GAS LAWS & KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY (KMT)

Focuses on the behavior of gas particles and the mathematical relationships between Pressure (P), Volume (V), and
Temperature T).
 Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT):
o Gas particles are in constant, random, straight-line motion.
o Collisions are elastic (no energy is lost).
o The distance between particles is large compared to their size (mostly empty space).
o Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.
 Boyle’s Law:


o Relationship: Inversely proportional (as Pressure ↑, Volume ↓).
o Constant: Temperature.
o Real-life example: Breathing (diaphragm movement) or using a syringe.
 Charles’s Law


o Relationship: Directly proportional (as Temperature ↑, Volume ↑).
o Constant: Pressure.
o Crucial Rule: Temperature must always be in Kelvin.
o Conversion: K = C + 273
o Conversion: K= (F-32)5/9+273
o Real-life example: A hot air balloon rising or a bloated soccer ball on a hot day.

Definition of Biomolecules
 Biomolecules are organic molecules found in living organisms.
 They are essential for life.
Elements of Biomolecules
Biomolecules are mainly composed of:
 Carbon (C)
 Hydrogen (H)
 Oxygen (O)
 Nitrogen (N)
Importance of Carbon
 Carbon can form four bonds.
 It can form chains and rings.
 This allows the formation of complex molecules needed for life.
Major Categories of Biomolecules (Introduction only)
 Carbohydrates – main source of energy
 Lipids – store energy and form cell membranes
 Proteins – help in growth, repair, and body functions
 Nucleic Acids – store genetic information

Carbohydrates
 most common biomolecule
 main source of energy for the body
 Formula: (CH2O) n where n is the number of molecules
 Building block/monomer: Monosaccharides
 Elements: C-H-O
Classifications
 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
 From the prefix “mono” which means one, monosaccharides are the simplest sugar and the basic subunit of a
carbohydrates.
 Simple sugar (C6H12O6)
Example:
 Glucose (blood sugar)
 Fructose (fruit sugar)
 Galactose (found in milk with glucose)
Disaccharides
 Double sugars
 Molecular formula (C12H22011)
 The formation and breakdown of sucrose to glucose involves two reactions.
Two Reactions
 Condensation reaction is a reaction in which two molecules or parts of the same molecule combine.
 When two glucose molecules are combined, maltose is formed and water is lost during the process.
 Hydrolysis reaction occurs when the bond between monosaccharides is broken with the addition of a water
molecules.
Digestible Disaccharides in Food
 Maltose (malt sugar) Glucose-fructose
 Lactose (milk sugar) Galactose-glucose
 Sucrose (table sugar) Glucose-glucose
Polysaccharides
Complex sugars (C6H10O5) n where in is the number of carbon atoms
Examples:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Chitin
Starch
 Used for energy storage in plants
 They provide quick form of energy for the body such as; potato, pasta, and rice.
Glycogen
 Used for energy storage in animals
 When the body doesn’t need glucose for energy, it stores it in the liver and muscles in the form of glycogen.
Cellulose
 Found in plants, in cell walls and bark of trees
 Give us fiber
Chitin
 Forms the exoskeleton of certain insects and crustaceans
Test for Carbohydrates
 Iodine test for starch
 Benedict’s test

What is lipids?
• Lipids are biomolecules that do not dissolve in water
• Main function: long-term energy storage
• Also help in insulation and protection of organs
Elements:
• Carbon (C)
• Hydrogen (H)
• Oxygen (O)
Lipids provide mechanical protection for the internal organs of the body and serve as waterproof covering in some
plants and animals.
Building Blocks:
• Glycerol
→ A type of alcohol molecule that serves as the backbone of fats.
• Fatty acids
→ Long chains of carbon and hydrogen attached to glycerol. These give lipids their energy-storing ability.
Examples of Lipids:
• Fats
→ Usually solid at room temperature (example: butter).
• Oils
→ Usually liquid at room temperature (example: cooking oil).
• Waxes
→ Waterproof lipids that protect surfaces (example: ear wax, plant wax).
• Phospholipids
→ Major component of the cell membrane. They help form the outer covering of cells.
• Steroids
→ Lipids that act as chemical messengers (example: cholesterol, hormones).
They are hydrophobic and do not dissolve in water
Two types of Hydrophobic
• Saturated solid form like butter
• Unsaturated like oils
Water to Fat
• I’m sorry we can’t be just together
Fat to Water
• Is it because I’m fat?

Proteins
Proteins are large and complex macromolecules made up of smaller units called amino acids. They are considered the
fundamental building blocks of the body because they form structures like muscles, skin, hair, and nails.
They also regulate body processes by producing enzymes and hormones. Without proteins, cells, tissues, and organs
cannot function properly.
Proteins contain the elements:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
Unlike carbohydrates and lipids, proteins contain nitrogen, which makes them unique.
The sequence of amino acids in a protein is controlled by DNA. Since the body cannot produce all amino acids (called
essential amino acids), we must get them from protein-rich foods daily.
Protein Structure
Proteins can be classified into two major types:
A. Fibrous Proteins
 If a protein is long and tough like a rope, it’s a Fibrous Protein used for strength (like your hair or skin).
 Long and thread-like
 Insoluble in water
 Provide structure and strength
Example: Collagen – gives strength to skin and connective tissues.
B. Globular Proteins
 If it’s folded into a ball, it’s a Globular Protein used for carrying things (like the hemoglobin in your blood).
  Compact and spherical
 Soluble in water
 Perform functional roles
Example: Hemoglobin – transports oxygen in the blood.
Four Levels of Protein Structure

🔹 Primary Structure
This is the specific sequence of amino acids joined together in a chain.
The order is determined by genetic information stored in DNA.
🔹 Secondary Structure
This is the local folding of the amino acid chain into structures like alpha-helix or beta-sheet.
Hydrogen bonds hold this structure together.
🔹 Tertiary Structure
This refers to the overall three-dimensional shape of a single protein molecule.
It is determined by interactions between R-groups (side chains of amino acids).
🔹 Quaternary Structure
This is formed when two or more folded protein subunits combine.
Example: Hemoglobin has quaternary structure because it consists of multiple subunits.
Emphasize:
“Structure determines function. If the shape changes, the protein may not work properly.”
Protein Synthesis
 Protein synthesis is the process of making proteins in the cell.
 It occurs through a process called translation in the cytoplasm.
 Protein synthesis happens mainly in the ribosomes.
Steps:
1. DNA contains the genetic code.
2. The code is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA).
3. mRNA travels to the ribosome.
4. The ribosome reads the code.
5. Amino acids are assembled into a polypeptide chain.
6. The chain folds and undergoes modifications to become a functional protein.
Types of Proteins and Their Functions
 Proteins perform many different roles in the body:
1. Enzymes
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in cells.
Examples:
 Amylase – breaks down starch
 Pepsin – breaks down proteins
2. Hormones
Protein hormones regulate body processes.
Examples:
 Insulin – controls blood sugar
 Glucagon – increases blood sugar
3. Antibodies
Antibodies protect the body from harmful pathogens.
Example:
  Immunoglobulin – helps fight infections
4. Transport Proteins
Carry substances throughout the body.
Example:
 Hemoglobin – carries oxygen in blood
5. Contraction Proteins
Responsible for muscle movement.
Example:
 Myosin – enables muscle contraction
6. Storage Proteins
Store nutrients.
Example:
 Albumin
Energy Function
 Proteins can provide energy if carbohydrates and fats are insufficient.
 However, their main function is not energy storage.
 Excess protein may be converted into fat.
SOURCES OF PROTEINS

 Eggs
 Chicken
 Fish and seafood
 Soy
 Beans and pulses
 Almonds
 Milk
 Cottage cheese
 Greek yogurt
 Oats
 Broccoli
 Quinoa

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are biomolecules responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information.
They contain the elements:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
 Phosphorus
The monomer of nucleic acids is the nucleotide.
There are two main types:
1. DNA
 Full name: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
 Double-stranded
 Sugar: Deoxyribose
 Bases: A, T, C, G
 Function: Stores genetic information
  Found mainly in the nucleus
Structure:
 Double helix (twisted ladder shape)
2. RNA
 Full name: Ribonucleic Acid
 Single-stranded
 Sugar: Ribose
 Bases: A, U, C, G
 Function: Helps in protein synthesis
 Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
Central Role in Protein Formation
DNA contains the instructions.
RNA carries and translates the message.
Protein is produced in the ribosome.
Simple Flow:
DNA → RNA → Protein
“Without nucleic acids, there would be no instructions for life.”

Chemical Reactions
Discussion:
Chemical Reactions
 A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances change into new substances with different
chemical and physical properties.
Examples of Chemical Reactions:
1. Burning paper: Combustion reacts paper with oxygen to create new substances like ash, carbon dioxide, and
water vapor.
2. Rusting nail: Iron reacts with oxygen and moisture to form iron oxide (rust), a completely different substance.
3. Cooking egg: Heat causes the proteins in the egg to denature and form new chemical bonds, transforming
the egg's structure in an irreversible way.
Examples of physical Reactions/Physical Changes:
3. Melting ice: This is a phase transition from solid to liquid; the chemical structure (H₂O) remains exactly the
same and the process is reversible.
4. Dissolving sugar in water: The sugar molecules disperse throughout the water but do not change their
chemical identity; the sugar and water can be separated again by evaporation
What is the Distinguishing Factor Between the Two Types of Reactions?
A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances change into new substances, but when we say
substances we’re not referring to the elements but we are referring to the compounds.
In a chemical reaction, atoms are not created or destroyed, nor do they turn into different elements (e.g., Oxygen
doesn't suddenly become Carbon). Instead, the chemical bonds between atoms break, and the atoms rearrange
themselves to form new substances called compounds. Unlike, to melting of ice it still h2o it just changes its states so
therefore it cannot be classified as chemical reactions
What are some Evidences of Chemical Reactions?
1. Change of colors (fireworks)
2. Formation of gas (smoke)
3. Temperature Change
4. Change in Smell
5. Formation of precipitate
 when we say precipitate we are referring to a cloudy substance that comes out whenever you mix two
substances just like in vinegar and baking soda.
Chemical Reactions has Two Parts
 Reactant
 Product
What is the Difference Between the Two?
 Reactant: This is a substance or a group of substances which enter chemical reactions.
 Products: This is a substance or a group of substances that are produce in a chemical reaction.
The Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
A chemical equation is the shorthand way scientists write down what happens during a rearrangement of atoms. It
always follows this basic structure:
1. The Reactants (The Left Side)
 Definition: These are the starting materials or the "ingredients" that enter the chemical reaction.
 Role: Their chemical bonds will break so that the atoms can be freed for rearrangement.
 Location: Always written on the left side of the arrow.
2. The Arrow (The "Yields" Symbol)
 Meaning: The arrow represents the process of change. It is read as "yields," "produces," or "reacts to
form."
 Direction: It always points away from the reactants and toward the products, showing the direction of the
transformation.
3. The Products (The Right Side)
 Definition: These are the new substances formed as a result of the chemical reaction.
 Role: They consist of the same atoms as the reactants, but rearranged into new compounds with different
properties.
 Location: Always written on the right side of the arrow.
Word Equation:
Iron + Oxygen Iron Oxide (Rust)
 Reactants: Iron and Oxygen (The things that started the process).
 The Arrow: The process of oxidation/rusting over time.
 Product: Iron Oxide (The new reddish-brown compound that was created).

Law of Conservation of Mass

 The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in any physical or
chemical change.
 This means that the total mass of all substances involved remains constant, even if the substances change in
form, appearance, or state.
 During a change, atoms are rearranged, but they are not lost or gained. In a physical change, matter may
change in size, shape, or state, but its mass stays the same. In a chemical change, new substances may form, but
the total mass before and after the reaction is still equal.
 This law applies when the system is closed, meaning no matter enters or leaves. Because of this, the mass of the
reactants is always equal to the mass of the products.
 The Law of Conservation of Mass is an important principle in science because it explains that all changes involve
transformation, not loss of matter.

Balancing Chemical Equations

 Balancing a chemical equation is the process of ensuring that the number of atoms for each element is identical
on both reactants (left) and product (right) sides, adhering to the Law of Conservation of Mass. It involves adding
whole number coefficient in front of molecules, not changing subscript.
Key Aspects of Balance Equations:
 Purpose: To satisfy the law that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
 How it works: Stoichiometric coefficients are added to the front of chemical formulas to balance the atoms.
 Rules: Subscripts within chemical formulas must not be change, as this changes the substance.
 Method: Commonly done using the “hit and trial” method, where coefficient is adjusted until both sides have
equal atoms.

FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES

Based on Collision Theory: Particles must collide with enough energy and the right orientation to react.
1. Temperature: Increasing temp increases the speed/kinetic energy of particles, leading to more frequent and
"harder" collisions.
2. Surface Area (Particle Size): Smaller particles (powder) react faster than big chunks because more area is
exposed for collisions.
3. Concentration: More particles in a fixed volume increase the frequency of collisions.
4. Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a reaction by lowering the Activation Energy. It is not consumed in the
reaction.