Ch-4 Human Development

- Ishika Gupta

NOTES

MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT

• Development refers to the series of orderly and predictable changes that start at concep on and
con nue throughout a person's life.
• This includes both growth and decline, par cularly no ceable in older age.
• It covers physical changes, mental growth, and shi s in social rela onships.
• Changes in development occur holis cally, a ec ng various aspects of a person's life in an
integrated manner.

PROCESSES INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT

• Biological processes, in uenced by inherited genes, a ect physical a ributes like height,
weight, and the development of organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs.
• Cogni ve processes involve mental ac vi es such as thinking, percep on, a en on, and
problem-solving.
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ft
ff
ti
ti
tt
ti
tt
ti
ti
 • Socio-emo onal processes pertain to changes in an individual's interac ons, emo ons, and
personality development. For example, a child's hug to his mother.

LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE ON DEVELOPMENT

1. Development Across the Life-Span: Development occurs throughout all age groups, from
concep on to old age, involving gains and losses that interact dynamically.
2. Interconnected Processes of Development: Biological, cogni ve, and socio-emo onal
processes are intertwined in an individual's development over their life-span.
3. Mul -Direc onal Development: Development involves dimensions that may see growth in
some aspects while decline in others. For instance, wisdom may increase with age, but
speed-related tasks may decline.
4. Plas city in Development: Development is highly modi able within an individual, with
varying levels of plas city among di erent people. Skills and abili es can be enhanced at any
stage of life.
5. In uence of Historical Condi ons: Development is in uenced by historical contexts, shaping
individuals' experiences. Di erent genera ons face dis nct in uences that impact their life
trajectories and decisions.
6. Interdisciplinary Study of Development: Various disciplines such as psychology,
anthropology, sociology, and neurosciences inves gate human development, o ering diverse
perspec ves on development across the life-span.
7. Individual Responses to Contexts: Individuals interact with and respond to inherited traits,
physical surroundings, social se ngs, and cultural in uences. Life events and experiences
shape individuals' trajectories and personal growth.

GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, MATURATION AND EVOLUTION

- Growth is an increase in the size of body parts or the organism, measurable through changes
like height and weight.
- Development is a broader process of changes over the life cycle, including physical growth,
changes in propor on, and acquiring new features. Development involves sequen al and
direc onal changes that are not temporary.
- Matura on refers to changes that follow a gene c sequence, such as si ng, standing, and
walking at typical ages. These changes unfold according to an internal metable and are not
accelerated by external e orts.
- Evolu on involves species-speci c changes over long periods, driven by natural selec on.
Changes occur slowly, like the emergence of humans from great apes over millions of years.

- In short: Growth measures size, development involves broader changes, matura on follows a
gene c sequence, and evolu on drives species-speci c changes.
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ff
ti
ti
tti
fi
ff
ti
ti
ti
fi
fl
fl
ti
fi
ti
fl
ti
ti
tti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
 FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT

Human development is shaped by the combined e ect of heredity (genes) and environment, and
their con nuous interac on throughout life.

1. Heredity / Gene c Factors:

• Every person inherits a set of genes from biological parents.

• These genes carry the human gene c code and form the blueprint for development.
• Heredity in uences physical traits (height, skin colour, hair colour), intelligence poten al,
crea vity, personality tendencies, temperament, etc.
• Genotype: gene c makeup inherited.
• Phenotype: expression of genes in observable traits.
• Gene c transmission explains why human eggs always develop into humans, not other
species.

2. Environment:

• Development does not occur in isola on. Genes express themselves within an
environment.
• Environment includes home, school, neighbourhood, peer group, media, socio-economic
status, cultural values, paren ng style, etc.
• Environment can support or restrict the gene c poten al.
◦ Example: A child with “short height genes” cannot become taller than the gene c
limit even with the best nutri on.
◦ A child gene cally inclined to be introverted may become sociable in a highly
interac ve environment.

3. Interac on of Heredity and Environment:

• Development is not caused by genes alone

or environment alone — it is the interac on
that shapes who we become.
• Parents provide gene c material and create
environments that may re ect their own
gene c predisposi ons, shaping what they
o er their children.
Example:
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
 ◦ Parents who love reading may pass genes linked to intelligence AND provide books
→ child likely becomes a good reader.
◦ A child gene cally inclined to music may choose music-rich environments, which
further enhance skill.

4. Children’s Own Choices:

• Children might choose environments that match their inherited traits, impac ng their
development.
◦ A musically gi ed child seeks music classes.
◦ A child with sports talent chooses sports environments.

5. Environmental In uences Across Life Stages:

• Environmental in uences begin from infancy and con nue through adolescence and
adulthood.
• Interac ons with family, peers, school, media, and society keep shaping development over
me.

CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT

A. BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

Urie Bronfenbrenner proposed that human development occurs within mul ple layers of
environmental systems that interact with the individual.

1. Microsystem: The immediate se ng where

interac ons take place, such as with family, friends,
teachers, and neighbours.

2. Mesosystem: The rela onships between di erent

environments that shape how individuals connect
with others. Example: Rela onship between home
and school (e.g., parental involvement in studies).

3. Exosystem: Social events that do not directly involve

the individual but s ll impact their immediate
surroundings. Example: Parent’s workplace, school
administra on, media.
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
fl
ti
fl
ti
ti
tti
ff
ti
ti
ti
 4. Macrosystem: The outer layer consis ng of culture, tradi ons, values, laws, and ideologies of
society. Example: Beliefs regarding gender roles or educa on.

5. Chronosystem: The chronosystem looks at events throughout a person's life and the social and
historical context at the me, such as parental divorce or economic challenges, and how these
a ect children.

B. DURGANAND SINHA'S ECOLOGICAL MODEL

Durganand Sinha's ecological model for understanding child development in India focuses on two
main layers.

1) Upper / Visible Layer — immediate se ngs

(a) Home:
- A child spends most me at home, so its condi ons shape development.
- If a house is overcrowded or has no space to play/study, the child may feel stressed or
distracted.
- If the child has toys, books, and technology, it can support learning and curiosity.

(b) School:
- School teaches not only academics but also discipline, social rules, and life skills.
- A good school with facili es (library, labs, playground, safe environment) leads to be er
cogni ve and social development.
- A poor school environment may limit learning.

(c) Peer Group:

- Friends in uence behaviour, communica on, con dence, and habits.
- Healthy interac ons (games, group study, discussions) promote learning and coopera on.
- Nega ve peer in uence may produce risky or disrup ve behaviour.

These three se ngs directly a ect how the child behaves, thinks, and grows — and they interact
with each other con nuously.

2) Surrounding / Less Visible Layer — broader condi ons

(a) Geographical Environment:

- Neighborhood ma ers — is there space to play? Is the area crowded or polluted?
- A clean and spacious area supports healthy physical and emo onal development.
ff
ti
ti
fl
tti
ti
fl
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
tti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
 (b) Ins tu onal Se ng (caste, class, community):
- Social iden ty and status in uence opportuni es.
- For example, children from privileged classes may get be er schools, while others may face
discrimina on or limita ons.

(c) General Ameni es:

- Basic facili es like drinking water, electricity, parks, and entertainment op ons a ect daily
func oning.
- Lack of these can cause stress, illness, or reduced learning opportuni es.

OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

• Development is commonly described in terms of periods or stages, re ec ng varying behaviors

across di erent life stages.
• Human life progresses through di erent stages, each characterized by unique features and goals.
• Individuals move through stages at di erent rates, with certain behaviors and skills more easily
learned at speci c mes.
• Achievements during each stage become social expecta ons known as developmental tasks.

1. PRENATAL STAGE

• The period from concep on to birth, las ng around 40 weeks, is the prenatal stage.
• Development during this stage is guided by gene c and environmental factors.
• Maternal characteris cs like mother's age, nutri on, and emo onal well-being in uence
prenatal development.
• Diseases like rubella, genital herpes, and HIV can impact prenatal development.
• Teratogens, environmental factors that disrupt normal development, poten ally causing
severe abnormali es or even death, such as drugs, infec ons, radia ons, and pollutants, pose
threats to normal development.
• Consump on of substances like drugs, alcohol, and tobacco during pregnancy can harm the
foetus.
• Environmental pollutants like carbon monoxide, mercury, and lead also endanger the unborn
child.

2. INFANCY

a. Brain Development:
• Rapid development before and a er birth • Neural connec ons develop quickly
• Not all brain cells present at birth

b. Newborn Abili es:

• Essen al life func ons like breathing, sucking, and swallowing
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
tti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ft
ff
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ff
fl
 • Can detect sound direc ons
• Recognize mother's voice
• Imitate simple gestures

c. Motor Development:
• The movements of newborns are controlled by re exes, which are automa c reac ons to certain
s muli. These re exes are inherited survival skills and form the basis for further motor skills.
• Some re exes, like coughing, blinking, and yawning, last a life me, while others fade as the brain
matures and voluntary control improves.
• As the brain grows, physical development also takes place. As infants develop, their muscles and
nervous systems grow, enabling them to acquire more complex skills. Basic physical skills include
grasping, reaching, si ng, crawling, walking, and running.
• The order of physical development is mostly the same across all children, with minor
di erences.

d. Sensory Abili es:

• Newborns can recognize mother's voice • By end of rst year, vision almost as sharp as
shortly a er birth an adult's (20/20)
• Vision limited ini ally, evolves over rst few • Newborns can feel touch and pain
months • Ability to smell and taste present at birth
• By 6 months, vision gets be er

e. Cogni ve Development (Piaget):

• First two years: sensorimotor stage
• Children ac vely construct their understanding of the world through interac on and
adapta on.
• Developmental stages in children's thinking occur from infancy to adolescence, marked by
dis nct cogni ve processes.
• During infancy, i.e. the rst two years of life, children engage primarily with sensory
experiences and lack object permanence ini ally. The child explores the world using their
senses and interac ons, like looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. If something
is out of sight, it is out of mind.
• Verbal communica on skills begin to develop through vocaliza on around 3 to 6 months of
age.

f. Socio-Emo onal Development:

• Early Social Behaviors- Babies exhibit social behaviors from birth, forming a achments and
preferences for familiar faces.
• A achment- The a ec onate bond that develops between infants and caregivers is crucial for
emo onal development and security.
ti
tt
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ft
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ff
ti
ti
tti
ti
fi
ti
tt
fi
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
 • Contact-comfort- The comfort and security that comes from physical touch and closeness, rather
than just the provision of basic needs like food.
• Erikson's Theory- According to Erik Erikson (1968), the rst year of life is crucial for a achment
development, focusing on trust versus mistrust. Trust builds from physical comfort, leading to a
secure view of the world.
• Responsive and sensi ve paren ng fosters trust and a secure a achment, enabling
explora on. Conversely, insensi ve or cri cal paren ng can cause self-doubt in the child.

3. CHILDHOOD

a. Physical Development:
• Growth slows compared to infancy
• Gains height and weight
• Learns to walk, run, jump, and play
• Development proceeds cephalocaudally (from the cephalic or head region to the caudal or tail
region) and proximodistally (children gain control over their torso before their extremi es)—

1. Cephalocaudal development: Control over upper body precedes lower body control. This is why
an infant’s head appears propor onately larger than their body in early infancy. Addi onally, when
crawling, infants use their arms rst and then gradually start using their legs.
2. Proximodistal development: Growth proceeds from the centre of body and moves towards the
extremi es At rst, infants reach for objects by turning their whole body. Over me, they start to
extend their arms to grab things.

b. Social Development:
• World expands from parents to family and • Increased physical capaci es allow
adults independent tasks
• Begin to acquire concepts of good and bad • Can set goals and meet expecta ons
• Develop sense of morality • Brain matura on contributes to cogni ve
development

c. Motor Development:
• Gross motor skills involve the use of arms and legs, allowing con dent movement.
• Fine motor skills, such as nger agility and hand-eye coordina on, improve signi cantly during
early childhood.
• Children start to show a preference for either their le or right hand during this me.

d. Cogni ve Development (Piaget's Stages)

• Early childhood cogni ve development focuses on Piaget's preopera onal thought stage (2-7
years).
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
fi
ti
tt
fi
ti
ti
ti
fi
tt
ti
ti
 - The child's understanding of object permanence allows them to use mental symbols to
represent objects.
- The child gains the ability to mentally represent objectsthat are not physically present.
- Children engage in symbolic thought by drawing designs to represent objects.
- Egocentrism is a key feature where children see the world centered around themselves.
- Children may exhibit animism by a ribu ng life-like quali es to inanimate objects.

• During the intui ve thought stage, children between 4 and 7 years seek answers to various
ques ons.
- Centra on is another characteris c where children focus on a single feature for understanding
events.

• Between 7 and 11 years, children enter the stage of concrete opera onal thought.
- Concrete opera ons involve mental ac ons that are reversible and allow children to think
logically.
- Concrete opera onal thought enables children to focus on di erent characteris cs and
appreciate di erent perspec ves.
- Thinking becomes more exible, allowing children to consider di erent solu ons to problems
and mentally retrace their steps if needed.
- The child cannot yet do abstract thinking, meaning they struggle with manipula ng ideas
without physical objects. For example, they may nd it di cult to imagine concepts like lines of
longitude or la tude on Earth.

e. Socio-emo onal and Moral Development:

• Self-development- Children develop independence based on parental responses. Erikson noted

that how parents react to self-ini ated ac vi es determines whether children develop ini a ve
or guilt. For example, providing freedom for ac vi es like cycling, running, and ska ng, and
answering their ques ons, supports and encourages the child's ini a ve. If children are made to
feel their ques ons are useless or their games are silly, they may develop las ng feelings of guilt
about their self-ini ated ac vi es.

• Self-understanding- Progresses from physical a ributes ("I am tall") to psychological traits ("I am
smart").

• Social comparison becomes prominent, leading to individual iden ty establishment.

• Moral Development- Children learn morality through guilt, empathy, and helping others. This
development occurs alongside cogni ve growth, as described in Kohlberg's theory. -
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
tt
ti
fi
ti
ffi
ti
ff
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
 - Kohlberg conducted studies where children were presented with moral dilemmas to assess
their moral reasoning.
- Younger children, typically under the age of 9, tend to view right and wrong in terms of external
authority

4. ADOLESCENCE

• The term "adolescence" originates from the La n word adolescence, meaning "to grow into
maturity."
• It's the transi onal phase between childhood and adulthood, typically star ng at puberty.
• The social and psychological experiences of adolescents vary with cultural context. In
cultures that view adolescence as problema c, experiences di er from those in cultures
where it is seen as the start of adult responsibili es.

a. Physical Development:

• Puberty or sexual maturity signi es the transi on from childhood to adolescence, marked by
signi cant physical changes and the onset of growth and sexual characteris cs.
• Puberty is not an abrupt event but a gradual process, triggered by the release of hormones that
lead to the development of primary and secondary sexual characteris cs.
• Primary sexual characteris cs pertain directly to reproduc on, while secondary sexual
characteris cs are visible signs of sexual maturity.
• In boys, puberty manifests as accelerated growth, facial hair growth, and changes in voice. Girls
typically experience a growth spurt before menarche, the onset of menstrua on.
• The growth spurt usually starts around age 12 or 13 for boys and 10 or 11 for girls. Varia ons in
the pubertal sequence are normal.
• The ming and progression of puberty can vary among individuals due to a combina on of
gene cs and environmental factors.

b. Psychological Changes:

• Adolescence is not just about physical changes; it also involves psychological shi s, such as
increased interest in the opposite sex and heightened awareness of sexual feelings.
• Developing a sexual iden ty de nes sexual orienta onand guides sexual behavior, making it a
crucial developmental task for adolescents.

c. Cogni ve Development:

• Adolescents experience signi cant cogni ve changes as they transi on into formal opera onal
thought between the ages of 11 and 15 according to Piaget. During this stage, their thinking
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fi
fi
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
 becomes more abstract, logical, and idealis c, allowing them to analyze thoughts, understand
others' perspec ves, and re ect on societal norms.
• Adolescents shi from concrete experiences to abstract thinking, contempla ng ideal
characteris cs for themselves and others. They compare these ideals to reality, some mes
feeling con icted about adop ng new standards.
• Adolescents employ systema c problem-solving strategies, considering mul ple courses of
ac on and seeking solu ons through logical reasoning. This approach contrasts with the trial-
and-error methods used in earlier developmental stages.
• Adolescents' moral reasoning becomes more exible as they ques on societal norms, explore
alterna ve moral paths, and develop personal moral codes. This may lead them to challenge
conven ons that clash with their ethical beliefs.
• Adolescents exhibit unique forms of egocentrism, including the imaginary audience and personal
fable. The imaginary audience leads them to believe that others are constantly focused on their
ac ons, while the personal fable fosters a sense of personal uniqueness and isola on.
• It is essen al for adolescents to form a realis c view of their physical appearance that they nd
acceptable. The growth spurt during puberty is a signi cant event that includes the onset of
reproduc ve maturity.
• Cultural di erences in paren ng can in uence the a achment styles between children and their
caregivers.

d. Forming an Iden ty:

• Seeking answers to ques ons such as "Who am I?", "Which subjects should I study?", and "Do I
believe in God?" signi es the quest to de ne one's sense of self or the search for iden ty.
• Iden ty encompasses one's values, commitments, and beliefs, with adolescence primarily
focused on establishing an iden ty separate from parents.
• Adolescents engage in a detachment process to cul vate a personalized belief system, leading
to con ict with parents and internal struggles, with successful resolu on resul ng in a newfound
sense of self.
• Failure to cope with con ic ng iden es can lead to "iden ty confusion," poten ally causing
individuals to isolate themselves or lose their iden ty in the crowd.
• Adolescents may desire independence but also demonstrate dependence on parents,
showcasing rapid shi s between self-assurance and insecurity.
• Seeking con nuity and sameness, assuming greater responsibility, and gaining a clear sense of
self are integral to the iden ty-seeking process during adolescence.
• Various factors like cultural background, family values, societal norms, ethnic roots, and
socioeconomic status in uence adolescent iden ty forma on.
• As adolescents spend more me outside the home, peer rela onships become crucial, o ering
opportuni es for skill re nement and social behavior experimenta on.
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
fl
ti
ti
ti
ft
ti
ft
fi
ti
fl
fl
fi
ti
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
fi
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
ti
tt
fi
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
fi
 • Both parents and peers play signi cant roles in adolescents' lives, with con ic ng situa ons
some mes leading to increased iden ca on with peers.

Some Major Concerns

• Delinquency: Delinquency covers a range of behaviors, from socially unacceptable ac ons to

criminal o enses. This includes truancy, the , vandalism, and more. Adolescents involved in
delinquent behavior o en struggle with low self-esteem, trust issues, and academic
di cul es. Factors like lack of parental support, family con icts, and nega ve peer in uences
can contribute to delinquency.
• Substance Abuse: Adolescence is a cri cal period for the onset of smoking, alcohol, and drug
abuse. Some teenagers turn to substances as a way to cope with stress or to t in with their
peers. Factors like impulsiveness, low self-esteem, and peer pressure can increase
vulnerability to substance abuse. Establishing posi ve rela onships with family and peers is
crucial in preven ng drug misuse.
• Ea ng Disorders: Adolescents may develop ea ng disorders like anorexia nervosa and
bulimia due to societal pressures and self-image concerns. Anorexia nervosa involves extreme
die ng to achieve thinness, o en in uenced by media portrayals of beauty. Bulimia involves
binge-ea ng followed by purging behaviors. These disorders are more prevalent in urban
se ngs and can have serious health implica ons.

5. ADULTHOOD

• Adulthood is characterized by responsibility, maturity, self-su ciency, and integra on into

society.
• Timing and ful llment of adult roles vary among individuals based on social contexts.
• In early adulthood, key tasks involve exploring adult living possibili es and establishing a
stable life structure.

a. Career and Work:

• Earning a living, selec ng a career, and career development are crucial for individuals in their
twen es and thir es.
• Entering the workforce is challenging and involves proving competence, handling
expecta ons, and adap ng to new roles and responsibili es.
ffi
tti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ff
fi
ti
ti
ti
ft
ti
ft
fi
fl
ti
fi
ti
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
fl
ffi
ti
ti
fl
fi
ti
ti
fl
ti
ti
 b. Marriage, Parenthood, and Family:
• Adjustments in marriage involve understanding each other's preferences and roles, especially
when both partners work.
• Paren ng can be demanding but o ers opportuni es for personal growth and sa sfac on.
• Changes in family structures due to factors like divorce or both parents working necessitate
balancing responsibili es.

c. Physical Changes in Middle Age:

• Physical changes during middle age are common and include declines in vision, hearing, and
changes in appearance.
• Cogni ve abili es may vary with some decline in memory but poten al improvements in
wisdom.

6. OLD AGE

• The de ni on of "old age" is evolving as people live longer.

• Challenges for the elderly include re rement, health issues, and changes in family dynamics.
• Successful aging involves e ec ve work, posi ve rela onships, good health, and cogni ve
tness.
fi
ti
ti
fi
ti
ti
ti
ff
ti
ff
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
 • Re rement can be viewed posi vely as a phase for pursuing personal interests.
• Elderly individuals may face issues like loneliness, dependency, and adjus ng to new roles.

Death and Cultural Perspec ves:

a. Cultural Frameworks
• Cultural beliefs shape how death is perceived, mourned, and commemorated.
- Gond culture (India): Death is believed to be caused by magic or demons.
- Tanala culture (Madagascar)- Death is believed to be caused by natural forces.
• Rituals provide structure and meaning during profound loss.

b. Coping Mechanisms
• Communal grieving o en central in collec vist socie es.
• Western approaches increasingly incorporate psychological support alongside tradi on

c. Support Systems
• Extended family networks provide emo onal anchoring in many cultures.
• Formal bereavement services complement tradi onal community support.
ti
ft
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti
ti