Chapter 2

Taking the Creepiness Out of Cells

Cells, cells, cells. Yup there are trillions of these little guys (or gals) in your body. Some are
simple little buggers with just a few parts while others are pretty complicated. Generally the
more complicated cells have brains so to speak. This tiny cell brain is called the nucleus and it
works a lot like your brain telling your body what to do. Your brain can tell you to pick up your
feet so you don’t trip on a step or tell your heart to beat faster when you are frightened (like
just before an exam). In order for it to do this there must be muscles to move your bones and a
heart to beat faster. In your body these things are called organs. In cells they’re called
organelles (Fig. 2.1).

The Big Picture: Cells

Cells are like tiny versions of our bodies. They even have little organs called organelles (how
cute is that!).

So the cell is like a wee version of your body. It has a skin (called the cell membrane), organs
(organelles), and a brain (the nucleus). Like a lot of bodies, cells have a bit of fat in them as well.
In fact this fat, or lipid, is in the cell membrane. Also, like your body, the cell has a good amount
of fluid inside. This fluid is called the cytoplasm. The organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.

Cells also have a skeleton called the cytoskeleton. The cell skeleton does not contain bones but
instead contains rod-like proteins called protein filaments. Some of these rods are hollow and
act as kind of a cell circulatory system.

Like that mass of grey matter between your ears, the nucleus has a large store of information.
The information isn't in grey matter though. It’s locked up in a molecule called DNA or (take a
deep breath) deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA contains lots of information and is locked up safely in
the nucleus like your brain is locked up in your cranium.
Fig. 2.1 The Cell and Organelles

The Big Picture: DNA, One Crazy Twisted Ladder

DNA consists of right-angle pieces called nucleotides connected together and twisted into a
double helix.

We will begin our cell adventure by studying one of the most important information carrying
structures in the universe. Inside of the nucleus of our cells is a complex structure containing
lots and lots of information. This structure is called DNA and it is built a bit like a crazy twisted
ladder.

So let's build a DNA molecule to see how it's put together. Our "ladder" consists of two sides
and a series of rungs. The problem is that we only have right angle pieces to build the ladder.
How can this be done?

Well we could connect the right angle pieces together like in Fig. 2.2. This would give us one
side of the ladder. We could then build the other side and connect the two sides together like in
Fig. 2.2. We now have a complete ladder.
Fig. 2.2. DNA is Constructed with Right-Angle Pieces

This is much like how DNA is constructed. Each right angle piece is called a nucleotide. The
nucleotide consists of three parts we will call S, B, and P. The 3 parts go together as illustrated
in Fig. 2.3. The “S” is called a deoxyribose sugar, the “P” is called a phosphate and the “B” is a
nitrogen containing base.

Fig. 2.3 DNA is constructed from right-angle pieces called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a 5-
carbon sugar, a phosphate group and one of 4 nitrogen bases.
There are four different types of “B” pieces that fit together in a specific way. The "B"
represents the nitrogen base. The four bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. Some
of the bases fit together by virtue of their shape. Adenine can pair with thymine and guanine
with cytosine.

Once we construct our ladder we can now perform the crazy twisted part. Let’s take our ladder
and twist it so it looks like figure 2.4. This shape is called a double helix.

The information in DNA is encoded in the sequence of bases. Each three base sequence along a
strand of DNA is called a triplet code and can code for a specific amino acid. There are also
start (promoter) and stop (terminator) codes.

Fig. 2.4. DNA is twisted into a double helix structure and coiled into chromosomes.
Fig. 2.5. Information flows from DNA to RNA to Amino Acids

The Big Picture: Transcription and Translation

Information moves from the nucleus to the other parts of the cell by way of DNA, RNA and
proteins.

Remember that the “brain” of the cell is in the nucleus. Information needed to control the cell
is “locked up” in the nucleus. The cell has to have a way to transport this information out of the
nucleus to other parts of the cell or to other cells. Fortunately, the cell has a system for moving
information out of the nucleus. This system consists of two processes called transcription and
translation.

Transcription
Transcription involves reading the sequence of bases on DNA and moving this information to
another part of the cell that produces proteins. A single stranded structure called RNA
(ribonucleic acid performs this function). RNA is similar in structure to DNA. RNA consists of a
string of nucleotides just like DNA. The RNA nucleotides contain a ribose sugar and one
different base from DNA. RNA contains adenine, guanine and cytosine but instead of thymine
RNA has a different base called uracil. There are different types of RNA which include
messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). Messenger RNA reads the DNA base
sequence and transports this information outside of the nucleus to a special protein making
structure called the ribosome. When mRNA reads the sequence of DNA bases cytosine and
guanine still pair together but uracil pairs with adenine.

Translation
Translation occurs at the ribosome. Ribosomes contain large and small subunits. There is a
binding site for mRNA on the small ribosomal subunit. The transfer RNA (tRNA) attaches to a
binding site on the large ribosomal subunit. Transfer RNA reads the information on the mRNA
and assembles the protein accordingly. The 3 base code on the tRNA is known as the anticodon.
There are 20 mRNA molecules, one for each of the 20 amino acids. On the other end of the
tRNA is an amino acid binding site. The protein is assembled one amino acid at a time. The
process stops when a stop code is reached. The completed protein then detaches from the
tRNA and the ribosome splits into its 2 subunits. Sometimes another ribosome attaches to the
same strand of mRNA and transcribes it. When several ribosomes attach to one strand of mRNA
we call this a polyribosome.

The ACME Toy Rocket Company

Let’s visit the ACME Toy Rocket Company to learn about transcription and translation (Figs.2.6-
2.11). The boss is kinda high strung. His name is Dwight Nathan Anderson (DNA for short).
Dwight is very paranoid about trade secrets and is always afraid that someone is going to steal
his secret method for building toy rockets. To help protect his valuable information Dwight
keeps it in his head. He is a walking library of toy rocket information.

Myron N. Ackley (mRNA) is Dwight’s faithful assistant. He has been with the company for as
long as anyone can remember. He is always available when Dwight needs something. He also
understands Dwight’s special shorthand.

Terry N. Applegate (tRNA) is the chief rocket assembler. She diligently works at her bench and
loves her work at ACME. She is so fond of her job that she feels right at home at her bench with
pictures of her family and especially her pet pooch Rocko (ribosome). In fact she actually named
her work bench after Rocko.

Okay, so here’s how toy rockets get built at ACME. Dwight gets an order for a toy rocket. Each
rocket is custom built and includes a cone, midsection and tail. Also, each of the three parts can
be a different color. So the information Dwight accesses includes the part and the color for each
of the three parts.

Since Dwight is so paranoid he has a secret code that only he and Myron know. For example,
let’s say an order just came in for a custom toy rocket. The customer wants a red cone, a blue
midsection and a green tail. Dwight’s code then is ATT for the red cone, CGC for the blue
midsection and CAT for the green tail.

Because of the secrecy, Myron also has a code that corresponds to Dwight’s. For every “A” of
Dwight’s code Myron writes a “U.” Likewise for every “T” Myron writes an “A.” The same sort of
thing happens with “G” and “C.” Dwight tells Myron “G” and he writes down a “C.” It’s kind of
an opposite thing.
So for Dwight’s code of ATT Myron writes down UAA, for Dwight's CGC Myron writes down GCG
and for Dwight's CAT Myron writes down GUA. In other words Myron has transcribed the
information from Dwight.

Now Myron has to take his message out of Dwight’s office (nucleus) over to Terry the chief
assembler. He gives the message to Terry who understands what each three letter code means.
She reads the first code “UAA” and grabs a red cone. She read the next code “GCG” and grabs a
blue midsection. She then reads the last code “GUA” and grabs a green tail piece. Terry has
translated the message from Myron and assembled the rocket just as the customer ordered. All
the work was done on Terry’s desk (Rocko the ribosome).

Now the rocket needs to be shipped. It needs to go over to section G (golgi apparatus) for
shipping. Section G then packs up the rocket in a neat package (vesicle) and sends it on its way
out of the company. It exits the company by way of exocytosis.

Think of lots of Terrys sitting at desks in the assembly department. The assembly department is
like the organelle called the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosome desks. This is where
toy rockets (proteins and polypeptides) are assembled.
Understanding how the ACME Toy Rocket Company works should help you to understand
transcription and translation.

During transcription the information encoded by the sequence of bases on DNA (Dwight) needs
to get out to the protein making machinery at the ribosome (Terry’s desk). The first step in
translation is to expose the information on DNA. A special enzyme called RNA polymerase helps
to unwind the DNA to expose the bases.

Next a single stranded messenger RNA (mRNA) (Myron) molecule “reads” the sequence of
bases. The first 3-base code is a start code followed by codes for various amino acids. Some
amino acids have more than one code so there is some redundancy in the coding. The 3-base
code on mRNA is known as the codon.

The mRNA (Myron) then takes its message out of the nucleus by moving through a nuclear pore
and delivers it to the protein making machinery known as the ribosome (Terry’s desk).

Translation occurs at the ribosome. Ribosomes contain large and small subunits. The messenger
RNA (mRNA)(Myron) carries the information for making the protein to the ribosome. There is a
binding site for mRNA on the small ribosomal subunit. The transfer RNA (tRNA) (Terry) attaches
to a binding site on the large ribosomal subunit.

Transfer RNA (Terry) reads the information on the mRNA (Myron) and assembles the protein
(toy rocket) accordingly. The 3 base code on the tRNA is known as the anticodon. There are 20
mRNA molecules, one for each of the 20 amino acids. On the other end of the tRNA is an amino
acid binding site.

The protein (toy rocket) is assembled one amino acid at a time. The process stops when a stop
code is reached. The completed protein then detaches from the tRNA (Terry) and the ribosome
(Terry’s desk) splits into its 2 subunits. Sometimes another ribosome attaches to the same
strand of mRNA and transcribes it. When several ribosomes attach to one strand of mRNA we
call this a polyribosome.
And there we have it!

Fig 2.6 Myron N. Ackley (messenger RNA) gets information from Dwight Nathan Anderson
(DNA).
Fig 2.7. Dwight uses a 3 letter code to convey toy rocket information to Myron.

Fig. 2.8 Myron transcribes the toy rocket information from Dwight.
Fig. 2.9 Myron transports the information to Terry (transfer RNA).
Fig. 2.10 Terry translates the information into a complementary 3 letter code.
Fig. 2.11 Terry assembles the rocket (at the ribosome) which is packaged and transported by
the Golgi Apparatus conveyer belt.

More Cell Parts

Mitochondrion

Big Picture: Mitochondrion

The mitochondrion is known as the powerhouse of the cell. It makes energy in the form of
ATP.

Much of the energy in the body comes from a special energy molecule called ATP. ATP is like a
little ball of energy that can be used to power many of the body’s systems.
Cells make energy to keep us alive. Our bodies need energy to keep our hearts beating and our
minds thinking. The energy comes from a little molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

These molecules are produced by an organelle called the mighty mitochondrion. Think of the
mitochondrion as an energy factory that makes little energy balls (ATPs). It assembles the
energy balls by taking an ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and adding another P (phosphate). ATP
can store energy (add a P to ADP) or release energy (break a P off of ATP).

Hair and Tails

Not all cells are bald. Some have hair-like structures called cilia. Cilia are protein filaments that
work to move substances across the surface of cells. The hair moves in waves pushing stuff
along the surface of a group of cells toward a destination. For example the cells lining your
respiratory system move mucous and debris toward your esophagus. So every time you
swallow you are swallowing some mucous from your respiratory system. The debris gets
broken down by the acid and enzymes in your stomach.

Some cells have tails called flagella. The human sperm cell has a long flagellum that moves the
cell along. The big difference between cilia and flagella is that cilia move substances while a
flagellum moves the cell. Cells can have lots of hair (cilia) but only one flagellum (tail).

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Big Picture: Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is tubular structure that comes in two varieties. Rough
endoplasmic reticulum contains ribosomes for making proteins. Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum makes lipids.

The endoplasmic reticulum is a membranous tubular structure that resides in the cytoplasm of
the cell. It comes in two varieties; rough and smooth. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded
with ribosomes. The ribosomes function in making proteins (protein synthesis). Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum does not contain ribosomes. It functions in making lipids (lipid
synthesis). Ribosomes contain RNA, protein and the enzymes needed for protein synthesis.

Centrosome

Big Picture: Centrosome

The centrosome produces a structure called the mitotic spindle.

The centrosome is important in producing a structure called the mitotic spindle that helps to
separate the chromosomes during cell division. The centrosome consists of 2 hollow cylinders
called centrioles. The centrioles are constructed from tubular proteins.

Golgi Apparatus

Big Picture: Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi Apparatus is like the UPS or Fed Ex of the cell. It packages substances in small sacs
called vesicles.

The Golgi Apparatus is a membranous structure that packages substances such as proteins in
small sacs called vesicles. Proteins made by the endoplasmic reticulum are packaged in vesicles
from the Golgi and sent to various locations either inside or outside of the cell.

Cell Sex

The Big Picture: Mitosis

Remember the acronym “IPMAT” for interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.

Interphase = cell rests and gets ready to divide.

Prophase = nuclear membrane disappears, chromosomes and mitotic spindle forms.

Metaphase = chromosomes all line up in the center of the cell.

Anaphase = chromosomes pulled apart.

Telophase = nuclear membrane reappears, chromosomes uncoil, mitotic spindle

disassembles and there are now 2 cells.

Cells are lonely creatures when it comes to sex. In fact they “do it” all by themselves in a
process known as mitosis. There is nothing exciting about the sex life of a cell. It just rests and
then splits into two cells. Cells need to rest before the big event in a rest phase called
interphase. During this “getting ready” time the cell will reproduce its organelles and DNA.
When it’s ready, the cell enters the next phase called prophase.

During prophase strands of genetic material in the nucleus coil up and become chromosomes
(Fig. 2.12). These babies have to divide into two identical groups so both of the new baby cells
have the same number of chromosomes. Something’s gotta pull the chromosomes apart and
that’s the job of the mitotic spindle. Since the chromosomes are in the nucleus the membrane
surrounding the nucleus begins to disappear.

Think of pulling apart a wishbone with another person. You both hold the wishbone with one
hand and pull until the wishbone separates. In the mitotic spindle you and your partner
represent structures called centrosomes while your arms and hands represent microfilaments
that contact the chromosomes (wishbone). The only difference is that the chromosomes evenly
divide. There is no “winner” with the larger piece.

In prophase the cell hasn’t pulled apart the chromosomes yet but is getting ready to. In order to
get the chromosomes to divide they need to line up in a nice straight line. This is what happens
in the next phase called metaphase. In metaphase you still haven’t pulled the wishbone apart
but are still getting ready to.

The pulling apart happens in the next phase called anaphase. In anaphase the chromosomes
have divided into two equal sets. Snap—the wishbone has broken.
The final phase is called telophase. Here the cell cleaves into 2 baby cells and both complete the
division process by reforming the cell membrane and nuclear membrane. The chromosomes
uncoil and the mitotic spindle breaks up.

More Cell Sex

Mitosis is not the only way cells divide in the body. If they did then every time we humans
reproduce we’d have more chromosomes. Chromosomes are nice to have but too many could
be a big problem. So cells must have a way to divide so that there is half the number of
chromosomes in each new cell. That way mommy human has half and daddy human has half so
baby human has a full set (goo goo).

This other method of cell division is called meiosis. You probably guessed where this occurs.
Yup it happens in the gonads (aka “nads”). The goal of the cells that eventually become our
precious offspring is to produce half the number of chromosomes. So what happens to the
other half? Well in males there are just two sperm cells with half the number of chromosomes.
So the goal in males is to make millions and millions of sperm cells. In the female the goal is to
make one nice big egg cell. So females drop off half of the chromosomes in what is called a
polar body. The polar body just disintegrates.
We’ll talk more about meiosis in the last chapter on everybody’s favorite system, the
reproductive system. So you’ll have to wait until then to find out more about meiosis.

Figure 2.12. Mitosis. A. Prophase. B. Metaphase. C. Anaphase. D. Telophase.

The Big Picture: Getting Stuff in and Out of Cells

Cellular transport is like going to a party.

Cells need to transport stuff across their fatty cell membranes. One thing to remember is that
fat dissolves in fat. Think of how water dries up on your skin but oil is absorbed. In other words
things that dissolve in fat are called lipid soluble substances. Lipid soluble substances can move
right through the cell membrane because lipid dissolves in lipid. There are a number of ways
that stuff gets in and out of cells. These go by the names of diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active
transport and osmosis.

To help you to get the big picture let’s go to a party.

Let’s say that I am going to an office Christmas party. I start hanging out in the main room and
after awhile find myself getting pushed around because of the crowd gathering there. People
start to realize this and begin to move into other areas of the building.

We could say that everyone moved from a higher concentration of people (in the main room)
to a lower concentration of people (other rooms). They did this until there were about the
same number of people in each room (equilibrium). The people diffused out of the room. This is
how diffusion works. Substances move from higher to lower concentrations until reaching
equilibrium. Since lipid soluble substances can move right across a cell membrane then they
move by diffusion.

Diffusion = Substances move from higher to lower concentration until reaching equilibrium.

Okay, so I solve this problem by grabbing the bag of chips I brought and showing it at the
kitchen door. They let me in and I escape the crowd. Here is an example of facilitated diffusion.
In cells, non-lipid soluble substances move through protein channels in the cell membrane.
They still move from area of higher to lower concentration but they move through a protein
channel. In the party I moved from an area of more people to less people through the kitchen
door (protein channel).

Faciliated Diffusion = Similar to diffusion but substances move through a protein channel.

I hand over the chips and find that the kitchen people are boring. Even though there are less
people (less concentration of people) I decide that the conversation is not my thing so I try to
get back to the main room where there is a bit of a more diverse conversation.

Even though there are a lot more people in the main room who are trying to get into the
kitchen I want to go there. Since I didn’t eat before I came I eat a few chips (energy) so I can go
against the crowd to get out. You could say this is like active transport. It requires energy in the
form of ATP to move substances against a gradient.

Active Transport uses energy to move substances against gradients.

Okay, so I made it back into the main room. I am still hungry and start to eat lots of salty
peanuts and chips. I start to get real thirsty so I seek out something to drink. I find some of my
favorite beer and have a drink (or several). I could say this is like osmosis in that water follows
salt. The more salt I ingest, the more water I require.

In fact in osmosis water moves across a semipermeable membrane (a membrane that only
allows water to pass through) toward an area of higher concentration of solute.

Osmosis = movement of water though a semipermeable membrane toward an area of higher

solute concentration.

So now my bladder is full and I need to seek out the bathroom. I find the men’s room and pass
through the door. Only men are allowed in the men’s room, so only men are allowed to pass
through the door. This is another example of facilitated diffusion. Substances move across cell
membranes through a protein channel. The channel only allows certain substances to move.

After about an hour I decide that it’s time to leave. Because I am such a loudmouthed lush I
have to open both the double doors at the entrance to let me and my date out. Just as I leave
someone else enters (as they utter “what’s their problem”). You could say that this is an
example of an antiporter. As I move down my concentration gradient it allows someone else to
move in the opposite direction. They use my energy to do so. Also as I leave a few people follow
behind me. Again I provided the energy to open the door and they just came along for the ride.
This is an example of a symporter. One substance moves down its gradient while others tag
along for the ride.

Finally, I get home. I am feeling no pain and my cell phone goes off. I realize that I am a surgeon
(this is an imaginary story) and am on call for my practice. I have to sober up (once again) to go
in for an emergency consult (I like to live on the edge). I decide to brew a pot of coffee (very
strong coffee) to help my situation. I put lots of water in to speed up the process. This is an
example of filtration. The more water the higher the pressure the more filtrate is produced.

I sober up and get into work and am thankful that the patient did not have appendicitis---just
gas from Mexican food (not that there is anything wrong with that). I go home to sleep it off—
grateful to have dodged another lawsuit.

Nitty Gritty Substance Transport in Cells

Now that we’ve seen the big picture with regard to transport systems, let’s spend a little time
on the nitty gritty.

Remember that the cell membrane is made up of phospholipids. Since the membrane is
composed of phospholipids, then lipid soluble substances can move across the membrane.
Remember some examples of lipid soluble substances include oxygen, carbon dioxide and
steroids.
But what pushes or pulls a substance across the membrane?

Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of substances from an area of higher concentration toward an area
of lower concentration until reaching equilibrium. The force that drives diffusion comes from
differences in concentration called concentration gradients.

The actual mechanism behind diffusion is quite complex and has to do with the second law of
thermodynamics. This law states that in any given system there must be an increase in entropy.
To explain this in simpler terms, substances tend to move from an organized state
(concentrated state) to a more disorganized state (less concentrated state).

The process of diffusion can be illustrated by making a glass of Kool Aide. When the powder
first hits the water it is in higher concentration than its surrounding fluid. The powder will
dissolve and then begin to distribute evenly throughout the glass of water. The powder is said
to move from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration until it is equally
distributed throughout the glass.

Another example is with an aerosol spray. Let’s say I stood in front of the class and sprayed a
room freshener into the air. The particles would eventually distribute evenly throughout the
room so that even the students in the back of the room could smell it.
Diffusion tends to happen with lipid soluble substances because they can move across the
phospholipid cell membrane. Examples of lipid soluble substances include oxygen, carbon
dioxide and steroids. Other examples of lipid soluble substances include alcohols, fatty acids
and lipid soluble drugs.

Substances can diffuse at different rates. The rate of diffusion depends on a number of factors.
These include:

• Molecule size—smaller molecules diffuse faster than larger molecules.

• Concentration gradient size—the larger the difference in concentration the faster

substances will diffuse.

• Temperature—because diffusion relies on the movement of molecules, higher temperatures

will cause more movement and speed up diffusion. For example, substances will diffuse faster
at body temperature than room temperature.
• Distance—the shorter the distance, the faster substances will diffuse.

• Electrical forces—cells generally carry a negative charge on the inside. Negative charges will
attract positive electrolytes and repel negative ones. This can speed up or slow down the rate
of diffusion.
Facilitated Diffusion
Now we know how lipid soluble substances pass through cell membranes powered by diffusion
but how do non-lipid soluble substances get in and out of the cell?
The answer has to do with what is known as facilitated diffusion.

Cell membranes contain proteins. Some of these proteins go all the way through the membrane
and act as channels for specific substances. Examples of substances that move by facilitated
diffusion include sodium, potassium, and chloride.

The force that moves substances in facilitative diffusion is the same as diffusion. That is, the
difference in concentration or concentration gradient. Again, substances still move from areas
of higher to lower concentration but this time they move through a protein channel.

Substances moving in and out of cells by facilitated diffusion must bind to receptors on the
protein channel. Once they bind, the protein changes its shape allowing the substance in or out
of the cell.

Since proteins only have so many receptors, once the receptors become saturated there cannot
be movement of any additional substances. Therefore in some cases a higher concentration
gradient will not move substances at a faster rate (unlike diffusion). The rate of diffusion then
partially depends on the saturation of the receptors on the protein channel.

One example of a substance transported into the cell via facilitated diffusion is glucose. Glucose
is used by cells to make ATP, an important energy molecule in the body. Muscle cells require
glucose to make ATP for muscle contraction. In order for glucose to move into a muscle cell it
not only needs to connect to a receptor on the protein channel but another hormone called
insulin also needs to connect to a special insulin receptor on the protein.

Figure 2.13. Carrier proteins allow non-lipid soluble substances to move in and out of cells in
facilitated diffusion.
In some cases the insulin receptors become resistant to insulin causing blood glucose levels to
rise. This occurs in what is known as insulin resistant diabetes. We will learn more about
diabetes in a later chapter.

Osmosis
Water moves within the human body across a variety of membranes. The membranes are
called semipermeable because they only allow water to move across them, not solute. The
movement of water across a semipermeable membrane has a special name; osmosis.

Water moves like every other substance in our universe, from an area of higher concentration
to lower concentration. However, we typically do not talk about concentration in terms of
water. We usually talk about concentration in terms of solute.
So you could think of osmosis in two ways:

1 Water moves across a semipermeable membrane from a higher area of concentration of

water to a lower concentration of water.

2. Water moves across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower concentration of

solute to an area of higher concentration of solute.

One simple way to remember osmosis is the phrase “water follows salt” to mean that water
always moves toward an area of higher concentration of solute. Here is a simple osmosis
experiment.

Isotonic/Hypotonic/Hypertonic Solutions
Remember that the force exhibited by osmosis is called osmotic pressure. This pressure is
related to the solute concentration of the solution. In chemistry we describe concentration in
terms of osmolarity. However, in physiology when we are concerned with concentration with
regard to cells we use the term tonicity. Tonicity then is related to the human cell whereby
osmolarity is the number of osmoles per liter.

Osmolarity depends on the number of particles of solute. For example one mole of glucose in
water would equate to one osmole since glucose remains as one molecule in water. However,
one mole of sodium chloride would equate to two osmoles because sodium chloride dissociates
in water to form two particles.

If a solution has the same osmolarity as body fluids we say the solution is isotonic. The human
body’s osmolarity is close to .30 osmoles or 300 milliosmoles.

If a solution is less concentrated than body fluids we say the solution is hypotonic. And if the
solution is more concentrated than body fluids we say the solution is hypertonic. Tonicity is
important when it comes to introducing solutions to the human body. Let’s see why.

Here is another short experiment regarding osmosis.

Fig 2.14 In osmosis water moves toward an area of higher solute concentration.

Fig. 2.15 Red blood cells places in a hypertonic solution will shrivel. If placed in a hypotonic
solution red blood cells will expand. Nothing happens when they are placed in an isotonic
solution.
In the first image on the left a red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution. Since the
solution is more concentrated than the red blood cell, the cell shrivels up or crenates. In the
middle picture the red blood cells are placed in an isotonic solution. Since the tonicity is equal
nothing happens to the cell. In the final picture on the right the cells are placed in a hypotonic
solution. Since there is more concentration inside the cells water flows in and the cells swell
(and can burst).

Filtration
Sometimes cells arrange themselves in thin layers and substances can move between the cells.
These layers or membranes work the same way as filters. Filters sort substances based on size.
Smaller substances move through the spaces and larger substances do not. Think of a coffee
filter. The filter has very small holes that only allow the water to move through. The grounds
are too large to fit through the holes.
The force that drives filtration is fluid pressure. This pressure is also known as hydrostatic
pressure. In order to move substances through a filter they must move from an area of higher
pressure to lower pressure.

There are many examples of filters in the body. These include the capillaries and kidneys.

Active Transport
So far we have seen how substances move down their respective concentration gradients in
diffusion and facilitative diffusion. But what if a substance needs to be moved against its
concentration gradient?

In active transport substances are moved against their concentration gradients by carrier
proteins. However, there is an energy cost to be paid for this action. So the carrier proteins use
ATP as an energy source.

An example of an active transport protein is the sodium potassium pump (Fig. 2.16). Normally
there is more sodium outside of the cell than in so sodium would move from outside to in.

Also, there is usually more potassium inside the cell than out, so potassium would follow its
concentration gradient and move out of the cell.

However, we want to move these molecules against their concentration gradients. So this can
be done but energy must be used to do so. Energy is used by the pump in the form of ATP.

The sodium potassium pump is vital to the human body and works to maintain and establish
the concentration gradients that keep us alive.
Figure [Link] sodium-potassium pump. Sodium moves out of the cell against its gradient
while potassium moves into the cell (also against its gradient). The carrier protein must use
energy in the form of ATP. One ATP moves three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium
ions in.

Figure 2.17. In phagocytosis the cell reaches out and engulfs a particle bringing it into the cell
for destruction. The cell brings in fluid via pinocytosis. Substances attach to receptors on the
cell membrane in receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Next we will learn about how cells convert the food we eat into energy.
Image Credits
Chapter 2
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