 Classification of Fuel;

 Combustion and chemical principles involved in

fuel;
 Calorific value: gross and net calorific values and
their determination by bomb calorimeter;
 Proximate and ultimate analysis of coal and their
importance;
 LPG, Water gas, producer gas, CNG;

2
 Fuel

Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as main

constituent, which on proper burning gives large amount of heat,
which can be used economically for domestic and industrial
purposes. Eg., Wood, Charcoal, Coal, Kerosene, Petrol, Producer
gas, Oil gas, LPG etc.,
During the process of combustion of a fuel (like coal), the atoms of
carbon, hydrogen, etc. combine with oxygen with the
simultaneous liberation of heat at a rapid rate.
Fuel + Oxygen ---> Products + Heat

3
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
Chemical Fuels: It is of two types viz., Primary or Natural Fuel and Secondary
or Derived Fuel.
Primary Fuel or Natural Fuel: Natural fuels occur in nature
Secondary or Derived Fuel: prepared by further processing of primary fuels

4
 Characteristics of a Good Fuel
1. It should ignite easily. The temperature of the fuel at which ignition
starts and continues to burn without further addition of heat is called
ignition temperature. It should be moderate for a good fuel. Very low
ignition temperature leads to fire hazard and very high ignition
temperature disfavors the starting of fire.
2. It should give out a lot of heat, that is, its specific heat should be high.
3. It should have low smoke and combustible matter such as ash. It
should not give out harmful combustion products. This property
depends on the nature of elements present in the fuel.
4. It should be inexpensive and readily available.
5. It should be easy to store and transport.
6. It should have low ash content. Ash reduces the calorific value of the
fuel, causes hindrance to the flow of air and heat, reduces the specific
heat and leads to unwanted disposable problems
5
 Calorific value of a Fuel
Calorific value of a fuel is “the total quantity of heat liberated, when a unit mass
(or volume) of the fuel is burnt completely”
Units of Heat: (1) Calorie- is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of water through one degree centigrade (15-16° C).
(2) Kilocalorie – is equal to 1,000 calories. This is the unit of metric system and
may be defined as “the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of water through one degree centigrade. Thus, 1 kcal = 1,000 calories.
(3) British Thermal Unit (BTU)- is defined as “the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of one pound of water through one degree Fahrenheit (60-
61° F). This is the English system unit.
1 BTU = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal and 1 kcal = 3.968 BTU
(4) Centigrade heat unit (CHU)-is “the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water through one degree centigrade”. Thus,

6
1 kcal = 3.968 BTU = 2.2 CHU
HIGHER OR GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE:
It is the total amount of heat produced, when unit mass/volume of the fuel
has been burnt completely and the products of combustion have been
cooled to room temperature (15° C or 60° F).
It is explained that all fuels contain some hydrogen and when the calorific
value of hydrogen containing fuel is determined experimentally, the
hydrogen is converted into steam. If the products of combustion are
condensed to the room temperature, the latent heat of condensation of
steam also gets included in the measured heat which is then called GCV.
LOWER OR NET CALORIFIC VALUE:
It is the net heat produced, when unit mass/volume of the fuel is burnt
completely, and the products are permitted to escape.
In actual practice of any fuel, the water vapor and moisture, etc., are not
condensed and escape as such along with hot combustion gases. Hence,
a lesser amount of heat is available.
7
 Determination of calorific value by bomb calorimeter
Description:

Bomb Calorimeter consists of a strong stainless steel bomb where

the fuel sample is burnt. The bomb has oxygen inlet valve and two
stainless steel electrodes. A small ring is attached to one of the
electrodes. In this ring, a nickel or stainless steel crucible is placed.

The bomb is placed in a copper

calorimeter containing a known weight of
water sample. The copper calorimeter is
provided with a thermometer and stirrer for
stirring water. The copper calorimeter is
covered by an air jacket and water jacket.

8
 Functioning

A known weight of the fuel sample is taken into the crucible. The fine
magnesium wire is touching the fuel sample and then stretched across the
electrodes. The bomb lid is tightly closed with the help of screw. The bomb
is filled with oxygen at 25 atmospheric pressure.

The bomb is now placed in a copper calorimeter which containing

known weight of water. Initial temperature of the water in the calorimeter is
noted (t1°C) after stirring. The electrodes are connected to a battery (6 v).
The current is now supplied to the fuel sample which undergoes burning
with the evolution of heat. The liberated heat increases the temperature of
water in the calorimeter. The maximum temperature of the water during
experiment is finally noted (t2°C). From the temperature difference, calorific
value of the fuel can be calculated as follows:

9
The water equivalent of a calorimeter is defined
as the mass of water that will absorb or lose as
same quantity of heat as the substance for the
same change in temperature.
10
 Classification of Fuel;
 Combustion and chemical principles involved in fuel;
 Calorific value: gross and net calorific values and their
determination by bomb calorimeter;
 Proximate and ultimate analysis of coal and their
importance;
 LPG, Water gas, producer gas, CNG

2
 Coal
Coal is a highly carbonaceous matter.
Coal was formed when dead plant matter decayed into peat and is
converted into coal by the heat and pressure of deep burial over millions
of years. It is chiefly composed of C, H, N and O besides non-
combustible inorganic matter. The stages in the transformation of
vegetable matter into coal are wood, peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and
anthracite. Anthracite is the purest form of coal and contains 95 %
carbon.

3
 Coal
The composition of coal varies widely and hence it is
necessary to analyse and interpret the results from the points
of view of commercial classification, price fixation and proper
industrial utilization. The quality of a coal is ascertained by
the following two types of analysis:

Proximate Analysis

Ultimate Analysis

4
 Proximate Analysis

It is called ‘proximate’ because the data collected vary with the

procedure adopted.

It is an empirical but important analysis dealing with the

determination of

 Moisture content
 Volatile matter
 Ash content
 Fixed carbon.

5
 Proximate Analysis
i) Determination of moisture content in coal:
It is the loss in weight of coal caused by heating a weighed
quantity of coal sample for one hour at 105°C.
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
% of moisture content = × 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

Significance of Moisture:
High moisture content of the coal is undesirable for the following
reasons: Reduces the calorific value of coal, Increases the
consumption of coal for heating purpose. Lengthens the time of
heating.

6
 Proximate Analysis
(ii) Determination of volatile matter in coal:
It is the loss in weight of moisture free powdered coal when heated in a
crucible fitted with cover in a muffle furnace at 950°C for seven minutes.
% of volatile matter = (𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙)/(𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 ) ×100
Significance of volatile matter:
COS, H2S
During burning of coal, gases like CO, CO2, CH4, N2, O2, hydrocarbons etc.
that come out are called volatile matter of the coal.
It has been found that the coal with higher volatile matter content ignites
easily; has lower calorific value; burns with yellow smoky flame; will evolve
more coal gas when heated in the absence of air.

7
 Proximate Analysis
(iii) Determination of ash in coal:
It is the weight of residue obtained after burning a known weight of coal in an
open crucible in the presence of air at 750°C for 30 minutes.
% of ash content = (𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙)/(𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 ) ×100
Significance of ash content:
Ash in the combination product of mineral matter in the coal. It consists
mainly SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 with varying number of other oxides such as
Na2O, CaO, MgO etc.
Ash containing the oxides of Na, Ca and Mg melt easily.
High ash content in coal is undesirable because it increases transporting,
handling and storage costs is harder and stronger has lower calorific value.

8
 Proximate Analysis
(iv) Determination of fixed carbon:
It is determined indirectly by deducting the sum total of moisture, volatile
matter and ash percentage from 100.

% of fixed carbon in coal = 100 - % (moisture + volatile matter + ash)

Significance of Fixed carbon:

It is the pure carbon present in coal. Higher the fixed carbon content of the
coal, higher will be the calorific value of the sample.

9
 Ultimate Analysis

 Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable

quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen,
nitrogen.
 Ultimate analysis is also known as elemental analysis, it is
the method to determine the Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen,
Sulphur and Oxygen content present in solid fuel.

10
 Ultimate Analysis
Determination of carbon & hydrogen

About 0.2g of accurately weighed coal is burnt in oxygen in apparatus shown

above.
2KOH+CO2=K2CO3+H2O
C + O2 CO2
2H + ½ O2 H2O CaCl2+7H2O=CaCl2(H2O)7

• CaCl2 and KOH absorb H2O and CO2 respectively.

• Increase in weights of the tubes are noted

11
 Ultimate Analysis
Determination of carbon & hydrogen
Mol. Wt. of C

Mol. Wt. of CO2

Mol. Wt. of H2

Mol. Wt. of H2O

12
 Ultimate Analysis
Determination of nitrogen

1. 1g of accurately weighed powdered coal is heated with

conc.H2SO4 in Kjeldahl flask.
2. After the solution becomes clear, it is treated with excess alkali
NaOH.
3. Liberated ammonia is distilled over and absorbed in a known
volume of standard solution of acid.

13
 Ultimate Analysis
Determination of nitrogen

 Unused acid is determined by back titration with standard NaOH

solution.
 From the volume of acid used by ammonia liberated, the percentage of
N in coal is calculated as follows:

N+H2SO4 = (NH4)2SO4

(NH4)2SO4+NaOH=Na2SO4+H2O+NH3

NH3+HCL=NH4Cl

14
 Ultimate Analysis
Determination of sulphur
Sulphur, on combustion produces acids (SO2 and SO3), which have
harmful effects of corroding the equipments and also cause atmospheric
pollution.
Sulphur is, usually, present to the extent of 0.5 to 3.0% and derived from
ores like iron pyrites, gypsum, etc., mines along-with the coal.
Presence of sulphur is highly undesirable in coal used for making coke
for iron industry, since it is transferred to the iron metal and badly affects
the quality and properties of steel. Moreover, oxides of sulphur (formed
as combustion products) pollute the atmosphere and leads to corrosion.

15
 Ultimate Analysis
Determination of sulphur

Sulphur is converted into sulphate.

The washings are treated with BaCl2.
BaSO4 is precipitated.
Precipitate is filtered, washed and heated
to constant weight.

O2 H2O
S SO2 H2SO4

BaCl2
H2SO4 BaSO4

weight of BaSO4 obtained x 32 x100

% of S =
233 x weight of coal sample taken Mol. Wt. of S

Mol. Wt. of BaSO4

16
 Ultimate Analysis
Determination of ash and oxygen

Coal sample of accurate weight in a crucible is heated in muffle

furnace at 700+50 degree Celsius for ½ an hour.
Crucible is taken out and cooled first in air and then in desiccators
and weighed.

weight of ash left x 100

% of ash =
weight of coal taken

% of oxygen is 100-percentage of (C+H+S+N+Ash)

17
 Classification of Fuel;
 Combustion and chemical principles involved in fuel;
 Calorific value: gross and net calorific values and their
determination by bomb calorimeter;
 Proximate and ultimate analysis of coal and their
importance;
 LPG, Water gas, producer gas, CNG

2
 LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

 LPG or bottled gas or refinery gas is obtained as a by-product during the

cracking of heavy oils or from natural gas.
 LPG is dehydrated, desulphurized and traces of odorous organic sulphide
(mercaptans) are added to give warning of gas leak.
 LPG is supplied under pressure in containers under the trade name like
Indane, Bharat gas, etc.
 Its calorific value is about 27,800 kcal/m3.

3
 Constituents of LPG
 It consists of volatile hydrocarbons which can exist as gas under
atmospheric pressure but can be readily liquefied under pressure.
 The main composition of LPG are hydrocarbons containing three or
four carbon atoms. The normal components of LPG thus, are propane
(C3H8) and butane (C4H10) with little or no propylene and ethane.
 It is a safe, clean burning, reliable, high calorific value fuel. Small
concentrations of other hydrocarbons may also be present.
 Depending on the source of the LPG and how it has been produced,
components other than hydrocarbons may also be present.

Uses:
Use as a domestic fuel and industrial fuel. Nowadays used as motor fuel.

4
 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)

 CNG is natural gas compressed to a high pressure of about 1000

atmospheres.
 A steel cylinder containing 15 kg of CNG contains about 20 m3 of natural
gas at 1 atmospheric pressure.
 It is derived from natural gas and the main constituent of CNG is methane.

5
Properties:
 CNG is comparatively much less pollution causing fuel as it produces less
CO, ozone and hydrocarbons during combustion.
 During it s combustion, no sulphur and nitrogen gases are evolved.
 No carbon particles are ejected during combustion.
 It is less expensive than petrol and diesel.
 The ignition temperature of CNG is 550 °C.
 CNG is a better fuel than petrol/diesel for automobiles.
 CNG requires more air for ignition.
Uses:
As CNG is the cheapest, cleanest and least environmentally impacting
alternative fuel. In Delhi, it is mandatory for all buses, taxis and auto to use
CNG as a fuel.

6
 Water gas

Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen produced

from synthesis gas.
Synthesis gas is a useful product, but requires careful handling due to its
flammability and the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning.
The water-gas shift reaction can be used to form water gas.

The water-gas shift reaction (WGSR) describes the reaction of carbon

monoxide and water vapor to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen:
Syngas/ synthesis gas ----- CO2 + CO + H2
More H2 is produced by water-gas shift reaction.
CO + H2O ⇌ CO2 + H2

Preparation of water gas by coal gasification

1270K
C (g)+ H2O(g) CO (g) + H2 (g)
7
 Water gas

Uses and properties

 For the production of methanol and other hydrocarbons.
 As fuel gas in industries
 As a source of hydrogen
 For the manufacturing of ammonia

8
 Producer gas

It is a mixture of CO and Nitrogen gas.

Prepared by passing controlled amount of air through a bed of
red hot coke or coal at 1100 oC, in a special reactor called gas
producer.

Uses and properties

1. Used as cheap fuel in industry
2. Heat treatment of furnaces
3. Alternative to diesel as a fuel
4. As a fuel to produce hot air in industries