DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 1

 Explain the Construction and Working Principle of a DC Generator:-

Construction of a DC Generator
A DC generator consists of the following main parts:
1. Yoke
The yoke is the outer frame of the DC generator. It provides mechanical support to the
machine and also acts as a low reluctance path for magnetic flux.
2. Poles (Pole core and Pole shoe)
The poles are fixed to the yoke. The pole core carries the field winding and the pole shoe
spreads the magnetic flux uniformly over the armature surface.
3. Field Winding
Field windings are wound on the pole cores. When DC current flows through these
windings, a strong magnetic field is produced.
4. Armature Core
The armature core is a laminated cylindrical steel core mounted on the shaft. The
laminations reduce eddy current losses. Slots are provided on the armature core to
accommodate the armature conductors.
5. Armature Winding
The armature winding consists of copper conductors placed in the slots of the armature
core. EMF is induced in these conductors when the armature rotates.
6. Commutator
The commutator is a cylindrical structure made of copper segments insulated from each
other by mica. It converts the alternating EMF generated in the armature into direct
current.
7. Brushes
Brushes are made of carbon or graphite and are placed on the commutator. They collect
current from the commutator and supply it to the external circuit.
Working Principle of a DC Generator
A DC generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. According to Faraday’s
law, whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an EMF is induced in it.
When the armature is rotated mechanically by a prime mover, the armature conductors cut the
magnetic flux produced by the field poles. As a result, an EMF is induced in the armature
conductors. The direction of the induced EMF is given by Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule. The
EMF generated in the armature is alternating in nature, but the commutator converts it into a
unidirectional DC output at the brushes.
 Derive an Expression for Torque Developed in a DC Machine (8 Marks):-
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 2

Given:
 Φ = Flux per pole (Wb)
 P = Number of poles
 Z = Total number of armature conductors
 A = Number of parallel paths
 N = Speed of armature in rpm
 Ia = Armature current (A)
 Eb = Back EMF (V)
 T = Torque developed (N-m)
Step-1: EMF Equation of DC Machine
The EMF induced in a DC machine is given by:
𝑃Φ𝑍𝑁
𝐸 =
60𝐴
Step-2: Electrical Power Converted into Mechanical Power
Electrical power converted into mechanical power is:
𝑃 =𝐸 𝐼
Substitute value of 𝐸 :
𝑃Φ𝑍𝑁
𝑃 = ×𝐼
60𝐴
Step-3: Mechanical Power in Terms of Torque

Mechanical power is also given by: 𝑃 =

Step-4: Equating Both Power Equations

𝑃Φ𝑍𝑁 2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐼 =
60𝐴 60
Cancel 𝑁and 60 from both sides:
𝑃Φ𝑍𝐼
= 2𝜋𝑇
𝐴
Step-5: Expression for Torque 𝑇=

Final Torque Equation 𝑇 = 𝐾Φ𝐼

Where, 𝐾=
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 3

Conclusion
The torque developed in a DC machine is directly proportional to the product of flux per
pole and armature current.

𝑇 ∝ Φ𝐼

 Explain the Parallel Operation of DC Generators and State its Advantages:-

Parallel Operation of DC Generators
When two or more DC generators are connected to a common bus-bar and supply power to the
same load, it is called parallel operation of DC generators. Parallel operation is generally
used where large load current is required and continuity of supply is important.
Before connecting a DC generator in parallel with another generator or bus-bars, the following
conditions must be satisfied:
1. Equal Terminal Voltage
The incoming generator voltage must be equal to the bus-bar voltage.
2. Correct Polarity
The polarity of the incoming generator must be the same as that of the bus-bars.
3. Proper Load Sharing
The generators should share the load according to their ratings.

Working of Parallel Operation

Initially, the incoming generator is brought up to rated speed and its terminal voltage is adjusted
equal to the bus-bar voltage. After checking correct polarity, the generator is connected to the
bus-bars. The load sharing between generators is controlled by adjusting the field excitation.
Increasing the field current of one generator increases its load, while decreasing the field
current reduces its load.

Advantages of Parallel Operation

1. Continuity of Supply
If one generator fails or is taken out for maintenance, the remaining generators continue
supplying power.
2. Increased Load Capacity
Large loads can be supplied by operating generators in parallel.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 4

3. Better Efficiency
Generators operate near rated load, improving efficiency.
4. Flexibility of Operation
Generators can be added or removed according to load demand.
5. Easy Maintenance
One generator can be shut down for maintenance without interrupting supply.
 Explain the Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C) of a DC Generator and State its
Applications:-

Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C)

The Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C) of a DC generator is the curve obtained by plotting
the generated EMF (Eg) on the Y-axis against the field current (If) on the X-axis, when the
generator is running at constant speed and the armature is on no-load (open-circuited).

Explanation of O.C.C Curve

1. When the field current is zero, a small EMF is generated due to residual magnetism
present in the poles.
2. As the field current increases, the generated EMF increases almost linearly because the
magnetic circuit is unsaturated.
3. After a certain value of field current, the curve starts bending due to magnetic saturation
of the poles.
4. Beyond saturation, a large increase in field current produces only a small increase in
generated EMF.

Conditions for Obtaining O.C.C

 Generator must run at constant speed.
 Armature circuit should be open (no load).
 Field current should be varied gradually.

Applications of O.C.C
1. To determine the critical field resistance of a DC generator.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 5

2. To find the no-load generated EMF of the generator.

3. To study the effect of field current on generated voltage.
4. To determine the voltage build-up condition of a DC generator.
5. Useful in design and performance analysis of DC generators.

 Why Armature Core of a DC Machine is Laminated?

Answer:
The armature core of a DC machine is laminated in order to reduce eddy current losses and
minimize heating of the core.
When the armature rotates in the magnetic field, alternating magnetic flux is produced in the
armature core. This changing flux induces circulating currents in the core known as eddy
currents. These currents cause:
 Power loss
 Excessive heating
 Reduction in efficiency
To reduce eddy current loss, the armature core is made of thin insulated silicon steel
laminations instead of a solid core. Each lamination is insulated from the other by varnish or
oxide layer, which increases the resistance and thereby reduces the flow of eddy currents.
Advantages of Laminated Armature Core
1. Reduces eddy current losses
2. Minimizes heating of the core
3. Improves efficiency of the DC machine
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 6

4. Increases life of insulation and winding

 Define Pole Pitch. What is the Function of Compensating Winding?

Pole Pitch

Pole pitch is defined as the distance between the centers of two adjacent poles of a DC
machine, measured along the armature periphery.

It is usually expressed in terms of armature slots or conductors.

Total number of armature slots

Pole pitch =
Number of poles

Function of Compensating Winding

Compensating winding is a winding embedded in the pole shoes of a DC machine and

connected in series with the armature winding.

Functions:

1. It neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction.

2. It maintains uniform distribution of magnetic flux under the pole face.
3. It improves commutation and reduces sparking at the brushes.
4. It helps the machine to operate satisfactorily under heavy load conditions.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 7

 Derive the EMF Equation of a DC Generator:-

Let:
Φ = Flux per pole (Weber)
P = Number of poles
Z = Total number of armature conductors
N = Speed of armature in rpm
A = Number of parallel paths
Eg = Generated EMF (Volts)
Step–1: Time taken for one revolution

Speed of armature = N rpm Time for one revolution = seconds

Step–2: Flux cut by one conductor

In one revolution, a conductor cuts flux from all poles.
Flux cut by one conductor = 𝑃 × Φ
Step–3: EMF induced in one conductor
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:
Flux cut
EMF =
Time
𝑃Φ
𝑒=
60/𝑁
𝑃Φ𝑁
𝑒=
60
Step–4: Number of conductors in series
Total armature conductors = Z
Number of parallel paths = A
𝑍
Conductors in series per path =
𝐴
Step–5: Total generated EMF

EMF per conductor = 𝐸 =𝑒×

𝑃Φ𝑁 𝑍
𝐸 = ×
60 𝐴

Final EMF Equation of DC Generator 𝐸 =

Special Cases:
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 8

 Lap winding: 𝐴=𝑃

Wave winding: 𝐴 = 2
Conclusion (Exam line):
Hence, the generated EMF of a DC generator is directly proportional to flux per pole and
speed of armature.
𝐸 ∝ Φ𝑁
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 9

 What is Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA)? Write down the conditions for voltage build-
up in a DC generator:-

Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA)

The Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA) is the axis or plane in a DC machine along which no EMF is
induced in the armature conductors.
It is the position where the armature conductors cut no magnetic flux.
At MNA:
 Induced EMF = zero
 Brushes are placed on the MNA to obtain sparkless commutation
In an ideal DC machine without armature reaction, the MNA lies perpendicular to the main
field axis.

Conditions for Voltage Build-up in a DC Generator

For a DC generator to build up voltage, the following conditions must be satisfied:
1. Residual Magnetism
There must be some residual magnetism present in the field poles.
2. Correct Field Winding Polarity
The field winding connection should be such that the field current strengthens the residual
flux.
3. Field Resistance Less than Critical Resistance
The field circuit resistance must be less than the critical field resistance.
4. Generator Speed Greater than Critical Speed
The generator must be driven at a speed higher than the critical speed.

Conclusion
Thus, proper position of MNA ensures good commutation, and voltage build-up in a DC
generator depends on residual magnetism, correct field connection, field resistance, and speed.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 10

 What are the two functions of a commutator in DC machines?

Why carbon brushes are used instead of copper brushes in DC machines?
Two Functions of a Commutator in DC Machines
1. Rectification of Current
The commutator converts the alternating EMF induced in the armature conductors into
unidirectional (DC) current at the brushes.
2. Current Collection
The commutator collects current from the rotating armature and transfers it to the external
circuit through stationary brushes.
Why Carbon Brushes are Used Instead of Copper Brushes in DC Machines
In DC machines, carbon brushes are preferred over copper brushes due to their better
performance in commutation and reduced damage to the commutator.
Reasons:
1. Better Commutation
Carbon has comparatively higher contact resistance than copper. This helps in reducing
sparking during commutation and ensures smooth current reversal.
2. Less Wear of Commutator
Carbon is much softer than copper, so it causes less mechanical wear and prevents
damage to the commutator segments.
3. Self-Lubricating Property
Carbon possesses natural lubricating properties which reduce friction between the brush
and commutator, resulting in smooth operation.
4. Reduced Heating
Due to controlled contact resistance, excessive heating at the commutator surface is
minimized.
5. Quiet and Smooth Operation
Carbon brushes ensure vibration-free and noiseless operation of the DC machine.
 Working Principle of DC Motor

A DC motor operates on the principle that a current-carrying conductor placed in a

magnetic field experiences a mechanical force, which causes the conductor to move. This
principle converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 11

Explanation

1. When DC supply is given to the field winding, it produces a magnetic field between the
north and south poles.
2. Current flows through the armature conductors.
3. Each armature conductor carrying current and placed in the magnetic field experiences a
force.
4. According to Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule, the direction of force determines the direction of
rotation.
5. Forces acting on opposite sides of the armature create a turning moment (torque).
6. The commutator reverses the current in armature conductors every half revolution so
that the torque remains in the same direction and continuous rotation occurs.

 Explain the characteristics of DC shunt motor.

Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
A DC shunt motor has its field winding connected in parallel (shunt) with the armature.
Because the field current is almost constant, the flux remains nearly constant. The performance
of a DC shunt motor is explained by three main characteristics.
1. Torque vs Armature Current (T–Ia) Characteristic
 Torque 𝑇 ∝ Φ𝐼
 Since flux Φis constant in a shunt motor:
𝑇∝𝐼
Explanation
 Torque increases linearly with armature current.
 Starting torque is moderate.
 Suitable for applications requiring constant speed and moderate starting torque.
2. Speed vs Armature Current (N–Ia) Characteristic
 Speed equation:
𝐸
𝑁∝
Φ

 As load increases, armature current increases slightly.

 Due to armature reaction and voltage drop, speed decreases slightly.
Explanation
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 12

 Speed remains almost constant from no-load to full-load.

 This is the most important feature of a DC shunt motor.
3. Speed vs Torque (N–T) Characteristic
 Since torque is proportional to armature current and speed varies slightly:
Explanation
 Speed decreases slightly with increase in torque.
 The characteristic is almost a straight line with small negative slope.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 13

 Difference between Lap Winding and Wave Winding:-

Basis Lap Winding Wave Winding
Definition In lap winding, the end of each In wave winding, the end of each coil is
coil is connected to the adjacent connected to a commutator segment
commutator segment. far away, forming a wave-like path.
Parallel Paths Number of parallel paths A = P Number of parallel paths A = 2,
(A) (number of poles). irrespective of number of poles.
Current Rating Suitable for high current, low Suitable for low current, high voltage
voltage applications. applications.
Conductor Requires more conductors for Requires fewer conductors for the
Requirement the same voltage. same voltage.
Equalizer Rings Required to avoid circulating Not required.
currents.
 State the applications of shunt, series and compound DC generators.
Answer:
Applications of DC Generators
1. Applications of DC Shunt Generator
 Used for battery charging
 Used for lighting and power supply
 Used as exciter for alternators
 Used in laboratories
 Used for electroplating
2. Applications of DC Series Generator
 Used as booster in DC distribution system
 Used for arc lamps
 Used in welding work
 Used where constant current supply is required
3. Applications of DC Compound Generator
 Used for DC power supply in factories
 Used in workshops
 Used for heavy industrial loads
 Used where good voltage regulation is required
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 14

 Characteristics of DC Series Motor

A DC series motor has its field winding connected in series with the armature, so the same
current flows through both. Because of this, the flux varies with armature current. The
performance is explained by the following three characteristics.
1. Torque–Armature Current (T–Ia) Characteristic
𝑇 ∝ Φ𝐼

Since in a series motor Φ ∝ 𝐼 (up to saturation):

 Before magnetic saturation:
𝑇∝𝐼

 After saturation:
𝑇∝𝐼
Features:
 Very high starting torque
 Ideal for heavy starting loads

Characteristics of DC Compound Motor

A DC compound motor has both shunt and series field windings. It combines the properties
of DC shunt motor (nearly constant speed) and DC series motor (high starting torque).
Compound motors are of two types:

1. Cumulative compound motor

2. Differential compound motor

1. Torque–Armature Current (T–Ia) Characteristic

𝑇 ∝ Φ𝐼
. cumulative compound motor, series field aids shunt field → flux increases with load.

o Torque increases more than shunt motor but less than series motor.
 In differential compound motor, series field opposes shunt field.
o Flux decreases with load → unstable operation.

2. Speed–Armature Current (N–Ia) Characteristic

𝐸
𝑁∝
Φ
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 15

Cumulative compound motor:

o Speed decreases slightly with load.

o Speed regulation is better than series motor, slightly poorer than shunt motor.
 Differential compound motor:
o Speed increases with load → dangerous and unstable.

3. Speed–Torque (N–T) Characteristic

 Cumulative compound motor:

o Speed decreases moderately with increase in torque.
o Curve lies between shunt and series motor.
 Differential compound motor:
o Speed increases with torque → unstable characteristic.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 16

 Regenerative Braking
Regenerative braking is a method of electrical braking in which the motor operates as a
generator and converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, which is fed back to the
supply system.

Working Principle

 During braking, the motor speed becomes higher than synchronous speed.
 The motor starts acting as a generator.
 Electrical energy produced is returned to the power supply or stored.

Advantages

 Saves energy by feeding power back to the source.

 High efficiency compared to other braking methods.
 Reduces wear and tear of mechanical parts.

Applications

 Used in electric traction systems.

 Used in electric vehicles (EVs).
 Used in cranes, elevators and hoists.

 Define back EMF and explain its significance.(DC motor)

Answer:
Definition of Back EMF
In a DC motor, the EMF induced in the armature conductors due to their rotation in the magnetic
field is called back EMF (Eb).
It acts in opposition to the applied voltage according to Lenz’s law.
Significance of Back EMF
1. Controls Armature Current
Back EMF limits the armature current and prevents excessive current flow.
2. Provides Automatic Speed Regulation
When load increases, speed decreases, back EMF reduces and armature current
increases to produce more torque.
3. Improves Efficiency of Motor
Back EMF reduces power loss by controlling current.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 17

4. Indicates Motor Speed

Back EMF is directly proportional to motor speed.
5. Protects Motor from Damage
At starting, back EMF is zero, so starter is required to limit current.

 Define Armature Reaction. Explain the Effect of Armature MMF on the Main Field
Flux:-
Armature Reaction
Armature reaction is the effect of the armature magnetic field (armature MMF) on the main
field flux of a DC machine when the armature carries current.
Due to armature reaction, the distribution of main field flux gets distorted and weakened.
Effect of Armature MMF on Main Field Flux
When load is applied, current flows through the armature conductors and produces its own
magnetic field called armature MMF. This MMF interacts with the main field flux and causes the
following effects:
1. Flux Distortion
 Armature MMF distorts the main field flux.
 Flux density increases at the trailing pole tip and decreases at the leading pole tip (for
generator action).
 The magnetic neutral axis (MNA) shifts from its original position.
2. Flux Weakening (Demagnetizing Effect)
 Some components of armature MMF oppose the main field flux.
 This reduces the net flux per pole.
 As a result, generated EMF (in generator) or torque (in motor) decreases.
3. Shift of Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA)
 Due to armature reaction, the MNA shifts:
o In generator: in the direction of rotation
o In motor: opposite to the direction of rotation
 Improper MNA position leads to sparking at the brushes.
Conclusion
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 18

Thus, armature MMF causes distortion and weakening of the main field flux, leading to poor
commutation and reduced performance of the DC machine.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 19

 Explain Why a DC Series Motor Should Never Be Run Without Load:-

A DC series motor should never be run without load because it may attain dangerously high
speed, which can damage the motor.
Explanation:
 In a DC series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
 At no load, the armature current is very small.
 Since the field flux (Φ) is proportional to the armature current, the flux becomes very
weak at no load.
 The speed of a DC motor is given by:
1
𝑁∝
Φ

 As flux decreases, the motor speed increases rapidly.

 This excessive speed may cause:
o Mechanical damage to the armature
o Overheating
o Commutator damage
o Risk of bursting of the armature
Conclusion
Hence, a DC series motor should never be operated without load because of the risk of
runaway speed and severe damage.
 Explain the Function of Starter in a DC Motor:-
A starter is a protective device used in DC motors to limit the starting current and to
ensure safe and smooth starting of the motor.
Function of Starter
1. Limits Starting Current
At the time of starting, back EMF is zero. If full supply voltage is applied directly, a very
high armature current will flow. The starter introduces external resistance in the armature
circuit to limit this current.
2. Prevents Damage to Armature Winding
By controlling the starting current, the starter protects the armature winding from
overheating and damage.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 20

3. Provides Smooth Acceleration

As the motor speed increases, back EMF builds up and the external resistance is
gradually cut out, allowing smooth acceleration of the motor.
4. Protection against Supply Failure (No-Volt Protection)
The starter disconnects the motor from the supply if the voltage fails or drops suddenly,
preventing accidental restarting.

 Write the different braking methods used in DC motors.

Which method of braking is the most energy efficient and why?
**Write the Different Braking Methods Used in DC Motors.
Braking of DC Motors
Braking in DC motors is the process of rapidly stopping or slowing down the motor by
producing a torque opposite to the direction of rotation.
Different Braking Methods Used in DC Motors
1. Regenerative Braking
 The motor acts as a generator during braking.
 Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
 The generated electrical energy is fed back to the supply.
 Used in electric traction, lifts, and cranes.
2. Dynamic (Rheostatic) Braking
 The armature is disconnected from the supply and connected across an external resistor.
 The motor acts as a generator.
 Generated energy is dissipated as heat in the resistor.
3. Plugging (Reverse Current Braking)
 Supply polarity to the armature or field is reversed.
 A braking torque opposite to rotation is produced.
 A high current flows; therefore, an external resistance is required.

Most Energy Efficient Braking Method in DC Motors

The most energy efficient braking method in DC motors is Regenerative Braking.

Reason: In regenerative braking, the DC motor acts as a generator during braking. The
mechanical energy of the rotating motor is converted into electrical energy and is fed back to
the supply instead of being dissipated as heat. Therefore, energy is saved and overall
efficiency of the system is improved.
 What are the advantages of shell-type transformer over core-type transformer?
Answer:
The shell-type transformer has several advantages over the core-type transformer due to
its special construction in which the windings are surrounded by the core.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 21

Advantages:
1. Better Mechanical Protection
The windings are fully enclosed by the core, providing better mechanical strength and
protection against damage.
2. Lower Leakage Flux
Shell-type transformers have reduced leakage flux, resulting in better magnetic coupling
between primary and secondary windings.
3. Higher Short-Circuit Strength
Due to strong mechanical support, shell-type transformers can withstand heavy short-
circuit stresses.
4. Reduced Copper Loss
The mean length of turn is smaller, which reduces copper loss.
5. Better Cooling Arrangement
Cooling ducts can be easily provided, ensuring effective heat dissipation.
6. Higher Efficiency
Due to reduced losses, shell-type transformers generally offer higher efficiency.
 Derive the speed equation of a DC motor.
Answer:
Back EMF of DC Motor
For a DC motor, the back EMF is given by:
𝑃Φ𝑍𝑁
𝐸 =
60 𝐴

Where,
𝐸 = Back EMF (V)
𝑃= Number of poles
Φ= Flux per pole (Wb)
𝑍= Total armature conductors
𝑁= Speed of motor (rpm)
𝐴= Number of parallel paths
Armature Voltage Equation
𝑉 =𝐸 +𝐼 𝑅
𝐸 =𝑉−𝐼 𝑅
Substitute Back EMF Expression
𝑃Φ𝑍𝑁
𝑉−𝐼 𝑅 =
60 𝐴
Rearranging for Speed 𝑵
60 𝐴 (𝑉 −𝐼 𝑅 )
𝑁= ×
𝑃𝑍 Φ
Speed Equation of DC Motor
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 22

(𝑉 −𝐼 𝑅 )
𝑁∝
Φ
Important Conclusions
 Speed is directly proportional to back EMF.
 Speed is inversely proportional to flux.
 Increase in load → increase in 𝐼 → decrease in speed.
Special Cases
 Shunt Motor:
Φ≈ constant → speed almost constant
 Series Motor:
Φ ∝ 𝐼 → speed decreases rapidly with load

Short Exam Points (2 Marks)

60𝐴 (𝑉−𝐼 𝑅 )
𝑁= ×
𝑃𝑍 Φ
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 23

 What are the Different Losses Occurring in a Transformer? State How These Losses
Can Be Minimized**
Losses in a Transformer
The losses occurring in a transformer can be broadly classified into the following types:
1. Core (Iron) Losses
These losses occur in the transformer core due to alternating magnetic flux and are constant
losses.
(a) Hysteresis Loss
 Caused by repeated magnetization and demagnetization of the core.
 Depends on frequency and flux density.
Minimization:
 Using high-grade silicon steel core.
 Operating at lower flux density.
(b) Eddy Current Loss
 Caused by circulating currents induced in the core.
 Results in heating of the core.
Minimization:
 Using thin laminated core.
 Providing insulation between laminations.
2. Copper Losses
 Occur in the primary and secondary windings.
 Caused due to resistance of windings.
Copper loss = 𝐼 𝑅
Minimization:
 Using conductors of adequate cross-sectional area.
 Using high conductivity copper.
 Proper cooling to reduce resistance.
3. Stray Losses
 Caused by leakage flux inducing currents in structural parts like tank and clamps.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 24

Minimization:
 Proper magnetic shielding.
 Careful design of transformer structure.
4. Dielectric Loss
 Occurs in insulating materials due to alternating electric stress.
Minimization: . Using high-quality insulating materials. . Keeping insulation dry and well
maintained.
 What is Open-Delta Connection? State its Applications:-
Open-Delta Connection
An open-delta connection is a special type of three-phase transformer connection in which
only two single-phase transformers are used to supply a three-phase load.
It is also known as the V-V connection.
In this connection, the two transformers are connected in such a way that their secondary
voltages are 120° apart, forming an incomplete delta. Even with one transformer missing, three-
phase power can still be supplied.
The total power capacity of an open-delta connection is about 57.7% of the capacity of a full
delta connection.
Applications of Open-Delta Connection
1. Emergency Operation
Used when one transformer of a delta-delta bank fails, to maintain continuity of supply.
2. Low Load Requirement
Suitable where the three-phase load is small.
3. Temporary Supply
Used for short-time or temporary three-phase power supply.
4. Rural and Industrial Areas
Used where installation cost needs to be minimized.
5. Cost Saving
Useful when full transformer capacity is not required initially.
Conclusion
Thus, the open-delta connection provides an economical and reliable solution for supplying
three-phase loads under light-load or emergency conditions.

 Effect of Harmonics on the ‘K’ Factor of a Transformer

DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 25

The K-factor of a transformer is a rating that indicates its ability to handle harmonic currents
without excessive heating.

Effect of Harmonics

1. Increase in K-Factor
Harmonic currents increase the value of the K-factor. Higher order harmonics have a
greater effect because their contribution is proportional to the square of harmonic order.
2. Increase in Eddy Current Loss
Eddy current losses in transformer windings increase due to harmonics, as these losses
are proportional to the square of frequency.
3. Excessive Heating
Increased eddy current and copper losses cause abnormal heating of the transformer.
4. Reduction in Transformer Life
Continuous heating due to harmonics deteriorates insulation, reducing transformer life.
5. Need for K-Rated Transformer
In harmonic-rich loads (like rectifiers, UPS, VFDs), K-rated transformers are required to
safely handle the increased losses. Conclusion

Thus, harmonics increase the K-factor of a transformer, leading to higher losses and heating.
Therefore, transformers supplying nonlinear loads must be properly K-rated.

 Cooling Methods Used for Transformers

During operation, transformers produce heat due to copper loss and core loss. Efficient
cooling is essential to maintain safe temperature and increase transformer life. The cooling
methods are classified into dry-type and oil-immersed cooling systems.
1. Dry-Type Cooling Methods
(a) Air Natural (AN)
 Heat is dissipated by natural air circulation.
 Used for small-rating transformers.
(b) Air Forced (AF)
 Cooling is done using blowers or fans.
 Used for medium-rating transformers.
2. Oil-Immersed Cooling Methods
(a) Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
 Oil circulates naturally and heat is dissipated through tank walls.
 Simplest and most commonly used method.
(b) Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 26

 Oil circulation is natural but air cooling is forced using fans.

 Used for higher ratings than ONAN.
(c) Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
 Both oil and air circulation are forced using pumps and fans.
 Used for large power transformers.
(d) Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)
 Oil is cooled by water heat exchangers.
 Used in very large transformers at generating stations.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 27

 Explain Critical Field Resistance of a DC Generator with Characteristics

Critical Field Resistance
The critical field resistance of a DC shunt generator is the maximum value of field circuit
resistance for which the generator will just build up voltage at a given speed.
If the field resistance is greater than the critical field resistance, the generator will not build
up voltage
Explanation Using Characteristics
The concept of critical field resistance is explained with the help of the Open Circuit
Characteristic (O.C.C) of a DC generator.
 The O.C.C curve shows the relation between generated EMF (Eg) and field current (If)
at constant speed.
 A straight line drawn from the origin represents the field resistance line.
 The critical field resistance line is the straight line drawn from the origin that is just
tangent to the O.C.C curve.
Condition for Voltage Build-up
 Field resistance < critical field resistance → Voltage builds up
 Field resistance = critical field resistance → Voltage just builds up
 Field resistance > critical field resistance → No voltage build-up
Importance of Critical Field Resistance
1. Determines whether a DC generator will build up voltage or not.
2. Helps in proper design and selection of field resistance.
3. Indicates the safe operating range of a DC shunt generator.
Conclusion
Thus, critical field resistance is a key parameter in DC generators and is obtained from the
tangent drawn to the open circuit characteristic.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 28

 Different Types of Winding Connections Used in Three-Phase Transformers

(With neat diagrams)
Three-phase transformers can be connected in various ways depending on voltage level,
current requirement and application.
1. Star–Star (Y–Y) Connection
Diagram

Explanation
 Both primary and secondary windings are connected in star.
 Neutral point is available on both sides.
Applications
 Used for high voltage, low current systems.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 29

 Suitable for transmission lines.

2. Delta–Delta (Δ–Δ) Connection
Diagram

Explanation
 Both primary and secondary are connected in delta.
 No neutral point available.
Applications
 Used in low voltage, high current applications.
 Provides good performance with unbalanced loads.
3. Star–Delta (Y–Δ) Connection
Diagram

Explanation
 Primary is star-connected and secondary is delta-connected.
 Commonly used to step down voltage.
Applications
 Used in transmission to distribution systems.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 30

4. Delta–Star (Δ–Y) Connection

Diagram

Explanation
 Primary is delta-connected and secondary is star-connected.
 Neutral available on secondary side.
Applications
 Widely used in distribution transformers.
 Suitable for supplying single-phase loads.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 31

 No-Load Phasor Diagram of a Single-Phase Transformer and Significance of No-

Load Current
No-Load Condition
When the primary winding of a transformer is connected to rated voltage and the secondary
winding is open-circuited, the transformer is said to be operating under no-load condition.
No-Load Phasor Diagram

Explanation
 When an AC voltage V₁ is applied to the primary, a small current I₀ flows.
 The no-load current I₀ lags behind the applied voltage V₁ by a large angle (≈75°–80°).
 I₀ is resolved into two components:
o Iₘ → Magnetizing current (lags V₁ by 90°)
o I𝒸 → Core loss or working current (in phase with V₁)
 The alternating flux Φ is produced by magnetizing current Iₘ.
 The induced EMF E₁ lags the flux Φ by 90°.
 The applied voltage V₁ is almost equal and opposite to E₁.
Significance of No-Load Current
1. Establishes Magnetic Flux
No-load current produces the alternating magnetic flux required for transformer operation.
2. Causes Core Losses
A part of no-load current supplies hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core.
3. Indicates Core Quality
Lower no-load current means better core material and lower losses.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 32

4. Independent of Load
No-load current remains almost constant irrespective of load.
5. Small Value
It is typically 2–5% of full-load current.

 Describe the working principle of Scott-connected transformer with connection

diagram. Write down its applications.
Scott-Connected Transformer
A Scott connection is a special transformer connection used to convert three-phase power
into two-phase power or vice-versa.
Connection Diagram

Working Principle
 The Scott connection uses two single-phase transformers:
1. Main transformer
2. Teaser transformer
 The main transformer primary is connected across two phases (R and B) of the three-
phase supply.
 The teaser transformer primary is connected between the third phase (Y) and the mid-
point of the main transformer primary.
 The teaser transformer has 0.866 (√3/2) times the number of turns of the main
transformer.
 Due to this arrangement, the secondary voltages of the two transformers are:
o Equal in magnitude
o 90° out of phase with each other
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 33

 Thus, a balanced two-phase supply is obtained from a three-phase system.

Applications of Scott Connection
1. Conversion of three-phase supply to two-phase supply
2. Supplying two-phase motors
3. Used in electric furnaces
4. Used in traction systems
5. Used where two-phase loads are required
Advantages
 Balanced loading of three-phase system
 Equal voltage output . Simple construction
 Write down the need and conditions for parallel operation of two single-phase
transformers.
Answer:
Need for Parallel Operation of Transformers
Two or more single-phase transformers are operated in parallel for the following reasons:
1. To meet increased load demand
When the load exceeds the capacity of a single transformer, parallel operation is required.
2. Continuity of supply
If one transformer fails, the other can continue supplying power.
3. Flexibility in operation
Transformers can be added or removed as per load variation.
4. Improved efficiency
Transformers can be operated near their rated capacity for better efficiency.
5. Ease of maintenance
One transformer can be taken out for maintenance without interrupting supply.
Conditions for Parallel Operation of Two Single-Phase Transformers
For satisfactory parallel operation, the following conditions must be satisfied:
1. Same polarity
Transformers must have identical polarity to avoid short-circuit.
2. Equal voltage ratio
Secondary voltages must be equal to prevent circulating current.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 34

3. Same frequency rating

Both transformers must operate at the same frequency.
4. Equal percentage impedance
Ensures proper load sharing between transformers.
5. Same impedance ratio (R/X ratio)
Prevents unequal division of load and circulating currents.
6. Same phase sequence
Required for proper voltage alignment.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 35

 What are the advantages and disadvantages of an auto-transformer?

Answer:
An auto-transformer has a single winding which acts as both primary and secondary. Due to
this construction, it has certain advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of Auto-Transformer
1. Smaller Size and Weight
Uses less copper, making it compact and lightweight.
2. Lower Cost
Less copper and iron result in lower manufacturing cost.
3. Higher Efficiency
Reduced copper loss leads to higher efficiency.
4. Better Voltage Regulation
Lower impedance improves voltage regulation.
5. Higher kVA Rating
For the same size, it can handle higher kVA compared to two-winding transformer.
Disadvantages of Auto-Transformer
1. No Electrical Isolation
Primary and secondary are electrically connected, reducing safety.
2. Not Suitable for Large Voltage Ratio
Economical only for small voltage transformation ratios.
3. Higher Short-Circuit Current
Low impedance results in high fault current.
4. Unsuitable for Hazardous Locations
Due to lack of isolation, it is unsafe in high-voltage applications.

 Welding Transformer
A welding transformer is a special-purpose transformer used to supply low voltage and very
high current required for electric arc welding.

Construction and Features

 It is a step-down transformer.
 Primary winding is connected to AC supply.
 Secondary winding provides low voltage (20–80 V) and high current.
 Provided with tapped secondary or movable core to control welding current.
 Designed with high leakage reactance to limit short-circuit current.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 36

Working Principle

 When the welding arc is struck, a large current flows through the electrodes.
 High current produces intense heat to melt and join metal pieces.

Applications 1 Used in arc welding. 2 Used in fabrication and repair works. 3 Widely
used in workshops and industries.

 Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)

A Brushless DC Motor (BLDC) is a type of DC motor that operates without brushes and
commutator. Electronic switching is used instead of mechanical commutation.

Construction

 Stator consists of three-phase windings.

 Rotor is made of permanent magnets.
 An electronic controller (inverter) is used for commutation.

Working Principle

 DC supply is converted into AC by the electronic controller.

 Stator windings are energized sequentially, producing a rotating magnetic field.
 Rotor follows the rotating field, producing continuous rotation.

Advantages

 High efficiency and reliability.

 Low maintenance due to absence of brushes.
 High speed and torque performance.
 Low noise and sparking-free operation.

Applications

 Used in electric vehicles.

 Used in computer cooling fans.
 Used in robotics and CNC machines.
 Used in home appliances like washing machines and ACs.

 Isolation Transformer

An isolation transformer is a transformer in which the primary and secondary windings are
electrically isolated but magnetically coupled. Usually, it has a 1:1 turns ratio.

Construction

 Consists of two separate windings on a laminated magnetic core.

DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 37

 Primary and secondary windings have no direct electrical connection.

Working Principle

 AC supply is applied to the primary winding.

 Magnetic flux produced in the core induces voltage in the secondary winding.
 Power is transferred by mutual induction, not by direct conduction.

Advantages

 Provides electrical safety by isolating load from supply.

 Reduces shock hazards.
 Minimizes electrical noise and interference.

 Principle of Operation of a Transformer

A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, which states that when an
alternating current flows through one coil, it induces an emf in another coil placed close
to it.

Explanation

1. When an AC supply is applied to the primary winding, an alternating current flows.

2. This current produces an alternating magnetic flux in the transformer core.
3. The magnetic flux links both primary and secondary windings.
4. According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, an emf is induced in both
windings.
5. When a load is connected to the secondary winding, current flows and power is
transferred from primary to secondary without any direct electrical connection.

 EMF Equation of Single-Phase Transformer (Derivation)

Assume the magnetic flux in the core is sinusoidal.
Instantaneous value of flux
𝜙 = 𝜙 sin 𝜔𝑡

Induced EMF in Primary Winding

According to Faraday’s Law,
𝑑𝜙
𝑒 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑒 = −𝑁 (𝜙 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑒 = −𝑁𝜙 𝜔cos 𝜔𝑡
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 38

𝑒 = −𝑁𝜙 𝜔sin(𝜔𝑡 + 90∘ )

𝑒 = 𝑁𝜙 𝜔sin(𝜔𝑡 − 90∘ )
Maximum Value of EMF
𝑒 = 𝑁𝜙 𝜔

But,
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑁𝜙
RMS Value of EMF
𝑒
𝐸 =
√2
2𝜋𝑓𝑁𝜙
𝐸=
√2
𝐸 = 4.44𝑓𝑁𝜙
Final EMF Equation
Primary EMF
𝐸 = 4.44𝑓𝑁 𝜙

Secondary EMF
𝐸 = 4.44𝑓𝑁 𝜙
Where
 𝐸= RMS induced emf (V) 𝑁= Number of turns
 𝜙 = Maximum flux (Wb) 𝑓= Supply frequency (Hz)
 Open Circuit (OC) Test of Transformer

Purpose

1. To determine core (iron) loss at rated voltage.

2. To find no-load current (𝐼 ) and no-load power factor.
3. To calculate shunt branch parameters (𝑅 and 𝑋 ).

Test Connections

 Applied voltage: Low Voltage (LV) side

 High Voltage (HV) side open
 Instruments: Voltmeter (𝑉 ), Ammeter (𝐼 ), Wattmeter (𝑊 )
 Use autotransformer (variac) to gradually apply rated voltage.

Procedure

1. Connect 𝑉 , 𝐼 , 𝑊 to LV side. HV side left open.

2. Gradually increase voltage to rated value.
3. Record readings: 𝑉 , 𝐼 , 𝑊 .
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 39

4. At no-load, copper loss is negligible, so 𝑊 ≈ core loss (𝑃 ).

Calculations

1. No-load Power Factor

𝑊
cos 𝜙 =
𝑉𝐼

2. Core (Active) Component of Current

𝑊
𝐼 = 𝐼 cos 𝜙 =
𝑉

3. Magnetizing (Reactive) Component of Current

𝐼 = 𝐼 −𝐼

4. Shunt Branch Parameters

𝑉
𝑅 =
𝐼
𝑉
𝑋 =
𝐼
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 40

 What is commutation in a DC machine? Explain the process and causes of poor

commutation.
In a DC machine, commutation is the process of reversing the direction of current in an
armature coil as it crosses the magnetic neutral zone.
The Process of Commutation
Commutation occurs when a rotating armature coil is briefly short-circuited by a stationary brush
as it moves from one magnetic pole's influence to another.
 Initial State: The coil carries current in one direction (e.g., +Ic) while under a particular
pole.
 Short-Circuit Period: As the armature rotates, the brush bridges two commutator
segments, short-circuiting the connected coil for a very brief period (typically 1/500
second), known as the commutation period .During this time, the current must drop to
zero.
 Reversal: After leaving the short-circuit state, the current in the coil should ideally have
fully reversed its direction (to -Ic) to match the polarity of the next pole.
 Ideal Commutation: If the current reversal is completely finished by the end of the
commutation period, it is called ideal or linear commutation, resulting in no sparking.
Causes of Poor Commutation
Poor commutation occurs when the current reversal is not completed by the end of the short-
circuit period, leading to sparking at the brush tips. Major causes include:
 Reactance Voltage: Armature coils have self-inductance. As the current rapidly changes
direction, a self-induced back EMF (reactance voltage) is produced that opposes the
current reversal. If this voltage is high, the current cannot fully reverse in time, causing it
to "jump" across the air gap as a spark when the brush breaks contact.
 Armature Reaction: The magnetic field produced by the armature current distorts the
main magnetic field, shifting the Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA). This causes coils to
undergo commutation in a region where there is still an induced EMF, delaying the
reversal process.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 41

 Short Circuit (SC) Test – Single-Phase Transformer

Purpose

1. To determine copper loss (𝑃 ) at rated current.

2. To find equivalent series parameters (𝑅 and 𝑋 ) of the transformer.

Test Connections

 Low Voltage (LV) winding is short-circuited.

 Apply low voltage to High Voltage (HV) winding.
 Instruments: Voltmeter (𝑉 ), Ammeter (𝐼 ), Wattmeter (𝑊 ).
 Adjust voltage gradually until rated current flows in the winding.

Procedure

1. Short LV side and apply low voltage to HV side.

2. Gradually increase voltage until rated current flows.
3. Record readings: 𝑉 , 𝐼 , 𝑊 .
4. At low voltage, core loss is negligible, so Wattmeter reading 𝑊 ≈ copper loss.

Calculations

1. Equivalent Impedance 𝑍 =

2. Equivalent Resistance 𝑅 =

3. Equivalent Reactance 𝑋 = 𝑍 −𝑅

5. What is speed regulation of a DC motor?

Speed regulation is the ability of a motor to maintain nearly constant speed from no-load
to full-load, often expressed as:
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 42

𝑁 −𝑁
Speed Regulation (%) = × 100
𝑁

where 𝑁 = no-load speed, 𝑁 = full-load speed

DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 43

 Tap-Changing Methods of Transformers

A tap changer is used to adjust the transformer voltage to maintain a desired output voltage
when supply voltage or load changes.

There are two main types:

1. Off-Load Tap Changer (OLTC)

 Operation: Tap is changed only when transformer is disconnected from load.

 Purpose: To adjust voltage for variations in supply or for primary voltage regulation.
 Applications: Distribution transformers where voltage adjustment is needed occasionally.
 Advantages: Simple, cheap, safe (no load current).
 Disadvantages: Voltage cannot be adjusted under load.

Diagram: Shows taps on winding and a switch operated manually or motor-driven.

2. On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC)

 Operation: Tap is changed while transformer is supplying load.

 Purpose: To maintain constant secondary voltage under varying load or primary
voltage.
 Applications: Power transformers in substations.
 Advantages: Continuous voltage control, no interruption of supply.
 Disadvantages: Complex, expensive, requires maintenance.

1. Define core (iron) loss

Core (iron) loss is the power loss in the transformer core due to hysteresis and eddy
currents when AC flows in the transformer.

2. Define copper loss

Copper loss is the I²R loss in transformer windings caused by the flow of load current through
the resistance of primary and secondary windings.

3. What is OC (open-circuit) test?

OC test is performed on a transformer to determine core loss and no-load parameters by

applying rated voltage to one winding while leaving the other winding open.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 44

4. What is SC (short-circuit) test?

SC test is performed to determine copper loss and series parameters by short-circuiting one
winding and applying a reduced voltage to the other winding until rated current flows.

5. What is a tap changer?

A tap changer is a device used to adjust the transformer voltage by changing the number of
turns in the winding.

1. Define back EMF in a DC motor

Back EMF (𝐸 ) is the voltage induced in the armature of a DC motor due to its rotation in the
magnetic field. It opposes the applied voltage and regulates the motor current.

2. What is the Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA)?

Magnetic Neutral Axis is the axis along which the induced voltage in the armature
conductors is zero. It lies perpendicular to the main field flux.

3. Give two functions of a commutator in DC machines

1. Converts AC induced in the armature into DC at the terminals.
2. Ensures unidirectional torque in a DC motor.

4. Why are carbon brushes preferred over copper brushes?

 Carbon brushes cause less sparking.
 They are self-lubricating and softer, reducing wear on the commutator.

5. Define pole pitch

Pole pitch (𝜏) is the distance along the armature periphery from the center of one pole to
the center of the next pole.

6. What is the function of compensating winding?

Compensating winding cancels the armature reaction flux under load, reducing sparking and
improving commutation.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 45

7. Define armature reaction

Armature reaction is the effect of the magnetic field produced by the armature current on
the main field flux of the DC machine.
8. Why should a DC series motor never run without load?
If a series motor runs without load, armature current is very low, so flux decreases and speed
increases dangerously, which can damage the motor.
9. What is the purpose of a starter in a DC motor?
A starter limits the high starting current when the motor starts and allows safe acceleration to
full speed.
10. Define torque in a DC motor
Torque (𝑇) is the rotational force developed by the motor on the shaft, given by
𝑃 𝐸 𝐼
𝑇= =
𝜔 𝜔
6. Give one advantage of a shell-type transformer over a core-type transformer
Shell-type transformers have better mechanical strength and lower leakage flux due to the
core surrounding the winding.

7. Define EMF equation of a transformer

The RMS value of induced EMF in a transformer winding is
𝐸 = 4.44 𝑓 𝑁 Φ

where 𝑓= frequency, 𝑁= number of turns, Φ = maximum flux.

8. What is a Scott-connected transformer?

A Scott-connected transformer converts three-phase AC into two-phase AC (or vice versa)
using two specially connected single-phase transformers.

9. What is an auto-transformer?
An auto-transformer is a transformer in which primary and secondary windings share
common turns, providing voltage transformation with less copper.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 46

10. What is parallel operation of transformers?

Parallel operation means connecting two or more transformers to the same bus so that they
share load and maintain voltage.
. Name three braking methods of DC motors
1. Dynamic braking (rheostatic braking)
2. Counter-current (plug) braking
3. Regenerative braking
2. What is regenerative braking?
Regenerative braking is a method where the motor acts as a generator and feeds energy
back to the supply during braking, saving energy.

3. Name the types of DC compound motors

1. Short-shunt compound motor – Shunt winding connected only across armature.
2. Long-shunt compound motor – Shunt winding connected across series + armature.
4. What is no-load current in a DC motor?
No-load current (𝐼 ) is the armature current drawn when the motor runs without load, used
mainly to produce magnetizing flux.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 47

2 WATT METER METHORD

NUMERICALS
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 48

Q1

A DC generator has 4 poles, wave winding, 600 conductors and runs at 1000 rpm. Flux per pole
is 0.02 Wb. Calculate generated EMF.

Answer:

Q2

A DC motor develops mechanical power of 15 kW with efficiency 85%. Find electrical input
power.

Answer:

🔹 UNIT–2: DC GENERATOR (7 Numericals)

Q3

A 6-pole lap-wound DC generator has 720 conductors, flux per pole 0.03 Wb and speed 600
rpm. Find EMF.

Answer:
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 49

Q4

Critical resistance of a shunt generator is 180 Ω at 800 rpm. Find critical resistance at 1000 rpm.

Answer:

Q5

Open-circuit voltage of a generator is 200 V at 1000 rpm. Find voltage at 800 rpm keeping flux
constant.

Answer:

Q6

A shunt generator has shunt resistance 250 Ω and terminal voltage 250 V. Find field current.

Answer:

Q7

A DC generator supplies 50 A at 230 V. Armature resistance is 0.2 Ω. Find generated EMF.

DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 50

Answer:

Q8

Flux reduces by 10% in a DC generator. Find % change in EMF.

Answer:

Q9

A DC generator has 4 poles, wave winding and 1000 conductors. Speed doubles. How EMF
changes?

Answer:

🔹 UNIT–3: DC MOTOR (7 Numericals)

Q10

A DC motor draws 40 A at 220 V. Armature resistance is 0.4 Ω. Find back EMF.

Answer:
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 51

Q11

A DC motor develops torque of 80 N·m at 1200 rpm. Find mechanical power.

Answer:

Q12

A DC shunt motor runs at 1000 rpm. Flux reduces by 20%. Find new speed.

Answer:

Q13

Motor input = 12 kW, losses = 2 kW. Find efficiency.

Answer:
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 52

Q14

Starting current of DC motor limited to 50 A at 250 V. Find starter resistance.

Answer:

Q15

In regenerative braking, motor speed is 1200 rpm and supply voltage 220 V. Generated EMF is
250 V. Find braking condition.

Answer:

Q16

A DC series motor carries 20 A. Flux ∝ current. If current doubles, torque becomes?

Answer:
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 53

UNIT–4: SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER (6 Numericals)

Q17

A 1-kVA transformer has 230/115 V. Find transformation ratio.

Answer:

Q18

A transformer has 500 primary turns and 50 secondary turns. Find secondary voltage if primary
voltage is 220 V.

Answer:

Q19

OC test gives iron loss 150 W. SC test gives copper loss 200 W at full load. Find efficiency at
full load, unity pf.

Answer:

Q20

Maximum efficiency occurs when copper loss = iron loss. Find copper loss.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 54

Answer:

Q21

Voltage regulation at lagging pf = 6%. Find terminal voltage for 220 V transformer.

Answer:

Q22

All-day energy output = 12 kWh, losses = 1.5 kWh. Find all-day efficiency.

Answer:

🔹 UNIT–5 & 6: THREE PHASE & SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS (3 Numericals)

Q23

A 3-phase transformer supplies 50 kVA at 400 V. Find line current.

Answer:

Q24

In Scott connection, main transformer rating is 10 kVA. Find teaser transformer rating.
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 55

Answer:

Q25

Isolation transformer supplies 10 A at 230 V. Find power rating.

Answer:

DC MOTOR/GENERATOR DIAGRAM

TRANSFORMER
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 56

PHASOR DIAGRAM
DC MACHINE & TRANSFORMER 57

.
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SCOTT CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMER

A Scott connection (or Scott-T) is an electrical transformer setup using two single-phase transformers to convert
three-phase power to two-phase power, or vice versa, balancing loads between systems. It uses a main center-
tapped transformer and a teaser transformer with specific voltage ratios (√3/2) for smooth power flow, commonly
used for electric furnaces or powering single-phase railway loads from three-phase grids.
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PARALLEL OPERATION
Parallel operation of transformers means connecting two or more transformers to common
source and load buses to increase system capacity, reliability, and flexibility, allowing one to be
serviced without outage and meet growing demand by sharing the load; proper operation
requires identical voltage ratios, phase sequences, polarities, and similar per-unit impedances
to avoid harmful circulating currents and ensure balanced load sharing.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES – FORMULA TABLE (WBSCTE)

🔹 UNIT–1: ELECTRO-MECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Quantity Formula
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🔹 UNIT–2: DC GENERATOR
🔸 EMF Equation

Symbol Meaning
P Number of poles
Φ Flux per pole (Wb)
Z Total armature conductors
N Speed in rpm
A Parallel paths (Lap = P, Wave = 2)

🔸 Generator Current Relations

🔸 Voltage Relations
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🔹 UNIT–3: DC MOTOR
🔸 Back EMF

🔸 Speed Equation

🔸 Torque Equation
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🔸 Power Equation

🔸 Efficiency

🔸 Starter Resistance

🔹 UNIT–4: SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

🔸 EMF Equation

🔸 Transformation Ratio

🔸 Current Relation
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🔸 Power

🔸 Efficiency

🔸 Maximum Efficiency Condition

🔸 Voltage Regulation

🔸 Per Unit System

🔸 All-Day Efficiency
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🔹 UNIT–5: THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

🔸 Power Equation

🔸 Line–Phase Relations

🔸 Open Delta Capacity

Capacity=0.577×Full Delta

🔸 Scott Connection
Transformer Rating
Main 100%
Teaser 86.6%

🔹 UNIT–6: SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS

Quantity Formula
Isolation Transformer Rating P=VIP = V IP=VI
Welding Transformer Low V, High I
Pulse Transformer V=LdidtV = L \frac{di}{dt}V=Ldtdi