EEN 16102 Renewable Energy Sources and

Distributed Generation

Lecture 22-25

Prof. Rajesh Gupta

Course Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ALLAHABAD, INDIA
23-03-2026 1
 Power Converters

•AC-DC converter
•DC-AC converter
•AC-AC converter
•DC-DC converter

3/23/2026
 Inverters can be used to produce variable ac from dc
source.
 The inverters are used in many power electronic
applications such as AC motor controls, pumping
applications, uninterruptible power supplies, electronic
ballasts, electric vehicles, frequency converters, induction
heating and so on.
 The MOSFETs and IGBTs are more popular in the
inverter topologies due to control on both the turn-off and
turn-on of the device coupled with better switch transition
characteristics.
 Inverter (DC/AC converter) Modulation
Classification

[Link] frequency Modulation, 1-phase, 3-phase

•Single-phase: Square wave (Two level output)

•Single-phase: Pulse Width Modulation (Three level output)
•Three-phase: 180⁰ and 120⁰ mode of conduction

2. Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation (SPWM) conversion, 1-pahase, 3-phase

•Bipolar SPWM
•Unipolar SPWM

3. Space Vector modulation (SVM) conversion, 3-phase

3/23/2026
 Square Wave Output
(Two-level)

VAB
Pulse Width
+Vdc
Modulation (Three-
t
level)
0

-Vdc

3/23/2026
 +Vdc

-Vdc

+Vdc
Bipolar SPWM (Two-
Level)

-Vdc

Unipolar SPWM (Three-

level)

3/23/2026
In many industrial applications, output voltage RMS control is required . Fundamental RMS or total RMS.
Also it is required to control fundamental frequency and phase of the output.
1. To cope up with the variations in dc input voltage
2. For voltage regulation of inverters
3. For constant voltage/frequency requirement

Harmonics distortions and total harmonic distortions need to be limited in AC output voltage and current
1. Limit voltage and current harmonics as per standards
2. Low harmonic distortion improves output voltage and current quality
Half bridge configuration

Vo
 T /2 2 Vi
The RMS output voltage Vo 
1
T /2   Vi 
  dt 
0 2 2
4  Vi  1 1 1
The instantaneous output voltage vo    (cos  t  cos 3 t  cos 5t  cos 7 t     )
 2 3 5 7

2Vi
The RMS of fundamental component of output voltage Vo1   0.45Vi
2

V32  V52  V72    

Total harmonics distortion (THD) VoTHD   .4834
V1
 Full bridge configuration
 Two switches should operate at any instant to get an
valid output vo=va-vb volt
 For any instant vo=u*Vi

1. u=+1 when S1+, S2- are turned on

2. u=-1 when S1- and S2+ are turned on

3. u=0 otherwise
 Full bridge output waveform is similar to that of half
bridge inverter output, only different is that its output
voltage varies from –Vi to +Vi in a cycle or period
 T /2

The RMS output voltage Vo 

1
T /2  Vi 2 dt  Vi
0

The instantaneous output voltage vo 


Vi  (cos  t  cos 3t  cos 5 t  cos 7t     )
4 1
3
1
5
1
7

4Vi
The RMS of fundamental component of output voltage Vo1   0.9Vi
2

V32  V52  V72    

Total harmonics distortion (THD)
VoTHD   .4834
V1
 T/2
VAB
+Vdc

(1-D)T/2 t
0
DT/2
-Vdc
T
 DT /2
The RMS output voltage Vo 
1
T /2  Vi 2 dt  DVi
0

4Vi
The instantaneous output voltage vo 

( A1 cos  t  A3 cos 3 t  A5 cos 5 t  A7 cos 7t     )

1  Dn 
An  sin  
n  2 

Voltage Total Harmonic Distorion The RMS of fundamental component of output voltage

V32  V52  V72     4Vi  D 

VoTHD  Vo1  sin  
V1 2  2 
 Consider RL load across the inverter
4Vi  Dn 
The RMS of nth harmonic component of output voltage Von  sin  
2 n  2 
The RMS of nth harmonic component of output current The RMS of fundamental component of output current
4Vi  Dn  4Vi  D 
sin   sin  
2 n  2  2  2 
I on  I o1 
R   n L 
2
R   L 
2 2 2

The RMS and THD of total output

current
I 32  I 52  I 72    
I oTHD 
Io   I1    I 3    I 5      
2 2 2
I1
Relation between RMS and THD
• The three-phase inverter topologies require three-arm bridge structures. They can
be built using three two level single-arm bridge topologies i.e three half bridge
arms
• The load may be a star or an equivalent delta.
• Depending on the conduction time of each switches three phase square pulse drive
techniques can be divided into two part
1. 180° mode of conduction
2. 120° mode of conduction
 S1 S4
A
S6 S3
B
S5 S2 S5
C
60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360°

Three phase inverter with star connected load

 T 1

T 4

v
AO
• Line voltages can be calculated like
1. VAB= VA0 – VB0
2. VBC= VB0 – VC0
3. VCA= VC0 – VA0
• Load Phase voltages can be calculated like
1. VAN = VA0 – VN0 ,
2. VBN = VBO – VN0 ,
3. VCN = VC0 − VN0
• Neutral voltage is VN0= (VA0 + VBO + VC0)/3.(When neutral is isolated) iNo = 0, vNo ≠ 0
• Neutral current is nonzero when neutral is grounded vNo = 0, iNo ≠ 0
iN0= (iA0 + iBO + iC0)
Mode1:0-60 (5,6,1) Mode2: 60-120 (6,1,2) Mode3: 120-180 (1,2,3)
Mode4: 180-240(2,3,4) Mode5: 240-300(3,4,5) Mode6: 300-360 (4,5,6)
At any instant mode of operation of VSI in 180 degree conduction are shown in those
circuits. Modes are shown for one half cycle, it cane be calculated for the rest. Calculation of
these will give a general idea of phase voltage and line voltage calculations.
Line voltages: 180 degree mode of conduction
3

Phase voltages: 180 degree mode of conduction

 Advantages of the square wave operation is that is each inverter switch
changes its state only twice per cycle which is important at high power levels
where the solid state switch is generally have slower turn on and turn off
speed.
 Disadvantages:
 (1) square wave switching is that inverter is not capable of regulating the
output voltage magnitude therefore the DC input to the inverter must be
adjusted in order to control the magnitude of the inverted output voltage.
 (2) It also induces high harmonic distortion.
 An inverter generates an output of AC voltage from an input of DC with the help of switching
circuits to reproduce a sine wave by generating one or more square pulses of voltage per half
cycle.
 If the size of the pulses is adjusted, the output is said to be pulse width modulated. With this
modulation, more pulses are produced per half cycle.
 The pulses close to the ends of the half cycle are constantly narrower than the pulses close to
the center of the half cycle such that the pulse widths are comparative to the equivalent
amplitude of a sine wave at that part of the cycle.
 SPWM techniques can be derived in these two.
1. Bipolar SPWM(output waveform switches between positive and negative dc voltages)
2. Unipolar SPWM(output waveform switches between 0 and any of positive and negative dc
voltages)

v0=u*Vi /2(Half bridge converter)
v0=u*Vi (full bridge converter)
When
• vm > vc , u=+1, S1, S4 ON, S2, S3 OFF,
vo = +Vi For full bridge
1. switch 1 will be on(half bridge)
2. switch 1 and switch 4 will turn on (full bridge)
• vm < vc , u=-1, S2, S3 ON, S1, S4 OFF
vo= -Vi For full bridge
1. Switch 2 will turn on(half bridge)
2. switch 2 and switch 3 will turn on(full bridge)
• Bipolar SPWM can be implemented in single
phase half and full bridge and three phase
converter
• In unipolar SPWM two modulating signals are used
• Can be implemented in full bridge inverter
• Most used control scheme
1st Leg
• vm > vc switch 1 will be turned on
• vm < vc switch 2 will be turned on
2nd Leg
• -vm > vc switch 3 will be turned on
• -vm < vc switch 4 will be turned on
 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

H-bridge Inverter

Block diagram of two-level VSI

g1

g3

34
Bipolar SPWM strategy for two-level inverter output voltage
Output voltage and load current of bipolar modulation in VSI at R = 10W, L =10mH, Mi=0.8, fo = 50 Hz, fc = 1
kHz

35
Harmonic spectrum of output voltage for bipolar modulation in VSI for fc / fo = 20, Mi = 0.8
 Three-level H-bridge Inverter

H-bridge Inverter

Block diagram of three-level VSI.

g1

g3

36
Unipolar SPWM strategy for three-level inverter output voltage
Output voltage and load current for unipolar modulation in VSI at R = 10W, L =10mH, Mi=0.8, fo = 50 Hz, fc = 1 kHz

37
Harmonic spectrum of output voltage of for unipolar modulation in VSI for fc / fo = 20, Mi = 0.8
Bipolar SPWM
1. It requires only one sinewave and simple
2. It is easier to implement
3. The harmonic performance is comparatively inferior
4. requires large filter at the output
5. Not preferable in full bridge.
Unipolar SPWM
1. It requires two 180 degree phase shifted sinewaves as modulating waves
2. It is complicated to implement
3. The harmonic performance is better
4. Filter requirement is less at the inverter output
5. Most extensively used
 In case of inductive loads the anti parallel diodes will freewheel when switch is turned off.
 In presence of inductor the output current will be closer to the sinusoidal in nature due to LPF
behaviour.
 Both method gives best control of output voltage as well as frequency
 Filter requirements are more in case of bipolar SPWM
 Output control and better output regulation at higher frequency index
 Fundamental Frequency of output waveform is same to the modulating frequency
Prob. 1: A solar PV system with the system voltage of 48 V is charging the batteries,
which is connected to a single-phase full bridge inverter. It uses duty ratio D to
control the RMS output voltage. The output of the inverter feeds the AC load with a
controlled 230 V rms through a single phase transformer rated 30V/230V, 50 Hz.
Determine the required duty ratio of the PWM inverter. the total RMS and
fundamental component RMS of the inverter output voltage. Draw the waveform of
the inverter output voltage. Calculate the fundamental component RMS voltage at
this value of D on AC load side.
 Real and Reactive power flow from inverter can be represented as

S  P  jQ

VVPWM  VVPWM V2 
S sin   j  cos   
X  X X 

 Where V is the grid EMS voltage and VPWM is the inverter output RMS voltage.
The phase shift between two voltages is denoted by δ.
Prob. 2: A 10 kW solar PV plant is connected to a single-phase grid through an
inverter and interfacing inductor. The inverter injects AC voltage of 240 V rms
at a suitable power angle to the grid having 220 V, 50 Hz, through an
interfacing inductor of 5.0 mH, to transfer the total solar PV real power into the
grid. Calculate the power angle and reactive power flow from the inverter to the
grid. With the DC link voltage of 400 V, it is desired to generate the inverter
output voltage using unipolar sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) at
the carrier frequency of 300 Hz. Calculate the modulation index and phase
angle. Approximately draw the unipolar SPWM inverter output voltage for one
fundamental cycle.
 Power electronics: circuits, devices and application by M.H. Rashid
 Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design by Mohan, Undeland, Robbins