MODULE I

Getting started with Python programming – Interactive shell, IDLE, iPython

Notebooks, Detecting and correcting syntax errors, How Python works. The
software development process – A case study. Basic coding skills – strings,
assignment, and comments, Numeric data types and character sets, Expressions,
Using inbuilt functions and modules. Control statements – Iteration with for/while
loop, Formatting text for output, A case study, Selection structure (if-else, switch
case), Conditional iteration with while, A case study, Testing control statements,
Lazy evaluation.
Getting Started with Python Programming

• Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language for solving

problems on modern computer systems.
• The language and many supporting tools are free, and Python programs can
run on any operating system.
• It has fewer syntactical constructions than other languages.
• Python is an interpreted language, not a compiled language. That means that
unlike applications written in languages such as C, COBOL or Assembler,
code written in Python has to run through a process of interpretation by the
computer.
• Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as the
scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages often use
curly-brackets for this purpose.

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Features and Applications:

1. Easy to learn:- It has few keywords, simple structure and clearly defined
syntax.
2. Easy to read:- It is clearly defined.
3. Easy to maintain:- It is fairly easy to maintain.
4. Portable:- It can run wide variety of hardware platforms and has the same
interface on all platforms.
5. Databases:- It provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.
6. Extendable:- Adding of low level modules to python is possible.
7. Scalable:- It provides a better structure and support for larger programs.
8. It supports functional and structured programming.
9. It can be used as scripting language and can be compiled to byte code to form
largerapplications.

10. It supports automatic garbage collection.

11. It can be easily integrated with other programming languages like c,c++, java

Downloading and installing Python

• You can download Python, its documentation, and related materials from
[Link].
• Python does not come preinstalled on Windows systems.
• Therefore, you must download the Windows installer from
[Link] The installer might then run
automatically, or you might have to double click an icon for the installer to

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 launch it. The installer automatically puts Python into a folder and inserts
various command options on the All Programs menu.
• Python that comes preinstalled on Mac OS X, Unix and Linux but the user
might need to update the version of Python.

Running Code in the Interactive Shell

• Python is an interpreted language, and you can run simple Python

expressions and statements in an interactive programming environment called
the shell.
• The easiest way to open a Python shell is to launch the IDLE(Integrated
Development and Learning Environment). This is an integrated program
development environment that comes with the Python installation.
• When you do this, a window named Python Shell opens.

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 • A shell window contains an opening message followed by the special symbol
>>>, called a shell prompt. The cursor at the shell prompt waits for you to
enter a Python command.
• When you enter an expression or statement, Python evaluates it and displays
its result, if there is one, followed by a new prompt. To quit the Python shell,
you can either select the window’s close box or press the Control+D key
combination.

Input, Processing, and Output

• Most useful programs accept inputs from some source, process these inputs,
and then finally output results to some destination. In terminal-based
interactive programs, the input source is the keyboard, and the output
destination is the terminal display.

Print Function

• The programmer can also force the output of a value by using the print
function. The basic syntax (or grammatical rule) for using the print function:

print(<expression>)

• When running the print function, Python first evaluates the expression and
then displays its value.
1. print was used to display some text. In Python code, a string is
always enclosed in quotation marks. However, the print function
displays a string without the quotation marks.

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 Eg: print("Hi there")

2. You can also write a print function that includes two or more
expressions separated by commas. In such a case, the print function
evaluates the expressions and displays their results, separated by
single spaces, on one line.

Eg: print (2+2, "hello")

• Print function always ends its output with a newline.

• To begin the next output on the same line as the previous one, you can place
the expression end = "", which says ―end the line with an empty string
instead of a newline,‖ at the end of the list of expressions, as follows:

print(<expression>, end = "")

Input Function

• As you create programs in Python, you’ll often want your programs to ask the
user for input. You can do this by using the input function. This function
causes the program to stop and wait for the user to enter a value from the
keyboard.
• When the user presses the return or enter key, the function accepts the input
value and makes it available to the program.
• The form of an assignment statement with the input function is the following:

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 <variable identifier>=input(<a string prompt>)

• A variable identifier, or variable for short, is just a name for a value. When
a variable receives its value in an input statement, the variable then refers to
this value.

Type conversion

• The input function always builds a string from the user’s keystrokes and
returns it to the program. After inputting strings that represent numbers, the
programmer must convert them from strings to the appropriate numeric types.
• In Python, there are two type conversion functions for this purpose, called
int (for integers) and float (for floating point numbers).

Example:

>>> first=int(input("enter the first number: "))

enter the first number: 12
>>> second=int(input("enter the second number: "))
enter the second number: 34
>>> print ("the sum is", first+second)
the sum is 46

Basic Python functions for input and output

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Editing, Saving and Running a Script

• While it is easy to try out short Python expressions and statements

interactively at a shell prompt, it is more convenient to compose, edit, and
save longer, more complex programs in files.
• We can then run these program files or scripts either within IDLE or from the
operating system’s command prompt without opening IDLE.
• To compose and execute programs in this manner, you perform the following
steps:
1. Select the option New Window from the File menu of the shell window.
2. In the new window, enter Python expressions or statements on separate
lines, in the order in which you want Python to execute them.
3. At any point, you may save the file by selecting File/Save. If you do
this, you should use a .py extension. For example, your first program
file might be named [Link].

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 4. To run this file of code as a Python script, select Run Module from the
Run menu or press the F5 key (Windows) or the Control+F5 key (Mac
or Linux).

How Python works

• Whether you are running Python code as a script or interactively in a shell,

the Python interpreter does a great deal of work to carry out the instructions
in your program.
• This work can be broken into a series of steps,

1. The interpreter reads a Python expression or statement, also called the source
code, and verifies that it is well formed. In this step, the interpreter behaves
like a strict English teacher who rejects any sentence that does not

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 adhere to the grammar rules, or syntax, of the language. As soon as the
interpreter encounters such an error, it halts translation with an error message.
2. If a Python expression is well formed, the interpreter then translates it to an
equivalent form in a low-level language called byte code. When the
interpreter runs a script, it completely translates it to byte code.
3. This byte code is next sent to another software component, called the Python
virtual machine (PVM), where it is executed. If another error occurs during
this step, execution also halts with an error message.

Detecting and Correcting Syntax Errors

• Programmers inevitably make typographical errors when editing programs,

and the Python interpreter will nearly always detect them. Such errors are
called syntax errors.
• When Python encounters a syntax error in a program, it halts execution with
an error message.

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 • The first statement assigns an input value to the variable length. The next
statement attempts to print the value of the variable lenth. Python responds
that this name is not defined.

• In this error message, Python explains that this line of code is unexpectedly
indented. In fact, there is an extra space before the word print.
• Indentation is significant in Python code. Each line of code entered at a shell
prompt or in a script must begin in the leftmost column, with no leading
spaces. The only exception to this rule occurs in control statements and
definitions, where nested statements must be indented one or more spaces.

The Software Development Process

• The process of planning and organizing a program is called as software

development process.
• There are several approaches to software development. One version is
known as the waterfall model.
• The waterfall model consists of several phases:

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1. Customer request—In this phase, the programmers receive a broad
statement of a problem .This step is also called the user requirements
phase.
2. Analysis—The programmers determine what the program will do. This is
sometimes viewed as a process of clarifying the specifications for the
problem.
3. Design—The programmers determine how the program will do its task.
4. Implementation—The programmers write the program. This step is also
called the coding phase.
5. Integration—Large programs have many parts. In the integration phase,
these parts are brought together into a smoothly functioning whole, usually
not an easy task.
6. Maintenance—Programs usually have a long life; a life span of 5 to 15
years is common for software. During this time, requirements change,
errors are detected, and minor or major modifications are made.

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 • The figure resembles a waterfall, in which the results of each phase flow down
to the next.
• However, a mistake detected in one phase often requires the developer to back
up and redo some of the work in the previous phase. Modifications made
during maintenance also require backing up to earlier phases. Taken together,
these phases are also called the software development life cycle.
• Modern software development is usually incremental and iterative. This
means that analysis and design may produce a rough draft, skeletal version,
or prototype of a system for coding, and then back up to earlier phases to fill
in more details after some testing.
• Keep in mind that mistakes found early are much less expensive to correct
than those found late. These are not just financial costs but also costs in time
and effort.

Basic coding skills:

Strings, Assignment, and Comments

Data Types

• A data type consists of a set of values and a set of operations that can
be performed on those values.
• A literal is the way a value of a data type looks to a programmer. The
programmer can use a literal in a program to mention a data value.

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String Literals

• In Python, a string literal is a sequence of characters enclosed in single

or double quotation marks.

>>> 'Hello there!'

'Hello there!'
>>> "Hello there!"
'Hello there!'
>>> ' '
''
>>> " "
''
• The last two string literals ('' and "") represent the empty string.
Although it contains no characters, the empty string is a string
nonetheless.
• To output a paragraph of text that contains several lines

>>> print("""This very long sentence extends

all the way to the next line.""")
This very long sentence extends
all the way to the next line.

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Escape Sequences

• Escape sequences are the way Python expresses special characters, such
as the tab, the newline, and the backspace (delete key), as literals.

String Concatenation

• We can join two or more strings to form a new string using the
concatenation operator +.

>>> "Hi " + "there, " + "Ken!"

'Hi there, Ken!'
• The * operator allows you to build a string by repeating another string
a given number of times. The left operand is a string, and the right
operand is an integer.
• If you want the string "Python" to be preceded by 10 spaces, it would
be easier to use the * operator with 10 and one space than to enter the
10 spaces by hand.

>>> " " * 10 + "Python"

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 ' Python'

Variables and the Assignment Statement

• A variable associates a name with a value, making it easy to

remember and use the value later in a program.
o A variable name must begin with either a letter or an
underscore ( _).
o It can contain any number of letters, digits, or other
underscores.
o Python variable names are case sensitive.
• Programmers use all uppercase letters for the names of variables that
contain values that the program never changes. Such variables are
known as symbolic constant.

Assignment Statements

< variable name> = <expression>

• The Python interpreter first evaluates the expression on the right side
of the assignment symbol and then binds the variable name on the
left side to this value. When this happens to the variable name for
the first time, it is called defining or initializing the variable.

Program Comments and Docstrings

• A comment is a piece of program text that the computer ignores but

that provides useful documentation to programmers.

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 • The author of a program can include his or her name and a brief
statement about the program’s purpose at the beginning of the
program file. This type of comment, called a docstring.

"""
Program: [Link]
Author: Ken Lambert
Last date modified: 10/10/17

The purpose of this program is to compute the area of a circle. The

input is an integer or floating-point number representing the radius
of the circle. The output is a floating-point number labeled as the
area of the circle.
"""
• In addition to docstrings, end-of-line comments can document a
program. These comments begin with the # symbol and extend to the
end of a line. An end-of-line comment might explain the purpose of
a variable or the strategy used by a piece of code.

>>> RATE = 0.85 # Conversion rate for Canadian to US dollars

Numeric Data Types and Character Sets

Numeric Data Types

• Integers - the integers include 0, all of the positive whole numbers, and all
of the negative whole numbers.

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 • Floating - Point Numbers - A real number in mathematics, such as the value
of pi (3.1416…), consists of a whole number, a decimal point, and a fractional
part.

Character Sets

• All data and instructions in a program are translated to binary numbers before
being run on a real computer. To support this translation, the characters in a
string each map to an integer value. This mapping is defined in character
sets, among them the ASCII set and the Unicode set
• The term ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. In the 1960s, the original ASCII set encoded each keyboard
character and several control characters using the integers from 0 through 127.

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 • The digits in the left column represent the leftmost digits of an ASCII code,
and the digits in the top row are the rightmost digits. Thus, the ASCII code of
the character 'R' at row 8, column 2 is 82.
• Python’s ord() and chr() functions convert characters to their numeric ASCII
codes and back again, respectively.

>>> ord('a')
97
>>> ord('A')
65
>>> chr(65)
'A'
>>> chr(66)
'B'

Expression

• Expressions provide an easy way to perform operations on data values to

produce other data values.

Arithmetic Expressions

• An arithmetic expression consists of operands and operators.

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Precedence rules

• Exponentiation has the highest precedence and is evaluated first.

• Unary negation is evaluated next, before multiplication, division, and
remainder.
• Multiplication, both types of division, and remainder are evaluated before
addition and subtraction.
• Addition and subtraction are evaluated before assignment.
• With two exceptions, operations of equal precedence are left associative, so
they are evaluated from left to right. Exponentiation and assignment
operations are right associative, so consecutive instances of these are
evaluated from right to left.
• You can use parentheses to change the order of evaluation.

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Mixed-Mode Arithmetic and Type Conversions

• Performing calculations involving both integers and floating-point numbers

is called mixed-mode arithmetic.
Example:

>>> 3.14 * 3 ** 2
28.26

• You must use a type conversion function when working with the input of
numbers.
• A type conversion function is a function with the same name as the data type
to which it converts. Because the input function returns a string as its value,

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 you must use the function int or float to convert the string to a number
before performing arithmetic, as in the following

Example:
>>> radius = input("Enter the radius: ")
Enter the radius: 3.2
>>> radius
'3.2'
>>> float(radius)
3.2
>>> float(radius) ** 2 * 3.14
32.153600000000004

• Another use of type conversion occurs in the construction of strings from

numbers and other strings.

>>> profit = 1000.55

>>> print('$' + str(profit))
$1000.55

• Python is a strongly typed programming language. The interpreter checks

data types of all operands before operators are applied to those operands. If
the type of an operand is not appropriate, the interpreter halts execution with
an error message.

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Using Functions and Modules

• Python includes many useful functions, which are organized in libraries of

code called modules.
• A function is a chunk of code that can be called by name to perform a task.
Functions often require arguments, that is, specific data values, to perform
their tasks.
• Names that refer to arguments are also known as parameters.
• The process of sending a result back to another part of a program is known as
returning a value.

Ex: round(7.563,2) return 7.56

abs(4-5) returns 1

• The above functions belongs to builtin module.

Math Module

• The math module includes several functions that perform basic mathematical
operations.
• This list of function names includes some familiar trigonometric functions as
well as Python’s most exact estimates of the constants pi and e.

Ex: 'sin' , 'sinh' , 'sqrt' , 'tan' , 'tanh' , 'tau' , 'trunc'. .... etc.

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Syntax for using specific function from math module

Ex:
>>>>import math
>>>>[Link]
3.1415926535897931
>>>>[Link](2)
1.4142135623730951

➢ To import specific functions

Ex:
from math import pi, sqrt
>>> print(pi, sqrt(2))
3.14159265359 1.41421356237

➢ to import all of the math module’s resources

Ex:

from math import *

Program Format and Structure

• Start with an introductory comment stating the author’s name, the purpose of
the program, and other relevant information. This information should be in
the form of a docstring.
• Then, include statements that do the following:

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 o Import any modules needed by the program.
o Initialize important variables, suitably commented.
o Prompt the user for input data and save the input data in
variables.
o Process the inputs to produce the results.
o Display the results.

Control statements

• Statements that allow the computer to select an action to perform in a

particular action or to repeat a set of actions.
• Two types of control statements are there:
o Selection structure
o Iteration structure

Iteration Structure

• Also known as loops, which repeat an action.

• Each repetition of the action is known as a pass or an iteration.
• There are two types of loops
o Those that repeat an action a predefined number of times (definite
iteration).
o Those that perform the action until the program determines that it
needs to stop (indefinite iteration).

The for Loop

• The control statement that most easily supports definite iteration.

• The form of this type of loop is:

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• The first line of code in a loop is sometimes called the loop header.
• Integer expression in the header denotes the number of iterations that the
loop performs.
• The colon (:) ends the loop header.
• he loop body comprises the statements in the remaining lines of code, below
the header. Note that the statements in the loop body must be indented and
aligned in the same column. These statements are executed in sequence on
each pass through the loop.
• Example1:

• Example 2: Python’s exponentiation operator might be implemented in a loop.

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• Example 3: When Python executes the type of for loop, it actually counts from
0 to the value of the header’s integer expression minus 1.

• Loops that count through a range of numbers are also called count controlled
loops. The value of the count on each pass is often used in computations.
Example 4: factorial of 4

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• To count from an explicit lower bound, the programmer can supply a second
integer expression in the loop header. When two arguments are supplied to
range, the count ranges from the first argument to the second argument minus
1.
• The next code segment uses this variation to simplify the code in the loop
body:

• Here is an example of a summation, which accumulates the sum of a sequence

of numbers from a lower bound through an upper bound:

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 • Some programs might want a loop to skip some numbers
• A variant of Python’s range function expects a third argument that allows
you to nicely skip some numbers. The third argument specifies a step value,
or the interval between the numbers used in the range, as shown in the
examples that follow:
• Example: compute the sum of the even numbers between 1 and 10.

Loop Errors: Off-by-One Error

• The loop fails to perform the expected number of iterations. Because this
number is typically off by one, the error is called an off-by-one error.
• For the most part, off-by-one errors result when the programmer incorrectly
specifies the upper bound of the loop.
• The programmer might intend the following loop to count from 1 through 4,
but it counts from 1 through 3:

# Count from 1 through 4, we think

>>> for count in range(1,4):
print(count) 1 2 3

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Loops That Count Down

• All of our loops until now have counted up from a lower bound to an upper
bound. Once in a while, a problem calls for counting in the opposite direction,
from the upper bound down to the lower bound.
• Example:

>>> for count in range(10, 0, -1):

print(count, end = " ")
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Conditional Iteration: The while Loop

• Conditional iteration requires that a condition be tested within the loop to

determine whether the loop should continue. Such a condition is called the
loop’s continuation condition.
• If the continuation condition is false, the loop ends. If the continuation
condition is true, the statements within the loop are executed again.
• The while loop is this type of control logic.
• Here is its syntax:

• Clearly, something eventually has to happen within the body of the loop to
make the loop’s continuation condition become false. Otherwise, the loop will
continue forever, an error known as an infinite loop. At least one

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 statement in the body of the loop must update a variable that affects the
value of the condition.

• The while loop is also called an entry-control loop, because its condition is
tested at the top of the loop. This implies that the statements within the loop
can execute zero or more times.

The while True Loop and the break Statement

theSum = 0.0

while True:

data = input("Enter a number or just enter to quit: ")

if data == "":

break

number = float(data)

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 theSum += number

print("The sum is", theSum)

• The first thing to note is that the loop’s entry condition is the Boolean value
True.
• Within this body, the input datum is received. It is then tested for the loop’s
termination condition in a one-way selection statement. If the user wants to
quit, the input will equal the empty string, and the break statement will cause
an exit from the loop.
• Otherwise, control continues beyond the selection statement to the next two
statements that process the input.

Selection Structure: if and if-else Statements

• In some cases, instead of moving straight ahead to execute the next

instruction, the computer might be faced with two alternative courses of
action.
• The computer must pause to examine or test a condition.
• The condition in a selection statement often takes the form of a comparison.
The result of the comparison is a Boolean value True or False.

If-else Statements:

• The if-else statement is the most common type of selection statement.

• It is also called a two-way selection statement, because it directs the
computer to make a choice between two alternative courses of action.
• Here is the Python syntax for the if-else statement:

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 • The condition in the if-else statement must be a Boolean expression—that is,
an expression that evaluates to either true or false.
• The two possible actions each consist of a sequence of statements.
• Note that each sequence must be indented at least one space beyond the
symbols if and else.
• Lastly, note the use of the colon (:) following the condition and the word
else.
• A flow diagram of the semantics of the if-else statement is given below:

Example for if-else statement:

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If statement:
• This type of control statement is also called a one-way selection statement,
because it consists of a condition and just a single sequence of statements.
• If the condition is True, the sequence of statements is run. Otherwise, control
proceeds to the next statement following the entire selection statement.
• Here is the syntax for the if statement:

• A flow diagram of the semantics of the if

statement is given below:

Multi-Way if Statements:

• Occasionally, a program is faced with testing several conditions that entail

more than two alternative courses of action.

• The process of testing several conditions and responding accordingly can be

described in code by a multi-way selection statement.

• The multi-way if statement considers each condition until one evaluates to

True or they all evaluate to False.

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 • The syntax of the multi-way if statement is the following:

• Example:

Switch statements

• A switch statement is a very useful and powerful programming feature. It is

an alternate to if-else-if ladder statement and provides better performance and
more manageable code than an if-else-if ladder statement.
• Python language does not provide any inbuilt switch statements. We can
implement this feature with the same flow and functionality but with different
syntax and implementation using Python Dictionary.

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Syntax of Switch Statement

switcher=

{
key_1: value_1/method_1(),

key_2: value_2/method_2(),

key_3: value_3/method_3(),

::

key_n: value_n/method_n(),

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 key = N

value = [Link](key, "default")

Implementation of Switch statement in Python

def get_week_day(argument):

switcher =

0: "Sunday" ,

1: "Monday" ,

2: "Tuesday" ,

3: "Wednesday" ,

4: "Thursday" ,

5: "Friday" ,

6: "Saturday"

}
return [Link](argument, "Invalid day")

print (get_week_day(6))

print (get_week_day(8))

print (get_week_day(0))

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Augmented Assignment

• The assignment symbol can be combined with the arithmetic and

concatenation operators to provide augmented assignment operations.

<variable> <operator>= <expression>

• Examples:

a = 17
s = "hi"
a += 3 # Equivalent to a = a + 3
a -= 3 # Equivalent to a = a - 3
a *= 3 # Equivalent to a = a * 3
a /= 3 # Equivalent to a = a / 3
a %= 3 # Equivalent to a = a % 3
s += " there" # Equivalent to s = s + " there"

Formatting Text for Output

• Many data-processing applications require output that has a tabular format.

In this format, numbers and other information are aligned in columns that can
be either left-justified or right-justified.
• A column of data is left-justified if its values are vertically aligned beginning
with their leftmost characters.
• A column of data is right-justified if its values are vertically aligned
beginning with their rightmost characters.
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• A column of data is centered if there are an equal number of spaces on either
side of the data within that column.
• The total number of data characters and additional spaces for a given datum
in a formatted string is called its field width.
• The print function automatically begins printing an output datum in the first
available column.
• The next example, which displays the exponents 7 through 10 and the values
of 107 through 1010, shows the format of two columns produced by the print
function:

• Python includes a general formatting mechanism that allows the programmer

to specify field widths for different types of data.

• The next session shows how to right-justify and left-justify the string four
within a field width of 6:

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• The first line of code right-justifies the string by padding it with two spaces
to its left. The next line of code left-justifies by placing two spaces to the
string’s right.
• The simplest form of this operation is the following:

• This version contains a format string, the format operator %, and a single
data value to be formatted.
• The format string can contain string data and other information about the
format of the datum.

• To format the string data value in our example, we used the notation
%<field width>s in the format string.
• When the field width is positive, the datum is right-justified; when
the fieldwidth is negative, you get left-justification.
• If the field width is less than or equal to the datum’s print length in
characters, no justification is added.
• The % operator works with this information to build and return a
formatted string.
• To format integers, you use the letter d instead of s.
• To format a sequence of data values, you construct a format string that
includes a format code for each datum and place the data values in a tuple
following the % operator.

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 • Example:

• The format information for a data value of type float has the form:

• Here .<precision> is optional. The next session shows the output of a

floating-point number without, and then with, a format string:

Lazy evaluation

When using any programming language, it’s important to understand when

expressions are evaluated. Consider the simple expression:
a=b=c=5

d=a+b*c

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 In Python, once these statements are evaluated, the calculation is immediately
(or strictly) carried out, setting the value of d to 30. In another programming
paradigm, such as in a pure functional programming language like Haskell, the
value of d might not be evaluated until it is actually used elsewhere. The idea of
deferring computations in this way is commonly known as lazy evaluation.
Python, on the other hand, is a very strict (or eager) language. Nearly all of the
time, computations and expressions are evaluated immediately. Even in the
above simple expression, the result of b * c is computed as a separate step before
adding it to a. There are Python techniques, especially using iterators and
generators, which can be used to achieve laziness. When performing very
expensive computations which are only necessary some of the time, this can be
an important technique in data- intensive applications.

Short-Circuit Evaluation
• The Python virtual machine sometimes knows the value of a Boolean
expression before it has evaluated all of its operands.
• For instance, in the expression A and B, if A is false, there is no need to
evaluate B. Likewise, in the expression A or B, if A is true, there is no need
to evaluate B.
• This approach, in which evaluation stops as soon as possible, is called short-
circuit evaluation.

count = int(input("Enter the count: "))

sum = int(input("Enter the sum: "))
if count > 0 and sum // count > 10:
print("average > 10")

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 else:
print("count = 0 or average <=10‖)
Operators

• Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

• Python divides the operators in the following groups:
o Arithmetic operators
o Assignment operators
o Comparison operators
o Logical operators
o Identity operators
o Membership operators
o Bitwise operators

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Comparison Operator

• Comparison operators are used to compare values. It returns either True or

False according to the situation.

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Logical Operators

Identity Operators

• Used to compare the objects.

Membership Operators

• Used to test if a sequence is presented in an object.

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Bitwise Operators

• Bitwise Operators are used to compare (binary) numbers.

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