[[[[

Set:
A set is a collection of well defined objects i.e. the objects follow a given rule or rules. If we say
that we have a collection of short students in a class, then this collection is not a set as “short
students” is not well defined. If, however, we say that we have a collection of students whose
height is less then 5 feet, then it represents a set.

Elements of a set:
The members of a set are called its elements. A set is usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C
etc, where as the elements of a set are generally denoted by lower case letters a, b, c, d etc. If an
element x is in set A, we say that x belongs to A and write x ∈ A. If the element x is not in A then
we write x ∉ A.

Examples of sets:
1. The set of vowels in the alphabet of English language.
2. The set of all points on a particular line.
3. The set of all lines in a particular plane.
4. The set of all odd natural numbers.
5. The set of all real numbers.
The elements in a set can be written in any order e.g.
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …}, B = {11, 9, 5, 7}, C = {…, − 2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, …}, D = {Amar, Aman, Ajay}.
This is called the roster method of representing a set. A set can also be represented by stating
the properties within braces, which are satisfied by the elements of the set e.g.
A = {x: x = 2n + 1, n ≥ 1, n ∈ N}, A = {x: 6 ≤ x ≤ 12, x ∈ N}.
This method of representing a set is called the set builder method.

Illustrations 1. Rewrite the following sets by the set builder method:

1 1 1 1 
(i) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} , (ii)  , , , .
 9 25 49 81 

Solution: (i) The general term, here, is 2n + 1. For n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, we get the elements of
the set. Hence, we write the given set as
{x: x = 2n + 1, n ∈ N + {0} 0 ≤ n ≤ 4}.
1
(ii) The general term is . For n = 1, 2, 3, 4 we get the elements of the
( 2n + 1)2
 1 
 
set. Hence, we write the given set as =
x : x , n ∈ N, n ≤ 4  .
 ( 2n + 1)2 

Illustration 2. Write the following sets in the roster form:

(i) {x : x2 − 5x + 6 = 0, x ∈ N} (ii) {x : 2x − 5 < 4, x ∈ Z}

Solution: (i) Solving equation x 2 − 5x + 6 =0 , we have x = 3, 2 . Since 2, 3 are in N, we

write the set as {2, 3}.
(ii) Here 2x − 5 < 4 ⇒ 2x < 9 ⇒ x < 9 / 2 and since x ∈ Z, x =
4, 3, 2,...
Hence the required set is {..., −2, − 1, 0, 1, 2 ,3 ,4} .

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Some special sets:

(i) Finite and infinite sets:
A set A is finite if it contains only a finite number of elements; we can find the exact number of
elements in the set. Otherwise, the set is said to be an infinite set; e.g. The set {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} is a
finite set, having five elements. The set of letters in the word MISSISSIPI is a finite set containing
four letters {M, I, S, P} , although there are, in all, eleven letters in the word; only distinct elements
are considered in a set. Other examples are:
(1) The set of all odd natural numbers is an infinite set.
(2) The set of all points on a particular straight line is an infinite set.
(3) The following sets are all infinite sets:
N = set of all natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, ...}
Z = set of all integers = {..., −2, − 1, 0, 1, 2,...}
p 
Q = set of all rational numbers =  :p, q ∈ Z, q ≠ 0 
 q 
R = set of all real numbers = {x : x is a rational and an irrational number}
C = set of all complex numbers = {x + iy ; x, y ∈R}

(ii) Null set:

A set which does not contain any element is called a null set and is denoted by ϕ . A null set is
also called an empty set.

(iii) Singleton set:

A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set.

(iv) Equal sets:

Two set are said to be equal, if every element of one set is in the other set and vice-versa e.g.
A = {p, q, r, s} , B = {r, q, p, s} are equal sets, since the order of the elements is immaterial. Also
A
= {x : 10 ≤ x ≤ 14, x ∈ N} and B = {14, 13, 12, 11, 10} are equal sets. In these cases we write
A = B. But A = {1, 4, 6} , and B = {1, 6, 4, 3} are not equal sets as 3 ∉ A , and we write A ≠ B .

(v) Equivalent sets:

Two sets A and B are equivalent if the elements of A can be paired with the elements of B, so
that to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element of B e.g. A = {p, q, r} ,
B = {5, 6, 8} are equivalent sets.
Note: Equal sets are equivalent, but equivalent sets may not be equal.

(vi) Subsets:
If each element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is called a subset of B, and we
write =A ⊆ B , e.g. A {=a, k, l, o, u} , B {a, b, c,......x, y, z} . Here A ⊆ B . And if A = {2, 4, 6},
=B {=
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, C {4, 6} , then A ⊆ B, C ⊆ A, C ⊆ B . Note that N ⊆ Z, N ⊆ Q, R ⊆ C .

(vii) Proper subsets:

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A set A is called a proper subset of B if and only if each element of A is an element of B and there
is at least one element of B which is not in A i.e. A ⊆ B and A ≠ B and we write A ⊂ B e.g. if
A = {a, b, c, d} , B = {a, b, c, ... , x, y, z} , then A ⊂ B , and if
=A {=
2, 4, 6,} , B {1, 2, 3, 4,
= 5, 6} , C {4, 6} , then A ⊂ B ,C ⊂ A, C ⊂ B .

Note: The null set ϕ is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself.

(viii) Power set:

The power set of a set A is the set of all of its subsets, and is denoted by P ( A ) e.g. if
A = {4, 5, 6} then P ( A ) = {ϕ, {4} , {5} , {6} , {4, 5} , {5, 6} , {4, 5, 6}} .
Note: The null set ϕ and set A are always elements of P ( A ) .

Theorem: If a finite set has n elements, then the power set of A has 2n elements.
n
Proof: The number of subsets having no element = 1= C0 .
n
The number of subsets having exactly one element= n= C1 .
The number of subset having 2 elements = number of groups of 2 elements out of n
= n C2 .
n
The number of subset having n element (A itself) = 1= Cn .
Hence, the number of elements in P ( A )
n
= C0 + nC 1 + nC2 + .... + nCn = 2n .

Operations on sets:
The operations on sets, by which sets can be combined to produce
new sets, can be best illustrated through Venn diagram. A set S is
called a universal set if every set we conider, is a subset of S. In Venn A
B
diagram, the universal set is shown in the form of a rectangle and the
subsets of the universal set are shown as circles and ellipses. If A is a A⊂B
proper subset of B i.e. A ⊂ B , we say that A is contained in B.

(i) Union of sets:

The union of two set A and B is defined as the set of all elements A∪B

which are either in A or in B or in both. The union of two sets is A

written as A= ∪ B ; e.g. If A {=
30, 55, 62,} , B {30, 66, 72} , then
B
{30, 55, 62, 66, 72} .. Also if
A ∪B =
A
= {x : x ∈ N, 2 < x < 6} , =
B {x : x ∈ N, 4 < x < 7} , then
= {x : x ∈ N 2 < x < 7} .
A ∪B
This definition can be extended to the union of more than two set A1, A 2 ,...,A n . We define, in this
case, the union as
∪n A i = A1 ∪ A 2 ∪ A 3 ........ ∪ A n {x : x ∈ A i for at least one i,1 ≤ i ≤ n} .
i=1

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Note : A ∪ A =
A (i.e. union of sets is idempotent), A ∪ S =
S and A ∪ ϕ = A. Also
A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∪ (B ∪ C ) = ( A ∪ B ) ∪ C .

Illustration 3. Find the union of=

the sets A {=
5, 7, 9} , B {9, 13, 15} and
C = {13, 15, 17} . Also show that ( A ∪ B ) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C ) .

Solution: We have A=
∪B {5, 7, 9} ∪ {9, 13,=
15} {5, 7, 9, 13, 15} and
B ∪ C {9, 13, 15} ∪ {13,15,17
= = } {9, 13, 15, 17}
⇒ (= A ∪ B ) ∪ C {5, 7, 9, 13, 15} ∪={13, 15,17} {5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 17} and
A ∪ (B ∪= C ) {5, 7, 9} ∪ {9, 13, 15,=
17} {5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 17}
= ( A ∪ B) ∪ C .

(ii) Intersection of sets:

A∩B
The intersection of two sets A and B is defined as the set of
those elements which are in both A and B and is written as A B
B {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} ; e.g. if A = {a, b, c, d, e} and
A ∩=
B = {b, d, e} , then A ∩ B =
{b, d, e} and if
A = {x : x ∈ R, 0 < x < 3}, B = {x : x ∈ R, 3 < x < 4}, A ∩ B = ϕ.

Note: A∩= S A and A ∩ ϕ = ϕ .

A A, A ∩ =
The commutative, associative and distributive laws hold for intersection of two sets i.e.
 A ∩B = B ∩ A
 ( A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C )
 A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C )
 A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B ) ∩ ( A ∪ C )
The intersection of n sets A1, A 2 ........A n is written as
n
∩ A=
i=1
i A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ......... ∩ A n= {x : x ∈ A i for all i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n} .

Illustration 4. Find the intersection of the sets

= A {1, 2, 3, 4,= 5, 6} , B {= 2, 4, 5} , C {2, 6} and show that
( A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) .

Solution: We have
= A ∩B {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ∩ {2, 4, 5} = {2, 4, 5} and
∩ C {2, 4, 5} ∩ {2,
B= = 6} {2}
⇒ ( A ∩ B )=
∩ C {2, 4, 5} ∩ {2, = 6} {2} and
∩ (B ∩ C ) {1, 2,3, 4, =
A= 5, 6} ∩ {2} {2} .
Disjoint sets:
Two set A and B are said to be disjoint, if there is no element which is in both A and B, i.e.
A ∩B = =ϕ ; e.g. A {=
a, b, c} , B {d, e, f } are disjoint.

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iii) Difference of sets: S A-B

The difference of two set A and B, taken in this order, is defined B

as the set of all those elements of A which are not in B and is A
denoted by A – B i.e. A − B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B} .
Similarly set B – A is the set of all those element of B which are
= {x : x ∈ B, x ∉ A} ; e.g. if A = {a, b, c, d, e}
not in A i.e. B − A
and B = {b, c, d, e, f } , then
{a} and B − A =
A −B = {f } .
A − B is also denoted by A\B.

iv) Complement of a set: S

Complement of a set A is defined as S – A where S is the
c
universal set and is denoted by A c or A ′ i.e. A c= S − A or A
A
A c = {x : x ∈ S, x ∉ A} .

(A )
c
c
Note: A, Sc =
= ϕ, A ∩ A c =
ϕ , A ∪ Ac = S.

Illustration 5. For
= the sets S {10, 11, 12, 13, ....,
= 17, 18} , A {11,
= 13, 15} , B {12, 14, 16} ,
show that B − Ac = A − B = A ∩ B c .
c

Solution: We have A c = S − A = {10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18} , and

{11, 13, 15} .
Bc = {10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18} so that Bc − A c =
Also A − B = {11, 13, 15} = Bc − A c .
Moreover, A=∩ Bc {11, 13, 15} ∩ {10, 11, 13, 15, 17,
= 18} {11, 13, 15}
= A − B = Bc − A c .

Note: The properties of the complement of sets are known as DeMorgan laws,
which are
(i) A c − Bc =B − A
(ii) ( A ∪ B )c = A c ∩ Bc
(iii) ( A ∩ B )c = A c ∪ Bc

To prove (iii), we have ( A ∩ B ) =

c
{x : x ∉ ( A ∩ B )}= {x : x ∉ A or x ∉ B}

{ }
= x : x ∈ A c or x ∈ Bc = A c ∪ Bc .

Note: A − (B ∪ C ) = ( A − B ) ∩ ( A − C ) ; A − (B ∩ C ) = ( A − B ) ∪ ( A − C ) .
A
A
A A
A – (B ∪ C) A-C

A-B
(B ∪ C)
B
B
B
B
C C
C C

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A
(A – B) ∩ (A – C)

B
C

Venn diagram for A − (B ∪ C ) = ( A − B ) ∩ ( A − C ) .

(v) Application:
Let A be a finite set. The number of elements in A is denoted by n ( A ) . Let A and B be two finite
sets. If A and B are two disjoint sets, then n ( A ∪ B )= n ( A ) + n (B ) .
If A and B are not disjoint, then
(i) n ( A ∪ B )= n ( A ) + n (B ) − n ( A ∩ B )
(ii) n ( A ∪ B )= n ( A − B ) + n (B − A ) + n ( A ∩ B )
(iii) n ( A )= n ( A − B ) + n ( A ∩ B )
(iv) n (B ) = n (B − A ) + n ( A ∩ B )

S A-B A ∩B
B-A
S
A

B
A B

Illustration 6. Set A has 3 elements and set B has 6 elements. Find the maximum and
minimum number of elements in A ∪ B .

Solution: We have
= n ( A ) 3,
= n (B ) 6 so that the maximum number of element in
3 . Also n ( A ∪ B )= n ( A ) + n (B ) − n ( A ∩ B )
A ∩B =
⇒ minimum n ( A ∪ B )= n ( A ) + n (B ) − maximum n ( A ∩ B ) = 3 + 6 − 3 = 6 .
The number of elements in A ∪ B is maximum when A and B are disjoint
⇒ n ( A ∪ B ) = n ( A ) + n (B ) = 3 + 6 = 9 .

Illustration 7. In a certain examination, the candidates can offer papers in English or Hindi or
both the subjects. The number of candidates who appeared in the examination is
1000 of whom 650 appeared in English and 200 both in English and Hindi. Find
the number of candidates who offered paper in
(i) Hindi, (ii) English only, (iii) Hindi only.

Solution: Let A = The set of candidates who offered paper in English

and B = The set of candidates who offered paper in Hindi. Hence
n(A= ∪ B ) 1000, n =( A ) 650, n ( A =
∩ B ) 200 and from
n ( A ∪ B )= n ( A ) + n (B ) − n ( A ∩ B ) , we have

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1000 =650 + n (B ) − 200 ⇒ n (B ) =550 .

Also the number of candidates who offered paper in English only
= n ( A − B ) = n {candidates ∈ A, and candidates ∉ B}
⇒ n ( A − B ) = n ( A ) − n ( A ∩ B ) = 650 − 200 = 450 .
Similarly, the set of candidates who offered paper in Hindi only is B – A
⇒ n (B − A ) = n (B ) − n ( A ∩ B ) = 550 − 200 = 350 .

(vi) Cartesian product of sets:

Let a be an arbitrary element of a given set A i.e. a ∈ A and b be an arbitrary element of B i.e.
b ∈ B . Then the pair ( a, b ) is an ordered pair. Obviously ( a, b ) ≠ ( b, a ) . The cartesian product
of two sets A and B is defined as the set of ordered pairs ( a, b ) . The cartesian product is
denoted by A × B
⇒= A × B {( a, b ) ; a ∈ A, b ∈ B} .
In general A × B ≠ B × A and if A or B is a null set then A × B =ϕ.
Moreover, n ( A × B )= n ( A ) ⋅ n (B ) .

Note : (i) A × (B ∪ C ) = ( A × B ) ∪ ( A × C )
(ii) A × (B ∩ C ) = ( A × B ) ∩ ( A × C )
(iii) A × (B − C ) = ( A × B ) − ( A × C )
(iv) ( A − B ) × C = ( A × C ) − (B × C )
(v) ( A ∩ B ) × C = ( A × C ) ∩ (B × C )
(vi) ( A ∪ B ) × C = ( A × C ) ∪ (B × C )

Illustration
= 8. If A {=
2, 5} , B {3, 4, 7} and C = {3, 4, 8} then evaluate
A × B, B × A, A × A and verify that
(i) A × ( B − C ) = ( A × B ) − ( A × C ) ,
(ii) A × ( B ∪ C ) = ( A × B ) ∪ ( A × C ) .

Solution: Here A ×=
B } {( 2, 3 ) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2, 7 ) , ( 5, 3 ) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5, 7 )} ,
{2, 5} × {3, 4, 7=
B=× A {3, 4, 7} × {2,
= 5} {( 3, 2 ) , ( 3, 5 ) , ( 4, 2 ) , ( 4, 5 ) , ( 7, 2 ) , ( 7, 5 )} and
A ×= } {( 2, 2 ) , ( 2, 5 ) , ( 5, 2 ) , ( 5, 5 )} .
A {2, 5} × {2, 5=
C {2, 5} × {3, 4, 8=
Also A × = } {( 2, 3 ) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2, 8 ) , ( 5, 3 ) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5, 8 )} ,
B=− C {3, 4, 7} − {3, 4,
= 8} {7}
⇒ A × (B − C) = {2, 5} × {7} = {(2, 7) (5, 7)},
{( 2, 3 ) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2, 7 ) , ( 5, 3 ) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5, 7 )}
A × B − ( A × C) =
− {( 2, 3 ) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2, 8 ) , ( 5, 3 ) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5, 8 )} = {( 2, 7 ) , 5, 7} = A × (B − C ) .
{3, 4, 7, 8}
To verify (ii), we write B ∪ C =
⇒ A × (B ∪ C=
) {2, 5} × {3, 4, 7, 8}
= {( 2, 3 ) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2, 7 ) , ( 2,8 ) , ( 5, 3 ) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5, 7 ) , ( 5, 8 )} , and

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{( 2, 3 ) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 2, 7 ) , ( 2, 8 ) , ( 5, 3 ) , ( 5, 4 ) , ( 5, 7 ) , ( 5, 8 )}
( A × B) ∪ ( A × C) =
= A × (B ∪ C ) .

Exercise 1.
i) Prove that A ∪ B = A ∩ B if and only if A = B.
ii)
= If A {=a, e, i , o, u} , B {b, c, d } , then find ( A − B ) ∩ B .
iii)
= If S {a, b, c, d=
, e, . f , g} , A {=
a, b, c, d } , B {c, d , e, f } , then verify that
( A ∪ B )c =Ac ∩ Bc .
iv) If A and B are any sets, prove that A ∩ ( B − A ) = ϕ.
v) If A {=
= 2} , B {=5} , C {3, 4, 6} , then verify that A × ( B ∩ C ) = ( A × B ) ∩ ( B × C ) .
vi) In a conference attended by 550 delegates tea and coffee are served. The number
of delegates who drink tea is 400 and the number of delegates who drink tea only
is 200. Find (i) how many of them drink coffee,
(ii) how many drink coffee only.

Relation:
Let A and B be two sets. A relation R from the set A to set B is a subset of the cartesian product
A × B . Further, if ( x, y ) ∈ R , then we say that x is R-related to y and write this relation as x R y.
Hence R {( x, y ) ; x ∈ A, y ∈ B, x R y} .
As an example, consider A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 8, 27} , so that
{(1, 1) , (1, 8 ) , (1, 27 ) , ( 2, 1) , ( 2, 8 ) , ( 2, 27 ) , ( 3, 1) , ( 3, 8 ) , ( 3, 27 )} .
A ×B =
Consider now a subset R of A × B , as R = {(1, 1) , ( 2, 8 ) , ( 3, 27 )} .

We notice that in every ordered pair of R, the second element is the cube of the first element i.e.
the element of the ordered pairs of R have a common relation- ship which is “cube”.
In case =
we take A {=2, 4, 6} , B {1, 5} ,

then {( 2, 1) , ( 2, 5 ) , ( 4, 1) , ( 4, 5 ) , ( 6, 1) , ( 6, 5 )} .
A ×B =

Consider now a subset R of A × B as R = {( 2, 1) , ( 4, 1) , ( 6, 1) , ( 6, 5 )} .

Here the first element in each of the ordered pair is greater than the second element. Hence the
relationship is “greater than”. Obviously, from the definition, x R y and y R x are not the same,
since= R {( x, y ) : x ∈ A, y ∈ B, xR y} and=
R {( x, y ) : x ∈ B, y ∈ A, x R y} are different.

Domain and Range of a relation: Let R be a relation defined from a A set to a set B,
i.e. R ⊆ A × B . Then the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in R is called the domain of
R. The set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in R is called the range of R. That is,
D = domain
= of R {x : ( x, y ) ∈ R} or {x : x ∈ A and ( x, y ) ∈ R} ,

R∗ = range
= of R {y : ( x, y ) ∈ R} or {y : y ∈ B and ( x, y ) ∈ R} .

Clearly D ⊆ A and R* ⊆ B .
For example, for R given in {(1, 1) , ( 2, 8 ) , ( 3, 27 )} above, domain of R = {1, 2, 3} ,

Range of R = {1, 8, 27} .

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Function:
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Let to each element of A, there correspond exactly one
element of B. This correspondence between the elements of A and B is called a function from A
to B. Function is a special case of a relation, since a relation may relate an element of A to more
than one elements in B. A function from A to B is usually denoted by the symbols f, g etc. and we
write f : A → B . We also say that “f is a mapping from A to B”.
The set A is called the domain of the function f and
B is called the co domain of the function f. f
a
b

A B

Let an element a ∈ A correspond to b ∈ B under the function f. Then we say that b is the image
of a under f and a is the pre-image of b. We then write f ( a ) = b . By definition, if f is a function
from A to B, then each element of A has unique image in B. However, every element of B
needs not be an image of some a in A. The subset of B (co domain) which contains all the
images of the elements of A is called the range of the function and is denoted by f ( A )
i.e.
= f (A) {f ( a ) : a ∈ A} .

Exercise 2.
i) Let R = {(1, 3 ) , ( 2, 5 ) , ( 3, 7 ) , ( 4, 9 ) , ( 5, 11 )} be a relation in the set
A = {1, 2, 3, ......} . Find the domain and range of R.

ii) Find the domain and range of the relation

= R {( x , x ) : x ≤ 4,
2
x ∈N . }
iii) Determine the range and domain of the following functions:
3 + x2 x2 − 1
(a) f ( x ) = , (b) f ( x ) = .
2−x x +1
iv) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 , } and B = N, find whether the following relations define a
function from A to B:
 1 
(a) R = {(1, 1 ) , ( 2, 50 ) , ( 4, 72 )} (b)
= R ( x , f ( x ) ) , x ∈ A, f=
(x) .
 1 + x2 

Definition of Function, Domain, Co-domain and Range:

We note that, function is a rule (or a set of rules) which associates to each possible real number
x, a unique real number y, written as f (x). Function can be easily defined with the help of the
concept of mapping. Let X and Y be any two non-empty sets. “A function from X to Y is a rule or
correspondence that assigns to each element of set X, one and only one element of set Y”. Let
the correspondence be ‘f’. Then mathematically we write f : X→ Y where y = f(x), x ∈X and y ∈Y.
We say that ‘y’ is the image of ‘x’ under ‘f’(or x is the pre image of y). Accordingly
(i) A mapping f: X → Y is said to be a function if each element of X has it’s image in the set
Y. It is possible that a few elements in Y are present which are not the images of any
element in the set X.
(ii) Every element of X should have one and only one image. That means it is impossible to
have more than one images for a specific element of X. Functions can’t be multi-valued

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(A mapping that is multi-valued is called a relation from X to Y)

 The set ‘X’ is called the domain of ‘f’.
 The set ‘Y’ is called the co-domain of ‘f’.
 Set of images of different elements of the set X is called the range of ‘f’. It is obvious
that range could be a subset of the co-domain as we may have some elements in the
co-domain which are not the images of any element of X (of course, these elements of
the co-domain will not be included in the range). Range is also called domain
of variation.
 If R is the set of real numbers and X and Y are subsets of R, then the function
f (x) is called a real−valued function or a real function.
Domain of a function ‘f’ is normally represented as Domain (f). Range is represented as Range
(f). Note that some times domain of the function is not explicitly defined. In these cases domain
would mean the set of values of ‘x’ for which f (x) assumes real values that is if y = f (x) then
Domain (f) = {x: f (x) is a real number}.
e.g. Let X = {a, b, c}, Y = {x, y, z}. Suppose f(a) = y, f(a) = x, f(b) = y, f(c) = z. Then f is not a
function of X into Y since a ∈ X has more than one f-images in Y.
On the other hand, if we set f(a) = x, f(b) = x and f(c) = x, then f:X → Y is a function since each
element in X has exactly one f-image in Y.
Consider the following examples:
(i) Let X = R, Y = R and y = f(x) = x2.
Then f : X → Y is a function since each element in X has exactly one f - image in Y. The
range of f = {f(x) : x ∈ X} = {x2 : x ∈ R} = [0, ∞).
(ii) Let X = R+, Y = R+ and y = √x. Then f : X → Y is a function. The range of f is R+
(iii) Let X = R, Y= R and y2 = x. Here f(x) = ± x i.e. f is not a function of X into Y since each
x > 0 has two f-images in Y, and further, each x<0 has no f-image in Y.
We are primarily interested in functions whose domains and ranges are (sub)sets of real
numbers.
1
e.g. Let the function f be defined by f(x) = .
2x + 6
In this case we must have 2x + 6 > 0 ⇒ x > − 3. Therefore, the domain of f is (–3, ∞), the range of
1
f = (0, ∞). Thus we have the function f : (–3, ∞) → (0, ∞) defined by f(x) = .
2x + 6
x
Let the function f be defined by f(x) = . The function makes sense for all values of x
( x − 1)( x − 2 )
except x = 1 and x = 2. Therefore, the domain of f is R – {1, 2}.

Illustration 9. Find the domain and range of the function f ( =

x) x −5 .

Solution: The function f ( =

x) x − 5 is defined
for x ≥ 5 ⇒ the domain is [5, ∞ ) .
Also, for any x =a ≥ 5, f ( a ) = a − 5 ≥ 0
⇒ the range of the function is [0, ∞ ) .

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Illustration 10. Find the domain and the range of the function y = f (x), where f (x) is given by
(i) x2 − 2x − 3, (ii) x2 − 2 x − 3 , (iii) sin x,
(iv) tan x, (v) log10 (x).

Solution: (i) Here y = (x − 3) (x + 1). The function is defined for all real values of x
⇒ its domain is R. Also x2 − 2x − 3 − y = 0 for real x
⇒ 4 + 4 (3 + y) ≥ 0 ⇒ − 4 ≤ y < ∞.
Hence the range of the given function is [− 4, ∞).
(ii) Here y = (x − 3)(x + 1) ⇒ (x − 3) (x + 1) ≥ 0 so that x ≥ 3 or x ≤ − 1.
Hence the domain is R − (− 1, 3) or (− ∞, − 1] ∪ [3, ∞).
Since f(x) is non−negative in the domain, the range of f(x) is the interval [0, ∞).
(iii) The function f(x) = sin x, (x in radians) is defined for all real values of x
⇒ domain of f(x) is R. Also − 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1, for all x,
so that the range of f (x) is [− 1, 1].
sin x
(iv) The function f(x) = tan x = is not defined when
cos x
π
cos x = 0, or x = (2n + 1) , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, …
2
 π 
Hence domain of tan x is R − (2n + 1) , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,.... , and its range is R.
 2 
(v) The function f (x) = log10 x is defined for all x > 0. Hence its domain is (0, ∞) and
range is R.

Illustration 11. Find the domain and range of the functions:

1 1
(i) f (x) = , (ii) f (x) = ,
x +1 2
x − 3x + 2

 x 2 − 1, 0 ≤ x < 1
 x4 + x2 , x≤2
(iii) f (x) = 0, x =1 , (iv) f (x) =  .
 2 5 x 2 , x>2
 x + 1, x > 1
(v) log(logx)

Solution: (i) The function is not defined when x + 1 = 0 or x = − 1.

Hence the domain is R − {−1}. The range is the set of all real numbers or R.
(ii) We have x2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1) (x − 2) so that f (x) is not defined at x = 1 and x = 2.
Moreover (x − 1) (x − 2) > 0
⇒ x > 2 or x < 1. Hence the domain is (− ∞, 1) ∪ (2, ∞) or R − [1, 2]. Range of the
function is the set of all positive real numbers.
(iii) The given function is defined for all x ≥ 0 ⇒ the domain is [0, ∞).
Moreover − 1 ≤ f (x) < ∞ ⇒ the range is [− 1, ∞).
(iv) Here the function is defined for all x ⇒ the domain is R.
The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
(v) Since log x > 0 only when x > 1, the domain of f (x) is [1, ∞) and the range is R.

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Illustration 12. Find the domain of definition of the following functions:

( x − 1)( x + 2 )
(i) f(x) = log 1 ( 2x − 3 ) , (ii) f(x) =
2
( x − 3 )( x − 4 )

Solution: (i) For f(x) to be defined log1/2(2x – 3) ≥ 0

⇒ 2x – 3 ≤ 1 ⇒ x ≤ 2. . . . (1)
3
Also 2x – 3 > 0 ⇒ x > . . . . (2)
2
Combining (1) and (2) we get the required values of x. Hence the domain of
3 
definition of f(x) is the set  , 2
2 
( x − 1)( x + 2 )
(ii) For f(x) to be defined ≥0 and x ≠ 3, 4.
( x − 3 )( x − 4 )
By wavy - curve method the domain of definition of f(x) is the set
x ∈ (– ∞, – 2] ∪ [1, 3) ∪ (4, ∞).

Illustration 13. Find the range of the following functions:

 π
(i) f(x) = ln x2 + 4 x + 5 , (ii) f(x) = 3sinx + 8cos  x −  + 5,
 3
2x − 2
(iii) f(x) = 2
.
x − 2x + 3

Solution: (i) Here f(x) = ln x 2 + 4x + 5 = ln ( x + 2 )2 + 1

i.e. x2 + 4x + 5 takes all values in [1, ∞)
⇒ f(x) will take all values in [0, ∞).
Hence range of f(x) is [0, ∞).
 π
(ii) Here f(x) = 3sinx + 8 cos  x −  + 5
 3
= 3sinx + 4(cosx + √3 sinx) + 5 = (3 + 4√3) sinx + 4cosx + 5.
Put 3 + 4√3 = r cosθ and 4 = r sinθ so that
4
r = 73 + 24 3 and θ=tan-1
3+4 3
⇒ f(x) = 73 + 24 3 sin(x + θ) + 5
⇒ Range of f(x) is 5 − 73 + 24 3 , 5+ 73+24 3  .
 
2x − 2
(iii) Here f(x) = 2 .
x − 2x + 3
2x − 2
Let y = f(x) i.e. y = 2
x − 2x + 3
or yx2 – 2(y + 1)x + 3y + 2 = 0
which is a quadratic in x. For the above quadratic equation to have real roots,
1 1 1
∆ ≥ 0 ⇒ (y + 1)2 – y(3y + 2) ≥ 0 ⇒ y2 ≤ ⇒ – ≤y≤ .
2 2 2

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 1 1 
Hence the range of f(x) is  − , .
 2 2

Exercise 3.
i) Find the domains and ranges of the functions:
x −1 1
(a) , (b) , (c) x +1 + 3 − x ,
x+2 2x + 3
x2 1
(d) , (e)
1 + x2 | x | −x
ii) Find the domains and ranges of the functions:
  4 − x2 
(a) sin x − cos x, (b) sin  loge   .
  1− x 
 
( x + 1 )( x − 3 )
iii) Find the domain of the function f(x) = .
x −2
iv) Find the domain of the function f(x) = loge(x – [x]), where [.] denotes the greatest
integer function.
1
v) Find the range of the function f(x) = x2+ 2 .
x +1

Graphs of Some Elementary Functions

A convenient and useful method for studying a function is to study it through its graph. To draw
the graph of a function f : X → Y, we choose a system of coordinate axes in the plane such that
to each x ∈ X, there corresponds the ordered pair (x, f(x)) which determines a point in the plane.
The set of all points {(x, f(x)) : x ∈ X} is the graph of f. We consider some examples of functions
and their graphs.

FUNCTION DOMAIN, RANGE GRAPH

AND DEFINITION
A function f : A → B, A, B ⊂ R, y
1. The constant function
 The graph of y = f (x) is a is said to be a constant y=c
line parallel to the x−axis. function if there exists a real
x
 If c > 0, the line is above number c such that f (x) = c for O

the x−axis. all x ∈ A.

Domain : A
 If c = 0, the line coincides
Range : {c}
with the x−axis
 If c < 0, the line is below
the x−axis.
2. The identity function The function from R → R that
y
 The graph of y = f (x) = x is associates to each x ∈ R the
y=x
a straight line with slope 1. same x, is called the identity
 The line passes through function. More precisely x
O
the origin f (x) = x
Domain : R
Range : R

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y
3. The absolute value (or The function f : R → R+ + {0}
modulus) function. defined by
 The graph of y= f (x) = |x| is f (x) = |x| = x if x ≥ 0 y = -x y= x
x
− x if x < 0 O
symmetric about the y−
axis. is called the absolute value
function
 It passes through the origin
Domain : R
and remains above the x−
Range : [0, ∞).
axis.
y
5. The Greatest Integer The function f : R → Z defined
4
Function by f(x) = [x], x ∈ R 3

 [x] denotes the greatest is called the greatest integer 2

1
integer less than or equal function x
-4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 4
to x. In particular x − 1 < [x] Domain : R -1
-2
Range : Z. -3
≤ x. It is also called a step
-4
function.
 The graph of y = [x]
consists of infinitely many
broken pieces, in the first
and the third quadrant,
each piece parallel to the
x−axis.
6. The fractional part function The function f : R → [0,
If x = [x] + {x}, 0 ≤ {x} < 1, 1) defined by f(x) = {x} y

then {x} is the fractional part is called the fractional y=1

of x. part function.
Domain : R -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
 The graph of y = {x}
Range: [0, 1)
consists of infinitely many
broken pieces, each piece
parallel to the line y = x,
varying from y = 0 to y = 1.

7. Polynomial f(x) = a0xn + a1xn - 1 + .... +an - 1x + an

Function where a0, a1,....,an are real numbers, a0 ≠ 0.
Domain : R
Range : Depends on the polynomial representing the
function.

8. Rational p (x)
f(x) = , where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials in x.
Function q(x)
Domain is R – {x : q(x) = 0}, Range depends on the
function.

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The function F : R → R y

defined by y=1
9. Signum Function 1 x>0

f(x) = 0 x=0 O
−1 x<0

y = −1
is called the signum function.
Domain: R, Range: {−1, 0, 1}

Exercise 4.
Draw the graphs of the functions:
i) y = |x + 3| ii) y = x −1 on [1, 5]
x3 for x 2 < 1
iii) y = x − |x − x2| − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 iv) y= 
 x for x 2 ≥ 1
 −1, for x < 0

v) y = x2 , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 (vi) y = x + |x|
 4, for x > 2


Algebra of Functions:
Given functions f : D → R and g : D → R, we define functions f + g, f - g, gf and f/g as follows:
 f + g : D → R is a function defined by (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) for all x ∈ D
 f – g : D → R is a function defined by (f – g) (x) = f(x) – g(x) for all x ∈ D
 fg : D → R is a function defined by (f g) (x) = f(x) g(x) for all x ∈ D
f f (x)
 :C→R is a function defined by (f/g) (x) = , g ( x ) ≠ 0 ,where C={x∈D:g(x) ≠ 0}. i.e.
g g(x)
x ∈ D − {x : g (x) = 0}.
 If k is any scalar, then kf is a function from D→R defined by (kg)(x) = kf(x), x∈D.

Illustration 14. Let f : [–1, 1] → R and g : R → R be two functions defined by

f
f(x) = 1 − x 2 and g ( x ) =
x 3 + 1 . Find the functions f + g, f – g, fg and .
g
Solution: (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x) = 1 − x 2 + x3 + 1, (f − g) (x)= f(x) − g(x) = 1 − x 2 −x3 − 1,
f f (x) 1 − x2
(fg) (x) = f(x) g(x) = (x3 + 1) 1 − x 2 and  = (x) = , x ≠ -1 .
 g g(x) x3 + 1
The domain of each of f + g. f - g and fg is [-1, 1] and that of f/g is
{x ∈ [−1, 1] : g(x) ≠ 0} = (−1, 1].
Note: The sum f + g, the difference f − g, the product fg and the quotient f/g are defined only
when f and g are real functions having the same domain. In case f and g, have different domains,
these operations are defined for those values of x which are common to the domains of both f
and g i.e. x ∈ to the intersection of the domains of f and g.

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ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

Exercise 1.
(ii) φ (vi) 350, 150
Exercise 2.
(i) Domain = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, range = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11}
(ii) Domain = {1, 2, 3, 4}, range = {1, 4, 9, 16}
(iii) (a) domain = R – {2}, range = R (b) domain = R – (-1), range = R
(iv) (a) No (b) No
Exercise 3.
 3 
(ii) (a) R − {−2}, R− {1} (b)  − , ∞  , ( 0, ∞ )
 2 
(c) [− 1, 3], [2, 2 2 ] (d) R, [0, 1)
(e) (−∞, 0), (0, ∞)
(ii) (a) R,  − 2, 2  (b) (−2, 1), [−1, 1].
(iii) [−1, 2] ∪ [3, ∞)
(iv) R − {I} where I is the set of integers
(v) [1, ∞)

Exercise 4.
(i) y (ii) y

(0, 3)

O
(−3, 0) O x
(1, 0) (5, 0) x

(iii) (1, 1)
(iv)
(1, 1)

(−1, 0) (−1, 0)

(1, 0) (1, 0)

(−1,−1)
(−1,−3)

(v) (vi) f(x)

y=4

f(x) = x + |x|
x
(0, 0)
(2, 0)

y=−1

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SOLVED PROBLEMS

Subjective:

Problem 1. If A and B are two sets, then prove that Ac − B c =B − A .

Solution: Let x and y be the elements of A c − Bc and B – A respectively. Then

x ∈ A c − Bc and y ∈ B − A
⇒ x ∈ A c , x ∉ Bc ⇒ x ∉ A, x ∈B
⇒ x ∈ B, x∉A ⇒ x ∈B − A .
c c
Hence A − B ⊆ B − A . ....(1)
Similarly y ∈ B − A ⇒ y ∈ B, y∉A
c c
⇒ y ∈ A , y ∉B ⇒ y ∈ A c − Bc
⇒ B − A ⊆ A c − Bc . ....(2)
c c
From (1) and (2) we find that A − B =B − A .

Problem 2. If A and B are two sets, prove that A ∩ ( B − A ) =

ϕ.

Solution: We know that A ∩ (B − A) = {x : x ∈ A, and x ∈ (B − A)}

i.e. A ∩ (B − A) = {x : x ∈ A, and x ∈ B, x ∉ A} = ϕ.

Problem 2. Find the domain of

(i) y = log(x-4)(x2-11x+24), (ii) y = log3 ( cos ( sin x ) ) .

Solution: (i) Here ‘y’ would assume real values if x – 4 >0 and ≠ 1 , x2-11x+24>0
⇒ x > 4 and ≠ 5, (x − 3) (x − 8) > 0
⇒ x > 4 and ≠ 5, x < 3 or x > 8 ⇒ x > 8
⇒ Domain (y) = (8, ∞).

(ii) Here ‘y’ would assume real values if log3 ( cos ( sin x ) ) ≥ 0
⇒ cos(sinx)≥1
⇒ cos(sinx) = 1 as -1 ≤ cosθ ≤ 1
⇒ sinx =0 ⇒ x = nπ, n∈I.
Hence the domain consists of the multiples of π i.e.
Domain (y) = { nπ: n∈I}.

Problem 3. Find the domain and range of each of the following functions:
x2 + x + 1  
(i) f(x) = 2
x + 4x + 3
, =(ii ) f ( x ) log2  log 1 x 2 + 4 x + 4
 ( )  ,
 2 

(iii) sin ( cos x ) + cos ( sin x ) .

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x2 + x + 1
Solution: (i) Here f(x) = and f(x) is defined for all x ∈ R other than numbers,
x 2 + 4x + 3
where x2 + 4x + 3 = 0
⇒ x = -3, -1.
Hence the domain of f(x) = R - {-3, -1}.
x2 + x + 1
Let 2 = y ⇒ x2(1 - y) + x(1 - 4y) + 1 - 3y = 0.
x + 4x + 3
Since x is real, (1 - 4y)2 - 4(1 - y)(1-3y) ≥ 0 ⇒ 4y2 + 8y - 3 ≥ 0
 -2- 7   −2 + 7 
⇒ y ∈  −∞,  ∪  , ∞  , which is the required range
 2   2 
 
(ii) Here log1/2(x2 + 4x + 4) > 0 ⇒ 0 < x2 + 4x + 4 < 1
⇒ x2 + 4x + 3 < 0 ⇒ (x + 1) (x + 3) < 0
⇒ x ∈ (-3, -1). But if x = -2, f(x) will not be defined
⇒ Domain of f(x) = (-3, -2) ∪ (-2, -1).
Also 0 < x2 + 4x + 4 < 1
⇒ - ∞ < log2 (x2 + 4x + 4) < 0 ⇒ 0 < log1/2(x2 + 4x + 4) < ∞
⇒ -∞ < log2(log1/2(x2 + 4x + 4)) < ∞ ⇒ Range of f(x) is R
 π π
(iii) Since -1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and cos x≥0 ∀ x ∈  − ,  , cos(sinx)> 0 ∀ x∈ R.
 2 2
Now sin ( cos x ) is defined only when sin(cos x) ≥ 0 which is possible only
when cos x≥0.
 π π
Hence the required domain of f(x) =  2nπ − , 2nπ+  .
n ∈ I 2 2 
Also f(0) = sin1 +1 and f(π/2) = 0 + cos1
⇒ Range = [ cos1 , sin1 + 1].

Problem 4. If a0 = x, an+1 = f (an), n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …. , find an when

1
(i) f (x) = | x | , (ii) f (x) = .
1− x

Solution: (i) We have a1 = f (a0) = f (x) = | x | , = |x|1/2,

2
and a2 = f (a1) = f (f(x)) = |f (x)|1/2 = | x |1/ 2 .
2 3 n
Again a3 = f (a2) = | x |1/ 2 = | x |1/ 2 ⇒ an = | x |1/ 2 .
1
(ii) Here a1 = f (a0) = f (x) = ,
1− x
1 1 x −1
a2 = f (a1) = f (f (x)) == = ,
1 − f(x) 1 x
1−
1− x
1
a3 = f (a2) = = x,
x −1
1−
x
1
a4 = f (a3) = .
1− x
And this process will repeat itself after every three steps, so that

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
 x, for n 3m, m ∈ I
=

1
an =  , for n =3m + 1, m ∈ I .
1 − x
x −1
 , for n =3m + 2, m ∈ I
 x

Let f : R → R and g : R → R be functions defined by

Problem 5.
2 x, x <1  x + 2, x<0
= f ( x ) = 2
g (x) 
2 x − 1, x ≥ 1 2x, x ≥ 0.
Find (i) f + g (ii) fg

Solution: (f+g) : R→R and (fg):R→R are functions defined by (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) and
(fg) (x) = f(x) g(x). To find (f + g)(x) and (fg)(x), we rewrite f(x) and g(x) as under:
2x, x<0  x + 2, x < 0
 
=f ( x ) 2x, 0 ≤ x < 1=, g ( x ) 2x, 0 ≤ x <1
 2 2x, x ≥1
2x − 1, x ≥ 1 
3x + 2, x<0

Hence (f + g)(x) = 4x, 0 ≤ x < 1 and
 2
2x + 2x − 1, x ≥1
2x 2 + 4x, x<0
 2
(fg)(x) = 4x , 0 ≤ x <1
 3
4x − 2x, x ≥ 1.

Problem 6. Find the number of subsets that can be formed from the set A = {4, 5, 6} .

Solution: The subsets that can be formed from the given set
are ϕ, {4} , {5} , {6} , {4, 5} , {4, 6} , {5, 6} , {4, 5, 6} . These are 8 subsets.

Problem 7. If A is the null set, find the number of elements in the power set P ( P( A) ) .

Solution: Here A = ϕ ⇒ P(A) =P(ϕ) ={ϕ} so that P (P(ϕ) ) ={ϕ, {ϕ}} .

Problem 8. Prove that ( A ∪ B ) − ( A ∩ B ) is equal to ( A − B ) ∪ ( B − A ) .

Solution: Here A ∪ B is A∪B

A B

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A∩B
and A ∩ B is

A
B

so that ( A ∪ B ) − ( A ∩ B ) is

A
B

which is same as ( A − B ) ∪ (B − A ) .

Problem 9. Of the 20 teachers of mathematic and physics, 12 teach mathematic and 4 teach
both the subjects. Find the number of teachers teaching physic.

Solution: Here n (M=

∪ P ) 20, =
n (M) 12 and n (M ∩ P ) =
4 . Hence
n (P )= n (M ∪ P ) − n (M) + n (M ∩ P )
= 20 – 12 + 4 = 12.

Problem 10. X, Y are two sets and X has 40 elements, X ∪ Y has 60 elements and X ∩ Y
has 10 elements. Find the number of elements in Y is

Solution: n (X ∩ Y) =
10 and n ( X ) = 40 . x = 40, x ∩ y = 10

Also n ( X − Y ) = 40 − 10 = 30 .
⇒ n ( Y ) = 60 − 30 = 30

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ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS

1. Participation in sports is compulsory in a school. A class has 80 students out of which 60

students play football and 40 students play basketball. Find how many students
(i) play both football and basketball,
(ii) play football only,
(iii) play basketball only.

2. A set B is given as B = {1, 2} . Some elements of A × B are (3, 1), (5, 1) and (7, 2). Find
the remaining elements of A × B such that n(A × B) is least.

3. Let A = {x : x = n, n ∈ N} , B = {x : x = 2n, n ∈ N} , C = {x : x = 4n, n ∈ N} .

Find (i) A ∩ B (ii) A ∪ B (iii) A ∩(B ∪ C).

4. A function f : Z → Z is defined as follows:

f(x)
= 3x + 2 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
= x2 for 2 < x ≤ 4
= 6−x for 4 < x < 6
=0 other wise.
Find the range of f. Find also the values f(3), f(6), f(8).

5. Let A = {2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {3, 5, 7}, C = {2, 5, 8}. Verify that

(i) A − (B ∪C) = (A − B) ∩(A − C)
(ii) A− (B ∩C) = (A − B) ∪(A − c)

6. In a certain town 25% families own a phone and 15% own a car, 65% families own
neither a phone nor a car. 2000 families own both a car and a phone. How many families
live in the town?

7. If n(S) = 700, n(A) = 200, n(B) = 300 and n(A∩B) = 100, where S is a universal set, find
n(AC ∩BC).

8. If A = [(x, y) : x2 + y2 = 25] and B = [(x, y) : x2 + 9y2 = 144], find the number of points in
A ∩ B.

9. Prove that (A∩B) ∪(A − B) = A.

10. If X = {8n − 7n − 1 : n ∈ N and Y = {49(n − 1) : n ∈ N} prove that X is a subset of Y.

11. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, prove that f defined by f = {(x, y) : x + y = 5} is function from A to A.

12 Find the domain of

x+7
(a) f (x) = x |x|, (b) f (x) = 2
x - 8x + 4

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13. Find the range of

|x-4|
(a) f(x) = |x − 3|, (b)
x-4
14. Find the domain and range of
1 x2 - 9
(a) f(x) = (b)
4 + 3sinx x-3
15. Draw the graph of
3 - x, if x > 1
(a) f(x) = x − [x] (b) f (x) = 1, if x = 1
 2x, if x < 1
16. Find f + g, f − g, fg and f/g if
(a) f (x) = sin x, g (x) = x (b) f (x) = cos x g (x) = ex

17. Find the domain and range of the functions

(2x + 1)(2x + 3) 1
(i) f (x) = (ii) f (x) =
x +1 x2 − 1
x4 , for x 2 < 1 1
(iii) f (x) =  (iv) f(x) =
2
 x, for x ≥ 1 x−3

18. Draw the graphs of the following functions in the given domains:
(i) y = 4 − (x − 2)2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, (ii) y = 2x − x2 and the x−axis
 π π π
(iii) y = |x + 1| (iv) y = sin  3x +  , − ≤ x ≤ .
 4 3 3

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ANSWERS TO ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS

1. (i) 20 (ii) 40 (iii) 20

2. (3, 2), (5, 2), (7, 1).
3. A ∩ B = B = {2, 4, 6, …}, A ∪ B = A= {1,2, 3, …}, A∩(B ∪ C) = B.
4. Range = {0, 1, 5, 89, 16}, f(3) = 9, f(6) = 0, f(8) = 0
6. 40,000 7. 300
8. 4
12. (a) R, (b) R − {1, 2}
13. (a) (0, ∞), (b) {− 1, 1}
1
14. (a) Domain : R, range ≤y≤1 (b) Domain: R − {3}, Range: R − {6}
7
15. (a) y (b) y

x x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 -2 -1 O 1 2

sin x
16. (a) sin x + x, sin x − x, x sin x, ,x≠0
x
(b) cos x + ex, cos x − ex, ex cos x, e−xcos x

 −3   −1 
17. (i) Domain :  , 1 ∪  , ∞  , Range : set of all positive real numbers
2  2 
(ii) Domain : R − [− 1, 1], Range : set of all positive real numbers
(iii) Domain : R, Range : R − (− 1, 0)
(iv) Domain : (3, ∞), Range : set of real positive numbers.

y y
18. (i) (ii)

O x O 1 2 x

y y
(iii) (iv)

−1 O x −π/3 O π/12 π/4 x

−π/12

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