process integration and local operating conditions (Okeke et al., 2021;
Adegboye et al., 2020). This limits their applicability for real-world decision-making and
investment planning.

This study is therefore justified by its aim to provide a practical and context-specific
framework that integrates process design with techno-economic evaluation for flare gas
recovery in an onshore oil production facility in Nigeria. By doing so, it addresses the existing
gap between engineering design and economic feasibility, offering a more holistic approach
to evaluating gas recovery projects.

In addition, the study supports broader national and global objectives for gas flaring
reduction and environmental sustainability, including Nigeria’s commitment to the World
Bank’s “Zero Routine Flaring by 2030” initiative (World Bank, 2024). By demonstrating the
technical and economic potential of flare gas recovery systems, the research contributes to
improved resource utilization, reduced emissions, and enhanced energy efficiency within the
petroleum sector.

Finally, the outcomes of this study will provide valuable data and insights for industry
stakeholders, policy makers, and researchers, serving as a reference for future project
development, policy formulation, and academic investigations. Ultimately, this work is
justified as a step toward enabling the transition from gas flaring to economically beneficial
and environmentally responsible gas utilization in Nigeria.

1.6 Significance of the Study

For students and researchers, this study provides a detailed case of integrating process
design with techno-economic evaluation, serving as a practical learning tool for petroleum
and gas engineering, process engineering, and energy sustainability courses. It offers
quantitative and practical data on gas recovery potential, capital and operating costs, and
project viability, which can guide future research, theses, and academic projects.
 For universities and academic institutions, the study enhances curriculum development by
providing real-world data that reflects local operational conditions in Nigerian onshore oil
facilities. It serves as a reference for laboratory exercises, simulation studies, and workshops,
helping institutions integrate techno-economic analyses into teaching and research
programs.

For the industry and oil & gas operators, the study offers actionable insights into technically
feasible and economically viable flare gas recovery solutions. It provides a framework for
retrofitting existing facilities, evaluating investment viability, and optimizing resource
utilization while reducing environmental penalties. The findings support strategic planning for
sustainable operations in line with government policies on zero gas flaring.

Finally, for policy makers and future studies, the research generates empirical data that can
inform regulatory frameworks, incentive programs, and environmental policies. It also serves
as a foundation for further research into advanced flare gas recovery technologies, alternative
utilization pathways, and nationwide scalability assessments, contributing to national energy
planning and climate change mitigation efforts.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study focuses on the process design and techno-economic evaluation of a flare gas
recovery system for an onshore oil production facility in Nigeria. The research is limited to
associated gas that is currently being flared and evaluates its potential for recovery and
utilization within the facility.

The technical scope of the study includes the design of an appropriate flare gas recovery
system, covering key process units such as gas compression, separation, and conditioning.
It involves the selection of suitable technologies, development of process flow diagrams
(PFDs), and where necessary, process simulation to determine system performance,
capacity, and efficiency under typical operating conditions. The study also considers
integration of the recovery system into existing production infrastructure, with attention to
operational safety and feasibility.

The economic scope involves a detailed techno-economic evaluation of the proposed

system. This includes estimation of capital expenditure (CAPEX), operating expenditure
(OPEX), and potential revenue from recovered gas. Economic indicators such as net present
value (NPV), payback period, and profitability index are evaluated to determine the financial
viability of the project under Nigerian operating and market conditions.

The study is further limited to onshore production systems, and as such, does not cover
offshore facilities or deepwater operations. It also assumes steady-state operating
conditions and does not extensively analyse transient behaviours or long-term reservoir
performance. Environmental assessment is limited to estimating the potential reduction in
gas flaring and associated emissions, rather than conducting a full environmental impact
assessment (EIA).

Additionally, the research relies on available data, design assumptions, and standard
engineering correlations where field data is limited. While efforts are made to reflect realistic
Nigerian conditions, variations in field-specific parameters, regulatory changes, and market
fluctuations may influence actual project outcomes.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for this study presents a structured relationship between the key
variables involved in the process design and techno-economic evaluation of a flare gas
recovery system (FGRS) in an onshore oil production facility in Nigeria. It shows how
engineering design inputs, operational conditions, and external influencing factors interact to
determine the technical performance, economic viability, and environmental impact of the
proposed system.

This framework is developed based on insights from existing literature, particularly studies by
Edeh and Olawale (2023), Udechukwu et al. (2022), and Rahimpour et al. (2012), which
emphasize the integration of process design, simulation, and economic evaluation in flare gas
recovery projects.

2.2.1 Framework Structure and Variable Classification

The framework is organized into three main categories of variables:

1. Input Variables (Independent Variables)

These represent the fundamental design and operational parameters required for the
development of the flare gas recovery system.
2. Moderating Variables (Intervening Factors)
These are external and contextual factors that influence the implementation and
performance of the system.
3. Output Variables (Dependent Variables)
These represent the outcomes of the system in terms of technical efficiency, economic
performance, and environmental benefits.

2.2.2 Input Variables (Process Design Parameters)

A. Flare Gas Characteristics

Flare gas characteristics form the basis for system design and include:

• Gas composition (methane, ethane, CO₂, H₂S)

• Flow rate

• Temperature and pressure

According to Udechukwu et al. (2022), associated gas in the Niger Delta exhibits significant
variability in composition and flow conditions, which directly affects system configuration,
equipment sizing, and recovery efficiency. Therefore, the adoption of a representative gas
composition is essential for accurate process design and simulation.
 B. Process Design Parameters

These include:

• Design of knockout drum (gas-liquid separation)

• Compressor selection and staging

• Pipeline and pressure configuration

• Operating conditions

Edeh and Olawale (2023) emphasize that proper process design significantly enhances
recovery efficiency and ensures operational safety. The integration of these components
determines the overall effectiveness of the flare gas recovery system.

C. Technology and Simulation Tools

The study employs process simulation tools such as Aspen HYSYS to model system
performance. Simulation enables:

• Thermodynamic analysis

• Equipment sizing

• Process optimization

This approach is consistent with modern engineering practices, where simulation serves as a
predictive tool for evaluating system behavior prior to implementation.

D. Operational Conditions

Operational factors include:

• Fluctuating gas production rates

• Facility capacity

• Maintenance and operational constraints

These conditions are particularly significant in onshore facilities in Nigeria, where

infrastructure limitations and field variability influence system performance.

2.2.3 Moderating Variables (Contextual Factors)

A. Economic Conditions

Economic factors include:

• Capital cost of equipment

• Operating and maintenance costs

• Market price of natural gas

 According to Peters et al. (2003) and Turton et al. (2018), these factors play a critical role in
determining the financial feasibility of engineering projects.

B. Regulatory and Policy Framework

Government policies such as gas flaring penalties and commercialization initiatives influence
project viability. Reports from the World Bank highlight the role of regulatory enforcement in
reducing flaring practices.

C. Infrastructure and Security Constraints

In the Nigerian context, limitations in:

• Gas gathering systems

• Pipeline networks

• Power supply

as well as security challenges, significantly affect the implementation of flare gas recovery
systems.

D. Environmental Considerations

Environmental concerns, including emission reduction targets and sustainability goals, act as
drivers for adopting flare gas recovery technologies.

2.2.4 Output Variables (System Outcomes)

A. Technical Performance

Measured by:

• Gas recovery efficiency

• System reliability

• Energy consumption

Studies such as Edeh and Olawale (2023) demonstrate that optimized systems can achieve
high recovery rates and improved operational performance.

B. Economic Performance

Evaluated using:

• Net Present Value (NPV)

• Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

• Payback Period

Techno-economic studies indicate that flare gas recovery systems can be financially viable,
particularly when gas utilization pathways are well defined.

C. Environmental Impact Reduction

 Includes:

• Reduction in gas flaring volumes

• Decrease in greenhouse gas emissions

According to the World Bank, flare gas recovery contributes significantly to environmental
sustainability.

2.2.5 Conceptual Model Diagram

The conceptual framework for this study is illustrated below:

INPUT VARIABLES

(Process Design Factors)

----------------------------------

- Flare Gas Characteristics

- Process Design Parameters

- Technology & Simulation

- Operational Conditions

MODERATING VARIABLES

(Contextual Factors)

----------------------------------

- Economic Conditions

- Regulatory Policies

- Infrastructure Constraints

- Environmental Requirements

OUTPUT VARIABLES

(System Outcomes)

----------------------------------

- Technical Performance

- Economic Viability
 - Environmental Impact Reduction

2.2.6 Conceptual Relationship Explanation

The conceptual framework establishes that the design and performance of a flare gas recovery
system are primarily driven by process design variables such as gas composition, equipment
configuration, and operational conditions. These variables interact with moderating factors
including economic conditions, regulatory policies, and infrastructure availability, which
influence the feasibility and implementation of the system.

The interaction of these variables ultimately determines the outcomes of the system,
particularly in terms of technical efficiency, economic profitability, and environmental
sustainability. By integrating these components, the framework provides a holistic basis for
evaluating flare gas recovery systems in onshore oil production facilities in Nigeria.

2.2.7 Link to the Present Study

This study adopts the above framework to:

• Develop a technically sound flare gas recovery system

• Simulate and evaluate system performance

• Assess economic feasibility under Nigerian conditions

The framework therefore serves as a guide for analysing how engineering design decisions
influence economic outcomes and environmental benefits, thereby supporting effective
decision-making in gas utilization projects.

2.3 Empirical Review

Empirical research on flare gas recovery systems (FGRS) has expanded significantly,
particularly in response to persistent gas flaring in oil-producing regions such as the Niger
Delta. Existing studies largely adopt process simulation methodologies, integrating
thermodynamic modelling, equipment design, and economic evaluation to assess the
technical and financial viability of recovering associated gas. Prominent among these are the
works of Udechukwu et al. (2022), Edeh and Olawale (2023), and Evbuomwan et al. (2018), all
of which utilize steady-state simulation platforms such as Honeywell UniSim and Aspen
HYSYS, coupled with the Peng–Robinson equation of state, to model hydrocarbon systems
under varying operating conditions.

A fundamental aspect across these studies is the characterization of flare gas composition,
which directly influences process design and system configuration. Udechukwu et al. (2022),
in a Niger Delta case study, reported a flare gas composition dominated by methane (87.92%),
with CO₂ (4.13%), ethane (4.65%), and minor heavier hydrocarbons, reflecting typical
associated gas streams from onshore oil production facilities. This methane-dominant
composition necessitated the incorporation of amine-based gas sweetening units to remove
acid gases prior to utilization. In contrast, Edeh and Olawale (2023), working on a refinery-
based flare system, identified a more diverse hydrocarbon composition, including significant
fractions of propane and butane, which justified the use of fractionation columns
(demethanizer, deethanizer, depropanizer, and debutanizer) for component recovery. This
distinction demonstrates that while both studies focus on FGRS, differences in feedstock
composition lead to fundamentally different process configurations and recovery objectives.

From a process design perspective, there is a clear similarity in system architecture across the
reviewed studies. Udechukwu et al. (2022), Edeh and Olawale (2023), and Evbuomwan et al.
(2018) all adopt a multi-stage design framework, consisting of:

• Flare gas collection and knockout separation

• Multi-stage compression

• Gas treatment (amine absorption or equivalent)

• Separation and/or conversion

• Final utilization

However, despite this structural similarity, the depth and complexity of process integration
differ significantly. For instance, Evbuomwan et al. (2018) focused primarily on core process
design and simulation of flare gas recovery units, emphasizing material and energy balances,
compressor design, and system integration, but did not extend the analysis to advanced
utilization pathways. In contrast, Udechukwu et al. (2022) developed a more integrated
system, incorporating not only gas recovery and sweetening but also Gas-to-Liquids (GTL)
conversion using Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, thereby extending the system boundary to
include downstream product generation. This methodological difference results in divergent
outcomes, where Evbuomwan et al. (2018) primarily demonstrate technical feasibility of gas
recovery, while Udechukwu et al. (2022) demonstrate both technical feasibility and value-
added product generation, including the production of over 1000 barrels/day of liquid fuels.

In terms of operational parameters, all studies emphasize the importance of pressure and
temperature control, but differ in their treatment and depth of analysis. Udechukwu et al.
(2022) provide detailed operational conditions, including amine regeneration at ~200°F and
pressure reduction from 1000 psia to 90 psia, highlighting the thermodynamic sensitivity of
gas sweetening processes. Edeh and Olawale (2023), on the other hand, focus more on
separation efficiency and column design parameters, such as tray configuration and reflux
ratios, reflecting the importance of fractionation in refinery-based systems. These differences
in focus lead to variations in reported performance: while Udechukwu et al. (2022) emphasize
gas purity improvement (e.g., CO₂ reduction from 4.13% to 0.06%), Edeh and Olawale (2023)
report component-specific recovery efficiencies, such as 99.9% propane recovery and overall
system efficiency of 94%. Thus, although both studies achieve high recovery performance,
they differ in performance metrics and evaluation criteria, reflecting their distinct system
objectives.

A major area of divergence across studies lies in the choice of utilization pathway and its
economic implications. Udechukwu et al. (2022) explicitly compare two scenarios: pipeline
gas and GTL conversion, demonstrating that while pipeline gas systems require relatively low
capital investment (~$5 million), GTL systems involve significantly higher capital costs (~$180
million) but yield greater long-term economic returns through the production of high-value
liquid fuels. In contrast, Edeh and Olawale (2023) do not extend their analysis to detailed
economic evaluation but focus instead on maximizing hydrocarbon recovery within refinery
systems, thereby limiting the scope of techno-economic insights. Similarly, Evbuomwan et al.
(2018) emphasize process design and simulation accuracy, with limited attention to economic
optimization. These differences indicate that the extent of techno-economic evaluation varies
significantly across studies, leading to varying conclusions regarding system feasibility and
optimal design.

Despite these differences, several strong similarities can be identified when these studies are
examined collectively. First, all studies confirm that flare gas recovery efficiencies typically fall
within the range of 90–95%, regardless of system configuration or feed source (Udechukwu et
al., 2022; Edeh and Olawale, 2023). Second, there is unanimous agreement that compression
is the most energy-intensive and critical component of FGRS, as highlighted by Evbuomwan
et al. (2018) and implicitly supported by the high-pressure requirements in Udechukwu et al.
(2022). Third, all studies recognize gas composition, flow rate, pressure, and temperature as
the primary design variables influencing system performance. Finally, the environmental
benefit of reducing gas flaring and greenhouse gas emissions is consistently emphasized
across all studies.

However, a deeper comparative analysis reveals important differences not only in approach
but also in outcomes. For example, while Udechukwu et al. (2022) achieve high methane
purity and demonstrate the feasibility of GTL conversion, their system incurs significantly
higher energy consumption and capital cost due to the complexity of downstream processing.
In contrast, Edeh and Olawale (2023) achieve higher component-specific recovery
efficiencies with relatively simpler configurations, but do not capture the full economic
potential of the recovered gas due to the absence of advanced utilization pathways. Similarly,
Evbuomwan et al. (2018) provide a strong foundation in process design but do not quantify
system performance in terms of economic indicators such as NPV or IRR, thereby limiting the
applicability of their findings to investment decision-making.

Based on the comparative analysis of these studies, several critical research gaps are
evident:

1. Lack of Fully Integrated Process Design and Techno-Economic Evaluation

While Udechukwu et al. (2022) attempt to integrate process design with economic analysis,
most studies, including Edeh and Olawale (2023) and Evbuomwan et al. (2018), treat these
aspects separately. There is a lack of studies that simultaneously optimize technical
performance and economic viability within a unified framework.

2. Limited Comparative Evaluation of Utilization Pathways

Only Udechukwu et al. (2022) provide a comparative analysis of different utilization pathways
(pipeline gas vs. GTL). Other studies focus on a single pathway, limiting the ability to determine
optimal utilization strategies under varying conditions.
3. Insufficient Focus on Onshore Oil Production Facilities

Although Udechukwu et al. (2022) consider Niger Delta conditions, most studies do not
explicitly model specific onshore production facility configurations, which differ significantly
from refinery systems analysed by Edeh and Olawale (2023).

4. Inadequate Sensitivity and Parametric Analysis

Existing studies provide limited insight into how variations in key input parameters (gas
composition, flow rate, pressure) affect system performance. Even in Udechukwu et al.
(2022), sensitivity analysis is not extensively explored.

5. Simplified Operational Assumptions

All reviewed studies, including Udechukwu et al. (2022) and Edeh and Olawale (2023), rely on
steady-state simulations, neglecting the dynamic and fluctuating nature of flare gas streams,
which is particularly relevant in onshore facilities.

6. Limited Optimization of Energy–Economic Trade-offs

Although high recovery efficiencies are reported, the associated energy penalties (especially
from compression and solvent regeneration) are not adequately optimized. This is evident in
Udechukwu et al. (2022), where improved recovery and product generation come at the cost
of high capital and energy requirements.

Relevance to the Present Study

The present study seeks to address these gaps by developing a comprehensive process design
and techno-economic evaluation of a flare gas recovery system for an onshore oil production
facility in Nigeria, integrating:

• Detailed process simulation using realistic field data

• Comprehensive techno-economic evaluation (CAPEX, OPEX, NPV, IRR)

• Sensitivity analysis of key design parameters

• Potential optimization of energy and economic performance

This approach provides a more holistic and context-specific framework, improving upon the
limitations identified in previous studies.

In conclusion, empirical studies on FGRS provide substantial insights into system design and
performance; however, they remain fragmented in scope and limited in integration. While
studies such as Udechukwu et al. (2022) demonstrate advanced system integration and
economic potential, others such as Edeh and Olawale (2023) and Evbuomwan et al. (2018)
emphasize specific aspects of system design without fully capturing the broader techno-
economic context. Addressing these limitations is essential for developing efficient,
economically viable, and scalable FGRS solutions, particularly for onshore oil production
facilities in the Niger Delta.
2.4 Theoretical Review

The recovery of flare gas in onshore oil production facilities is a complex process that
requires integration of several fundamental engineering principles. Each theoretical
domain—thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, mass and heat transfer, chemical reaction
engineering, process optimization, and engineering economics—provides a scientific
foundation for designing, simulating, and evaluating a FGRS. In this study, these
principles are directly applied to address low recovery efficiency, variable gas
composition, energy consumption, and economic feasibility, which are gaps identified in
previous studies (Udechukwu et al., 2022; Edeh & Olawale, 2023; Evbuomwan et al.,
2018).

2.4.1 Thermodynamics in FGRS Design

Thermodynamics, particularly as expressed through the Peng–Robinson equation of

state, allows for accurate modeling of flare gas behavior under varying temperature and
pressure conditions:

[P = \frac{RT}{V - b} - \frac{a}{V(V + b) + b(V - b)}]

This theory is central to the study because flare gas composition varies significantly
across onshore facilities, influencing phase separation and hydrocarbon recovery. By
applying thermodynamic modeling, the research can:

• Predict vapor–liquid equilibria in separators and fractionation units

• Determine the condensation of heavier hydrocarbons, which informs process

design and equipment sizing

• Ensure accurate simulation of compression and cooling stages, which directly

impacts energy consumption and recovery efficiency

In essence, thermodynamics provides the scientific justification for the process

simulation of your FGRS.

2.4.2 Conservation Laws and System Performance

The principles of mass, energy, and momentum conservation are directly applied in
evaluating FGRS performance.

Mass balance:

[\sum \dot{m}{in} = \sum \dot{m}{out}, \quad \eta_{recovery} =

\frac{\dot{m}{recovered}}{\dot{m}{flare}} \times 100]

Ensures accurate estimation of gas recovery efficiency, a key metric for assessing the
system’s effectiveness.

Energy conservation:

[\dot{Q} - \dot{W} = \sum \dot{m}(h_{out} - h_{in})]

Supports compressor and heat exchanger design, ensuring that energy inputs are
optimized while minimizing losses.

Momentum conservation:

[F = \frac{d(mv)}{dt}]

Enables analysis of pipeline and header flow, critical for pressure management and
compressor sizing.

By applying these laws, the study can quantitatively assess system performance and
provide reliable techno-economic evaluation.

2.4.3 Fluid Mechanics and Gas Transport

Flare gas transport through pipelines and compressors is governed by fluid flow
principles, including compressible flow and Darcy–Weisbach pressure loss:

[\Delta P = f \frac{L}{D} \frac{\rho v^2}{2}]

[\dot{m} = \rho A v]

These principles are directly relevant because pressure drops in flare headers and
pipelines affect recovery efficiency. Accurate modeling ensures:

• Optimal pipeline diameter and length selection

• Correct compressor stage design

• Minimization of backpressure, which can reduce flare gas capture

Thus, fluid mechanics provides a predictive basis for the operational design of the
FGRS.

2.4.4 Gas Compression and Energy Efficiency

Compression theory is central to FGRS because flare gas must be pressurized to be

usable or fed into downstream processes:

[PV^n = C, \quad W = \frac{n}{n-1} \frac{RT}{M} \left[ \left(\frac{P_2}{P_1}\right)^{\frac{n-

1}{n}} - 1 \right]]

By applying these equations, the study evaluates:

• Compressor work and energy consumption

• Inter-stage cooling requirements

• Trade-offs between capital cost and operational efficiency

2.4.5 Mass Transfer and Gas Sweetening

The Two-Film Theory provides the framework for removing acid gases (CO₂, H₂S):

[N_A = k_L a (C^* - C), \quad \frac{1}{K_G} = \frac{1}{k_G} + \frac{H}{k_L}]

Application to your study allows:

• Design of amine absorber columns

• Optimization of solvent flow rate and column height

• Evaluation of trade-offs between purity and energy use

This is essential for ensuring recovered gas meets pipeline or utilization

specifications, addressing a key technical gap.

2.4.6 Phase Equilibrium and Hydrocarbon Separation

The study applies phase equilibrium to predict condensation of valuable hydrocarbons:

[K_i = \frac{y_i}{x_i}, \quad y_i P = x_i P_i^{sat}]

This allows for:

• Accurate fractionation and separation of light and heavy hydrocarbons

• Design of demethanizers, deethanizers, and condensers

• Improvement of overall hydrocarbon recovery efficiency

Phase equilibrium theory connects directly to your research goal of maximizing

product recovery from flare gas streams.

2.4.7 Reaction Engineering and GTL Conversion

For studies considering Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) pathways:

[(2n+1)H_2 + nCO \rightarrow C_nH_{2n+2} + nH_2O]

[r = k C_A^n]

Incorporating reaction engineering allows your study to:

• Quantify potential value addition from recovered gas

• Evaluate syngas conversion efficiency

• Compare pipeline gas vs. GTL economics, addressing gaps in previous studies
(Evbuomwan et al., 2018)
 2.4.8 Process Optimization

Multi-objective optimization:

[\text{Maximize: } Z = f(\text{Recovery}, \text{Purity}, \text{Profit}), \quad g(x) \leq 0]

Enables your research to identify operating conditions that balance recovery efficiency,
energy consumption, and economic performance, which is critical for techno-economic
evaluation.

2.4.9 Engineering Economics

Techno-economic evaluation is achieved using:

[NPV = \sum_{t=0}^{n} \frac{C_t}{(1+r)^t}, \quad IRR: NPV=0, \quad PBP =

\frac{\text{Initial Investment}}{\text{Annual Cash Flow}}]

This ensures that the proposed FGRS:

• Is financially viable

• Provides decision-making metrics for investors and stakeholders

• Directly addresses the economic gaps highlighted in Udechukwu et al. (2022)

2.4.10 Integrated Relevance to the Study

By combining these theories, the research provides a scientifically grounded approach

to FGRS, enabling:

• Accurate simulation of flare gas streams

• Design of separators, compressors, and sweetening units

• Optimization of recovery efficiency and energy consumption

• Economic assessment for practical implementation

2.5 Appraisal of the Reviewed Literature

The literature on flare gas recovery systems (FGRS) provides a significant foundation for
understanding the technical and economic aspects of recovering and utilising flare gas in
onshore oil production facilities, particularly within the Niger Delta region. Several
studies, including those by Udechukwu et al. (2022), Edeh & Olawale (2023), and
Evbuomwan et al. (2018), offer valuable insights into flare gas composition, system
design, operational performance, and economic feasibility, yet they also highlight critical
gaps that this study seeks to address. Across these works, methane consistently emerges
as the dominant component of flare gas, often constituting 60–80% of the stream, with
minor hydrocarbons (C₂–C₅) and acid gases such as CO₂ and H₂S present in variable
quantities depending on the production phase and well characteristics. Udechukwu et
al. (2022) provided site-specific measurements of flare gas composition at a Nigerian
onshore facility, offering detailed baseline data for process modelling, whereas Edeh &
Olawale (2023) expanded the analysis to multiple wells, capturing temporal variations in
heavier hydrocarbons and water content. Evbuomwan et al. (2018) similarly emphasized
the importance of accurately characterizing gas composition for determining the
efficiency of compression, separation, and purification processes. The consistency in
identifying methane as the major component and the recognition of composition
variability across wells are significant similarities, as they validate the foundational
assumptions for simulation-based studies. However, the approaches differ in depth and
scope; Udechukwu et al. focused on single-site, steady-state measurements, whereas
Edeh & Olawale incorporated multi-well and temporal variability, providing more
representative data for system design. A notable gap in the literature is the limited
integration of dynamic composition into process simulations, which reduces predictive
accuracy, particularly in separators and compressors where phase behavior is sensitive
to gas composition. This gap directly informs the present study, which incorporates
dynamic gas composition as an input variable in Aspen HYSYS simulations to enhance
recovery predictions and system realism.

Process simulation emerges as a central methodology across the literature, with all
studies employing tools such as Aspen HYSYS to model FGRS performance. Udechukwu
et al. (2022) modeled a single-stage recovery system, achieving simulated recovery
efficiencies of approximately 70–75%, while Edeh & Olawale (2023) employed multi-stage
compression with intercooling, reporting potential efficiencies up to 85% and
demonstrating the energy reduction benefits of multi-stage systems. Evbuomwan et al.
(2018) compared single-stage and two-stage compression, noting higher recovery
efficiency in the latter at the cost of increased capital expenditure. These studies share a
focus on compression as the primary determinant of recovery efficiency, but they differ
in the number of compression stages modeled, the inclusion of intercooling, and the
treatment of energy analysis. Most studies rely on steady-state assumptions, limiting
their ability to capture transient operational effects and the impact of varying gas
composition. By integrating dynamic simulation with multi-stage compression, this study
aims to bridge this gap, providing a more realistic assessment of flare gas recovery
potential and operational performance.

Equipment design, particularly compression and separation, is another area where prior
studies have made significant contributions. Udechukwu et al. (2022) employed
polytropic equations to size compressors, focusing on single-stage configurations and
simplified separation units. In contrast, Edeh & Olawale (2023) integrated detailed phase
equilibrium calculations to optimize multi-stage compression with intercooling and more
accurately sized separators. Evbuomwan et al. (2018) additionally highlighted pipeline
sizing and backpressure management as critical factors influencing system
performance. While all studies correctly applied thermodynamic and fluid flow principles
to guide equipment design, they differ in their level of detail and system integration. Many
studies treat individual units in isolation, failing to evaluate the interactions between
compression, separation, and purification on overall system efficiency. The present
research addresses this limitation by adopting a system-wide design approach,
incorporating gas composition variability, equipment interdependencies, and multi-stage
process optimization to enhance both technical performance and economic feasibility.
Energy consumption and heat management are consistently identified as critical aspects
of FGRS performance. Edeh & Olawale (2023) demonstrated that intercooling between
compression stages could reduce energy requirements by 10–15%, while Udechukwu et
al. (2022) calculated compressor work without considering heat integration. Evbuomwan
et al. (2018) highlighted the trade-off between compression stages and energy use, yet
did not incorporate a comprehensive energy balance. The literature shows a general
understanding of compression as the primary energy consumer, but a gap exists in
evaluating energy efficiency across all system units, including separators and sweetening
columns. Addressing this gap, the present study incorporates detailed energy balances
and optimization, capturing compressor work, heat exchange duties, and operational
efficiency, ensuring realistic assessment of energy consumption in line with recovery
performance.

Gas sweetening and purification are critical for ensuring recovered gas meets pipeline
and utilization specifications. Udechukwu et al. (2022) applied simplified amine
absorption models, whereas Edeh & Olawale (2023) utilized mass transfer-based two-
film theory to predict CO₂ and H₂S removal efficiency, incorporating solvent flow rate and
column height. Evbuomwan et al. (2018) emphasized the impact of acid gas
concentration on equipment sizing and recovered gas quality. These studies converge in
recognizing purification as essential for safe and usable gas, yet differ in methodological
sophistication, with earlier works assuming idealized behavior and later studies applying
rigorous mass transfer correlations. A critical limitation in prior studies is the lack of
integration between purification efficiency and techno-economic evaluation, which this
study addresses by evaluating how sweetening performance affects overall recovery,
energy consumption, and cost-effectiveness.

Economic evaluation is treated variably across the literature. Evbuomwan et al. (2018)
and Edeh & Olawale (2023) computed NPV, IRR, and payback period, emphasizing the
financial feasibility of FGRS. Udechukwu et al. (2022) briefly considered payback periods
but did not conduct sensitivity analyses. A common limitation is the separation of
technical performance and economic evaluation, with little attention to how operational
parameters, system design, or gas composition variability impact economic outcomes.
By integrating dynamic process simulation with comprehensive techno-economic
analysis, this study evaluates both the technical and financial performance of FGRS,
ensuring practical applicability and investor-relevant metrics.

Overall, the reviewed literature demonstrates that flare gas recovery is both technically
feasible and economically promising. Key strengths include accurate characterization of
gas composition, validation of simulation as a design tool, recognition of compression
and purification as central process elements, and preliminary integration of economic
evaluation. However, consistent limitations include simplified assumptions regarding gas
composition, energy consumption, and system interactions, as well as limited integration
of technical and economic assessments and context-specific evaluation for Niger Delta
facilities. The present study builds upon these strengths while addressing the gaps by
adopting a dynamic, composition-driven simulation of multi-stage FGRS, integrating
compression, separation, purification, energy optimization, and techno-economic
evaluation within a system-wide design approach. By doing so, it provides a holistic,
realistic, and locally applicable assessment of flare gas recovery, offering practical
guidance for design and investment decisions in Nigerian onshore oil production
facilities.