IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 1|P a g e

Quality of water
Water quality is measured by several factors, such as the concentration of dissolved oxygen,
bacteria levels, the amount of salt (or salinity), or the amount of material suspended in the water
(turbidity). In some bodies of water, the concentration of microscopic algae and quantities of
pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, and other contaminants may also be measured to
determine water quality. Although scientific measurements are used to define water quality, it
is not a simple thing to say “that water is good” or “that water is bad.” So, the determination is
typically made relative to the purpose of the water – is it for drinking or to wash a car with or
for some other purpose?
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of
water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic
species, or to any human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of
standards against which compliance, generally achieved through treatment of the water, can be
assessed. The most common standards used to assess water quality relate to health of
ecosystems, safety of human contact, and drinking water.
Raw water is water found in the environment that has not been treated and does not have any
of its minerals, ions, particles, bacteria, or parasites removed. Raw water includes rainwater,
ground water, water from infiltration wells, and water from bodies like lakes and rivers. Raw
water is generally unsafe for human consumption due to the presence of contaminants. A major
health problem in some developing countries is use of raw water for drinking and cooking.
Without treatment, raw water can be used for farming, construction or cleaning purposes.
Farmers use it for watering their crops or give to livestock to drink, storing it in man-made lakes
or reservoirs for long periods of time. Construction industries can use raw water for making
cement or for damping down unsealed roads to prevent dust rising. Raw water can also be used
for flushing toilets and washing cars, as well as any other purposes that do not require it to be
consumed by humans. Water in this form is considered raw, as opposed to water which has
been treated before consumption, such as drinking water or water which has been used in an
industrial process, such as waste water. Raw water flushing is a method of water conservation
where raw water is used for flush toilets.
The composition of raw water is naturally variable, but commonly contains one or more of the
following significant contaminants, in the form of dissolved ions, particles and living
organisms:

• Humic acid and other complex acids, produced by plant decay. These occur in peat and
soil and may cause discoloration and metallic taste of water.
• Minerals which make water hard. Most common are carbonates of calcium and
magnesium.
• Particles of clay and silt.
• Pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and their cysts. (waterborne diseases)
• Salt, which makes water brackish, having more salinity than fresh water, but not as
much as seawater.
Other, less common, contaminants of raw water include:

• Natural radioactive particles.[4]

• Perfluorinated alkyl acids, such as perfluorooctanoic acid, which are group of
pollutants that have been found in wastewater throughout Europe. There are concerns

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 2|P a g e

these chemicals could contaminate raw water sources that are commonly used for
drinking water.
• Endocrine disruptor compounds; chemicals that can interfere with the endocrine system
causing cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other developmental disorders.[6]
These contaminants can be harmful to humans if they drink raw water containing them, or if
the water is not treated properly before consumption. The contaminants can also have an effect
on the local ecosystem.
Characteristics of Water: The major characteristics of water are
Water is a good solvent
Water never occurs in its pure form
All waters contain some dissolved substances
The quality of water is determined by these substances.
It has the ability to dissolve many inorganic and organic substances.
Water Quality Parameters:
The quality parameters are broadly classified into
• Physical properties
• Chemical composition and
• Biological Properties

A. Physical Properties:
• Temperature
• Colour
• Odour
• Turbidity
• Electrical Conductivity
Temperature (T) of Water:
Essential for all environmental studies Controls many ecological processes including chemical
reactions. Temperature of surface water varies from space and time. Temperature of
groundwater varies not only with reference to space and time but also with reference to depth.
Can be Measured using Thermometers It ranges from 0 to 100 degree Celsius. The temperature
of Surface water is influenced by the atmospheric conditions. The temperature of groundwater
is controlled by the thermal characteristics of rocks and the depth.

Colour of water:
The colour of water is due to the suspended particles and organic matter. Ranges from light to
dark brown. Brownish colour in water comes due to the presence of iron and greenish colour
in pond water is seen due to the presence of organic substances

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 3|P a g e

Odour:
Normally pure water is odourless. When water dissolves other substances, the odour is
determined by them mostly decayed organic substances give fouling smell, Inorganic
substances give earthy smell
Turbidity:
Turbidity is a measure of water clarity in streams, rivers, lakes, and the ocean. Turbidity
describes the amount of light scattered or blocked by suspended particles in a water sample.
Clear water has low turbidity and cloudy or murky water has a higher turbidity level. Turbidity
is caused by particles of soil, organic matter, metals, or similar matter suspended in the water
column.
Turbidity is commonly measured in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). The nephelometric
method compares how light is scattered in a water sample against the amount of light scattered
in a reference solution. An electronic hand-held meter is often used to measure turbidity.
Measurements can also be conducted by use of a Secchi disc or similar instrument. Watersheds
may have diverse physical landscape features that can affect the amount of suspended material
in the water that can then cause the water to be cloudy or turbid. Natural sources of material
include sediment from the weathering of rocks (e.g., glacial outwash), dead plant material, and
phytoplankton. Human-caused sources include substances in stormwater from urban areas (e.g.
roads, parking lots), upland industrial activities, construction and land clearing, and activities
occurring directly in water bodies such as power boat use and vehicle use. Turbidity may vary
over time, seasonally or on a geographic basis depending on differences in precipitation,
gradient (slope), geology, flow, and disturbances such as landslides.
Particles in turbid waters can carry disease-causing pathogens or toxic pollutants. High turbidity
in drinking water can shield bacteria or other organisms so that chlorine treatment at water
treatment plants cannot disinfect the water as effectively. Some pathogens found in water with
high turbidity can cause symptoms such as nausea, cramps, and headaches. Particles can also
absorb toxic pollutants that may come from urban and industrial discharges and stormwater
runoff. The best approach to managing turbidity is to address its source. This includes reducing
stormwater run-off from roads, parking lots, and upland industrial activities; restoring eroding
stream and lake shorelines; and applying industry-specific best management practices (BMPs).
BMPs are activities that help minimize the effects of a particular activity upon the environment.
Examples include use of settling ponds, re-vegetating steep slopes, maintaining a minimum of
25 feet of vegetation around streams, lakes, and other waterbodies, and maintaining all drainage
systems.

Electrical Conductivity (EC):

EC is the ability of a substance to conduct an electrical current. The presence of charged ionic
species makes water conductive. It is measured using EC meters. EC directly related to
temperature of water. Unit of measurement is mmhos/cm (Millimhos per centimetre) at std
temperatures. Ranges from 100-1,00,000. Pure water is less conductive

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 4|P a g e

B. Chemical Properties

• pH
• Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
• Major ions
• Minor or trace elements
• Hardness
• Salinity
• Alkalinity
pH of water:
pH of water refers to the effective concentration of hydrogen ions in water It ranges from 0 to
14. Measured using pH meters. Water is said to be acidic (less than 7) or alkaline ( above 7)
depending on the relative concentration of hydrogen ions from the neutral value which is 7.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS):
TDS is Concentration of non-volatile substances present in colloidal or molecular state. Total
of all ions present in water, expressed in ppm or mg/L. Increases due to dissolution of more
mineral substances by water on its path. TDS determines the suitability of water for our use and
consumption.

Total dissolved solids(ppm) Said to be

< 1000 Fresh water
1000-10,000 brackish water
10,000 to 1,00,000 Saline
> 1,00,000 hypersaline or brine

Major Cations in water:

• Calcium
• Magnesium
• Sodium
• Potassium

Major Anions in Water:

• Bicarbonate
• Carbonate
• Chloride
• Sulphate
• Nitrate
• Phosphate

Hardness:

The simple definition of water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in
the water. Hard water is high in dissolved minerals, largely calcium and magnesium. You may
have felt the effects of hard water, literally, the last time you washed your hands. Depending
on the hardness of your water, after using soap to wash you may have felt like there was a film
of residue left on your hands. In hard water, soap reacts with the calcium (which is relatively
high in hard water) to form "soap scum". When using hard water, more soap or detergent is
needed to get things clean, be it your hands, hair, or your laundry. Hardness of water is the
amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in the water. You Expressed as total concentration
of Calcium and Magnesium in ppm.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 5|P a g e

Total hardness= 2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg.

Water systems using groundwater as a source are concerned with water hardness, since as water
moves through soil and rock it dissolves small amounts of naturally-occurring minerals and
carries them into the groundwater supply. Water is a great solvent for calcium and magnesium,
so if the minerals are present in the soil around a water-supply well, hard water may be delivered
to homes.

C. Biological Properties:
• Chemical oxygen Demand (COD)
• Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• Microorganisms-Bacterial counts

Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a measure of how much oxygen is dissolved in the water - the amount
of oxygen available to living aquatic organisms. The amount of dissolved oxygen in a stream
or lake can tell us a lot about its water quality. Although water molecules contain an oxygen
atom, this oxygen is not what is needed by aquatic organisms living in natural waters. A small
amount of oxygen, up to about ten molecules of oxygen per million of water, is actually
dissolved in water. Oxygen enters a stream mainly from the atmosphere and, in areas where
groundwater discharge into streams is a large portion of streamflow, from groundwater
discharge. This dissolved oxygen is breathed by fish and zooplankton and is needed by them to
survive. Field and lab meters to measure dissolved oxygen have been around for a long time.
As this picture shows, modern meters are small and highly electronic. They still use a probe,
which is located at the end of the cable. Dissolved oxygen is dependent on temperature (an
inverse relation), so the meter must be calibrated properly before each use.

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) represents the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria
and other microorganisms while they decompose organic matter under aerobic (oxygen is
present) conditions at a specified temperature. When you look at water in a lake the one thing
you don't see is oxygen. In a way, we think that water is the opposite of air, but the common
lake or stream does contain small amounts of oxygen, in the form of dissolved oxygen.
Although the amount of dissolved oxygen is small, up to about ten molecules of oxygen per
million of water, it is a crucial component of natural water bodies; the presence of a sufficient
concentration of dissolved oxygen is critical to maintaining the aquatic life and aesthetic quality
of streams and lakes.
The presence of a sufficient concentration of dissolved oxygen is critical to maintaining the
aquatic life and aesthetic quality of streams and lakes. Determining how organic matter affects
the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in a stream or lake is integral to water- quality
management. The decay of organic matter in water is measured as biochemical or chemical
oxygen demand. Oxygen demand is a measure of the amount of oxidizable substances in a
water sample that can lower DO concentrations. Determining how organic matter affects the
concentration of dissolved oxygen in a stream or lake is integral to water-quality management.
BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to remove waste organic matter from water
in the process of decomposition by aerobic bacteria (those bacteria that live only in an
environment containing oxygen). The waste organic matter is stabilized or made
unobjectionable through its decomposition by living bacterial organisms which need oxygen to
do their work. BOD is used, often in wastewater-treatment plants, as an index of the degree of
organic pollution in water.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 6|P a g e

Raw Water Treatment System

For an industrial company using a raw water source for its facility, some type of raw water
treatment system is usually necessary to ensure an efficient process and quality product. The
most appropriate raw water treatment system will help the facility avoid costly plant downtime,
expensive maintenance fees, and not being able to sell its products in the market, among other
problematic issues. A raw water treatment system is a system made up of several individual
technologies that address the facility’s specific raw water treatment needs. Treating raw water
is rarely a static process, and a raw water treatment system that is engineered to accommodate
fluctuations in treatment needs will go a long way in avoiding costly replacements/upgrades
down the line. An efficient and well-designed raw water treatment system should be able to
handle:

• Seasonal variations in turbidity and flow

• Variations in water chemistry needs and required chemical volumes adjustments
• Changes in water quality requirements (such as the quality of feed water required for a
new boiler)
As mentioned above, the exact components of a raw water treatment system will depend on the
quality of water being drawn from in relation to the quality of water needed, but in general, a
basic raw water treatment system typically includes some type of:

• Chemical feed to help facilitate the flocculation or coagulation of any suspended solids
• Clarifier to settle out the larger solids • filtration to remove the smaller particles
• Control panel (depending on the level of automated operation needed)
Depending on the needs of the plant and process, these standard components are usually
adequate, however, if the plant requires a system that provides a bit more customization, there
might be some features or technologies that will need to be added on.
A raw water treatment system might be made up of the technologies necessary to remove any
number of the following:

• Suspended and colloidal solids: they can cause unpleasant odours in food and beverage
products, foul process equipment, and create energy losses for the plant.
• Silica and colloidal silica: they often foul and scale boiler equipment, reduce the
efficiency of plant equipment, and cause product contamination.
• Iron: coats fixtures, fouls industrial processes, causes foul tastes and odours in
products.
• Bacteria: can cause sickness and severe digestive issues/health problems as well as coat
cooling tower components.
• Hardness: coats equipment fixtures, plugs pipes, scales equipment, and causes a build-
up of sludge.
Quality assurance of point-of-use devices
Point-of-use and point-of-entry water treatment devices can be effective for treating the
volumes of water needed for domestic and small commercial situations. Factors which should
be considered when selecting a treatment device include:

• The efficacy of the treatment process

• The suitability of the treatment device for the water source being treated
• The monitoring and servicing requirements
• The potential effects of water contact materials and treatment chemicals

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 7|P a g e

Water quality
Most of the above points can be addressed at the design stage by looking at the device
manufacturer’s or supplier’s published data. The data they supply should have undergone third
party independent validation. In some case additional verification of the effectiveness of the
final installation may be necessary depending on the risks involved or if the installed treatment
option does not perform in line with design expectations.
Validation
Point-of-use or point-of-entry water treatment devices must have undergone validation to
ensure that the claims of the manufacturer or suppler are valid. This is normally carried out
against published test methods (for example a national standard).
Standards
The following standards, published by NSF/ANSI, are appropriate for point-of-use and point-
of-entry water treatment devices. The standards contain several different contaminant removal
tests and the installer or user should ensure that the claims validated are appropriate for the
water to be treated:
NSF/ANSI 42 Drinking Water Treatment Units - Aesthetic Effects
NSF/ANSI 44 Cation Exchange Water Softeners
NSF/ANSI 53 Drinking Water Treatment Units - Health Effects
NSF/ANSI 55 Ultraviolet Microbiological Water Treatment Systems
NSF/ANSI 58 Reverse Osmosis Drinking Water Treatment Systems
NSF/ANSI 62 Drinking Water Distillation Systems
Products verified as conforming to the ANSI/NSF standards by third party certification bodies
are available from a number of certification organisations.
The NSF/ANSI standards do not address the effects of materials on water quality requirements
of regulation 5 of The Regulations. Since 2000 standards relating to the performance, safety
and testing of point of use devices have been published by CEN TC 164 as ENs. These
standards are not suitable for the treatment of water for private supplies as they assume the
incoming water meets the requirements of the Drinking Water Directive.
The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water
quality tends to be focused on water that is treated human consumption, industrial use, or in the
environment.
Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa
and bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants
from industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive
contaminants. Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human
uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and
overuse (which may lower the level of the water). The United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by US public
water systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards:
Primary standards regulate substances that potentially affect human health
Secondary standards prescribe aesthetic qualities, those that affect taste, odour, or appearance.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 8|P a g e

The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of
water quality indicators. The most accurate measurements of water quality are made on-site,
because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made on-
site and in direct contact with the water source in question include temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.

Water quality Detectors

A number of analytical instruments perform measurement functions by sensing the loss of heat
from a transducer and relating that heat loss Through an intermediate measurable parameter
such as current, voltage, or resistance, to the property that the instrument is designed to report.
These instruments include vacuum gauges, flow sensors, leak detectors, and the thermal
conductivity detectors (TCDs) found on many gas chromatographs. Heat can be lost (actually
transferred to a different object) by radiative, conductive, and convective processes. The
radiative process is simply energy transferred without physical contact with any medium; the
standard example is light or heat transferred through empty space. The conductive and
convective processes require physical contact with the medium through which heat is
transferred. In the case of conductive transfer, heat generally travels along a solid. In convective
transfer, heat is generally transferred from a solid to a liquid or gas. The sensors described in
this chapter principally rely on the convective (or forced convective) mechanisms to sense
gases. Heat can be lost (actually transferred to a different object) by radiative, conductive, and
convective processes. The radiative process is simply energy transferred without physical
contact with any medium; the standard example is light or heat transferred through empty space.
The conductive and convective processes require physical contact with the medium through
which heat is transferred. In the case of conductive transfer, heat generally travels along a solid.
In convective transfer, heat is generally transferred from a solid to a liquid or gas. The sensors
described in this chapter principally rely on the convective (or forced convective) mechanisms
to sense gases.

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal energy, or heat, moves from a region of higher temperature to regions of lower
temperature. Heat can be lost (actually transferred to a different object) by radiative,
conductive, and convective processes, the radiative process is simply energy transferred
without physical contact with any medium; the standard example is light or heat transferred
through empty space. The conductive and convective processes require physical contact with
the medium through which heat is transferred, Thermal conductivity is a property that cannot
be sensed or used directly in determining a physical or chemical property of a gas. Instead,
temperature is sensed.
The principal transducers for temperature are based on the voltage generated by a thermocouple
and the change in resistance generated by a thermistor or hot wire. In each case, the measured
response is small; hence, the transducer’s signal is directed into a Wheatstone bridge (or
equivalent). From the bridge, one typically extracts voltage, which is ultimately related to the
bulk property for which the instrument was designed. The raw sensors (thermocouple,
thermistor, and hot-wire detectors) and the Wheatstone bridge are considered a mature
technology.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 9|P a g e

Thermocouple
The thermocouple is a voltaic device that is based on creating a voltage at the junction of two
dissimilar metals (the thermoelectric effect). The signal generated is
ν = s ∆T
where v is the measured voltage across the device, s is the sensitivity factor for the particular
metal couple used in the construction of the thermocouple (nominally about 3 μV=K for many
metal couples), and ∆T is the temperature difference in kelvins. The thermocouple is used in
some forms of vacuum gages that are described later.

Thermistor
The thermistor is a solid-state device that functions as a thermal transistor or thermally sensitive
resistor. These devices usually have two leads and a bead that contains a transition metal oxide.
Like the conventional semiconductors, the thermistor changes resistance with temperature in a
predictable fashion. The thermistor is commercially available in various configurations: The
vendor of the instrument containing the thermistor (a leak detector or TCD) will usually select
a thermistor with a thin coating that will confer chemical resistance while still providing a fast-
analytical response. The thermistor is usually operated at near room temperature. The principal
reason for ambient temperature operation is that the sensitivity (change in resistance per unit
temperature change) is quite large; hence, the ‘‘∆T’’ generated between the ‘‘reference’’ and
‘‘specimen’’ need not be very large. Depending on the composition of the thermistor, the
sensitivity can vary from -4 to -7% per degree Celsius. The thermistor has a short working (or
linear) range because the response is quite nonlinear. It is common practice to extend the
working range by conditioning the raw signal with the support electronics.

Hot-wire Detector
The hot-wire detector is based on the property that a resistor increases resistance with increasing
temperature. These detectors are usually operated at temperatures substantially above ambient
temperature because the sensitivity (change in resistance with temperature) is small (on the
order of 3 mO/K). The hot-wire resistors are generally made from tungsten/rhenium, nickel,
platinum, or gold-coated tungsten.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 10 | P a g e

Because the hot-wire detector is used at elevated temperature, some thought must be given to
chemical reactivity with the leak gas. Vendor data provide some guidance.8 In general, the
nickel wire has poor chemical resistance to aqua regia (HCl/HNO3) and damp amine/ammonia
vapours; the tungsten/rhenium filaments have poor chemical resistance to fluorine, hydrogen
fluoride, and nitric acid vapours. Also note that the working range (linearity of response) of a
hot wire is also a function of its elemental composition.

Wheatstone Bridge
A ‘‘classical’’ Wheatstone bridge is illustrated in Figure 19.2. This device is used primarily to
measure small, differential resistances. In the classical (freshman physics) form, R1 and R2 are
fixed and identical resistors. Resistor R3 is the resistive element under test, and R4 is a variable
resistor adjusted such that the voltage measured across the bridge (at the points identified as
‘‘measure’’) drops to zero. The classical Wheatstone bridge has been modified to operate in
several ways. The earliest form is based on nulling the measured voltage across the bridge. This
could be done by hand (e.g., the freshman physics experiment) or by a servomechanism. Many
earlier strip chart recorders operated with a nulling servomechanism. Later applications have
used the bridge in the unbalanced mode (without fulfilling the null condition). In this mode,
instead of balancing resistance, one relies on the measured voltage (or current) across the bridge
for an analytical result. For sensitivity as well as signal conditioning, an operational amplifier
is usually connected to the measure points.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 11 | P a g e

A more complete discussion of variations on the Wheatstone bridge can be found in the
literature.10 The continued utility of the Wheatstone bridge in extracting low-level signals is
evident from the continual traffic in [Link].
Opacity Monitors
The term opacity is typically used for measuring particulate matter (smoke particles) in a
smokestack. By definition, opacity is the obscuration of a light beam by the particles in the
beam. It is a percentage measurement. For example, 0% opacity means that there are no
particulates and 100% opacity mean that the light beam is completely blocked by the
particulates.

It is a linear relationship. Other terms that are sometimes used in opacity monitoring, such as
transmittance, optical density, and Ringleman number (see the basic specifications for a
USEPA compliance opacity meter in Table

Transmittance and Opacity:

The relationship between transmittance and opacity is
Opacity =100 – Transmittance

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 12 | P a g e

where transmittance is the amount of light that passes through the particulates. For example, in
Figure I0 is the light transmitted from a light source and I is the light received.
Opacity is the complement of transmittance

Optical Density:
The relationship between optical density (OD) and opacity is

Optical density is sometime used for determining mass flow such as grams per cubic meter.
Ringleman Number:
The term Ringleman number has been used since the beginning of the twentieth century by
observers to measure the density of smoke from a smokestack. It is calibrated by using a gray
scale next to the observer for comparison between the smokestack emission and the scale. The
calibration is in steps of 20% opacity; thus Ringleman 1 is 20%, Ringleman 2 is 40%, and so
on up to Ringleman 5, which is 100% (See the given Table).

pH MEASUREMENT
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a water solution. Acidity or alkalinity is
determined by the relative number a hydrogen ion (H+) or hydroxyl (OH-) present. Acidic
solutions have a higher relative number of hydrogen ions, while alkaline (also called basic)
solutions have a higher relative number of hydroxyl ions. Acids are substances that either
dissociate (split apart) in water to release hydrogen ions, or react with water to form hydrogen
ions. Bases are substances that dissociate to release hydroxyl ions, or react with water to form
hydroxyl ions. In the strict definition, pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 13 | P a g e

ion activity, [pH= -log aH.] Activity is the molar concentration of hydrogen ion, multiplied by
an activity coefficient, γ, which takes into account the effects of the ion–ion interactions in
solution: aH = γ [H+].
pH measurement is based on the use of a pH-sensitive electrode (usually glass), a reference
electrode, and a temperature element to provide a temperature signal to the pH analyser. The
pH electrode uses a specially formulated, pH sensitive glass in contact with the solution, which
develops a potential (voltage) proportional to the pH of the solution. The reference electrode is
designed to maintain a constant potential at any given temperature, and serves to complete the
pH measuring circuit within the solution, and provide a known reference potential for the pH
electrode. The difference in the potentials of the pH and reference electrodes provides a
millivolt signal proportional to pH
The most commonly used pH-dependent unit is the glass electrode. The action of this electrode
is based upon the fact that certain types of borosilicate glass are permeable to H+ ions but not
to other cations and anions. Therefore, a thin layer (0.05 to0.1mm) of such glass is interposed
between two solution of different H+ ion concentration, H+ ions will move across the glass
from the solution of high to that of low H+ ion concentration. Since passage of a H+ ion through
the glass adds a positive ion to the solution of low H+ ion concentration and leaves behind a
negative ion, an electric potential develops across the glass. The magnitude of this potential is
given by the following equation

E is the potential
R is the gas constant
F is Faraday constant
[H+]1 is molar concentration on the inside of the glass
[H+]2 is molar concentration on the outside of the glass
If H+ concentration of one solution is fixed, the potential will be proportional to the pH of the
other solution. Electrodes of pH meter are two half-cells (an indicating(pH) electrode and a
reference electrode). A pH meter measures the voltage between two electrodes placed in the
[Link] of one electrode (pH electrode) is pH dependent.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 14 | P a g e

The Glass electrode (pH electrode) contains 0.1 M HCl in contact with the H+ permeable glass.
Connection to the potentiometer is by means of a silver wire coated with silver chloride, which
is immersed in the HCl. The circuit is completed by immersing into the solution a reference
electrode that has been selected to be pH-independent. The type most commonly used reference
electrode contains a Hg-Hg2Cl2 paste in saturated KCl; this is called calomel electrode. If a
high temperature operation is required, Ag-AgCl is used instead of Hg-Hg2Cl2 in both cases
KCl makes contact between this unit and the solution being measured. A saturated potassium
chloride solution is normally used as a salt bridge in the reference electrode because many ions
diffuse from the salt bridge against which the sample ions must diffuse.
Reference electrode (other half cell) contains mercury, mercury chloride, and saturated solution
of potassium chloride. each of these compounds exists in ionized state although the extent of
ionization may vary widely, their dissociation constants are

Since glass electrode(one half cell) contains silver, silver chloride and 0.1M HCl solution, their
dissociation constants are

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 15 | P a g e

The electromotive force(emf) of the complete cell(E) is given by

Electromotive force is a difference in potential that tends to give rise to an electric current. Eref
is the potential of the reference electrode, which at normal temperature is +0.250V and E glass
is the test electrode which depends on the pH of the test solution. Then the pH of the solution (
at 25°C)can be determined by the following equation

Applications of pH Meter
• The rate and outcome of chemical reactions taking place in water often depends on the
acidity of the water, and it is therefore useful to know the acidity of the water, typically
measured by means of a pH meter.
• Leak Detection with pH: Leak detection with a pH measurement involves detecting the
leakage of an acid or base contaminant into a sample by the pH response of the sample.
How well pH can detect a leak depends on the magnitude of the pH response for a
given volume of contaminant. The pH response of the sample to a contaminant can be
determined by looking at a titration curve of the sample, where the titrant is the acid or
base contaminant. When evaluating a sample for leak detection by pH, the sensitivity
of the pH
• Concentration Measurement with pH: Although pH is the negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion concentration, or more correctly, the hydrogen ion activity, in most
applications, pH is considered to be a thing unto itself, and no correlation to
concentration is drawn from the pH measurement. In some cases, however, the purpose
of the pH measurement is to derive the concentration of an acid or base from the pH
reading
• Knowledge of pH is useful or critical in many situations, including chemical laboratory
analyses.
• pH meters are used for soil measurements in agriculture,
• water quality for municipal water supplies and swimming pools,
• Manufacturing, healthcare and clinical applications such as blood chemistry, and many
other applications.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 16 | P a g e

Conductivity Analysers
Conductivity measurement has widespread use in industrial applications, which involve the
detection of ionic contaminants in water and concentration measurements. Conductivity
measures how well a solution conducts electricity. The units of conductivity are siemens per
centimetre (S/cm), which is identical to the older unit of mho/cm. Conductivity measurements
cover a wide range of solution conductivity from pure water at less than 1x10-7 S/cm to values
in excess of 1 S/cm for concentrated solutions. For convenience, conductivity is usually
expressed in the units of microSiemens/cm (mS/cm, one-millionth of a S/cm) or mS/cm
(mS/cm, one-thousandth of a S/cm).

Conductivity is measured primarily in aqueous solutions of electrolytes. Electrolytes are

solutions containing ions, which are charged particles formed by the dissociation of acids,
bases, salts, and certain gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and ammonia. Water
is the solvent in virtually all electrolyte solutions, because water is one of the rare solvents that
has the capability of stabilizing the ions formed, by a process called solvation. Pure water itself
can conduct electricity, because it dissociates to form hydrogen ion hydrogen ion (H+) and
hydroxyl ion (OH-). In the range of common industrial conductivity measurements, solutions
made with organic solvents and water solutions made with nonelectrolytes (like alcohol) are
only sparingly conductive and are, for the most part, considered nonconductive. Since ions are
the charge carriers in a conductive solution, it would be expected that the higher the
concentration of ions in a solution, the more conductive it would be. While this is true for dilute
solutions and also for certain electrolytes up to their saturation point, ion–ion interactions in the
solution can cause the conductivity response to deviate considerably from what would be
expected to be a linear response. In very dilute electrolyte solutions, with conductivity below
10 mS/cm, ions behave independently, so the conductivity response with increasing
concentration is essentially linear. In this low range, the conductivity of a mixture of
electrolytes is pretty much the additive sum of their individual conductivities, barring any
reaction between them.

Electrode Conductivity Measurement Technique

Electrode conductivity uses a sensor with two metal or graphite electrodes in contact with the
electrolyte solution. An alternating-current (AC) voltage is applied to the electrodes by the
conductivity analyser, and the resulting AC current flowing between the electrodes through a
volume of solution is used to determine the conductance of the sensor. The amount of current
that flows depends not only on the solution conductivity but also on the length, surface area,
and geometry of the sensor electrodes. The probe constant (also called ‘‘sensor constant’’ or
‘‘cell constant’’) is a measure of the current response of a sensor to a conductive solution, due
to its dimensions and geometry. Its units are cm1 (reciprocal centimetres; length divided by
area). The probe constant scales the response to a given conductivity range to the input circuit

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 17 | P a g e

requirements of a particular conductivity analyser. Probe constants can vary from 0.01 to 50
cm-1 and, in general, the higher the conductivity, the greater the probe constant necessary.

By choosing the appropriate cell constant, electrode conductivity can measure down to pure
water conductivity, and even below in some special applications with organic solvents. By
choosing a large cell constant, contacting conductivity can be used to measure highly
conductive solutions. But there are drawbacks to using contacting conductivity in highly
conductive solutions. The main drawback of the electrode is corrosion and the fact that many
strong electrolyte solutions are corrosive and tend to contain undissolved material that can coat
the sensor. Coating or corrosion on the surface of an electrode lowers its effective surface area,
decreasing its probe constant, and lowering the reading.
Toroidal (Inductive) Conductivity Measurement Technique
Toroidal conductivity measurements are made by passing an AC voltage through a toroidal
coil, which induces a current in the electrolyte solution. This induced solution current, in turn,
induces a current in a second toroidal coil in the sensor. The amount of coupling between the
two coils is proportional to the solution conductivity

The major advantage of toroidal conductivity is that the toroidal coils are not in contact with
the solution. They are either encased in a polymeric material or external to the solution, as is
the case with a flowthrough sensor. The toroidal sensor can be completely coated by a solid or
oily contaminant in the process, with essentially no decrease in the reading until the coating
builds up to a thickness of 1 cm. The polymeric material housing the toroids, or the pipe material
in a flowthrough configuration, can be chosen to be resistant to corrosive solutions, which
would quickly corrode contacting sensors with metal electrodes. The major drawback to the
toroidal conductivity measurement has been its lower sensitivity compared with contacting
conductivity, and, although some recently (as of 2003) developed toroidal conductivity

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 18 | P a g e

analysers can measure low conductivity, their application has been restricted to those rare
applications where the process has low conductivity and is fouling. Toroidal sensors are also
typically larger than contacting sensors and the solution
current induced by the toroid occupies a volume around the sensor. So toroidal sensors need to
be mounted in a larger pipe than a contacting sensor. If the toroidal sensor is mounted less than
a sensor diameter from a conducting pipe, there can be an upscale reading from conduction
through the pipe. Near a nonconductive (plastic) pipe, the readings can be low because of a
reduction in the conductive solution volume near the sensor. Both of these effects can usually
be corrected for, by zeroing the measurement loop with the sensor mounted in the dry process
pipe.
Criteria for Choosing the Conductivity Measurement Technique
General rules for choosing the conductivity measurement technique can be outlined as follows:

• If the process is dirty or corrosive, toroidal conductivity is the only choice. An electrode
conductivity sensor will require frequent maintenance, and may require frequent
replacement if chemically attacked
• If a conductivity measurement below 10 mS/cm is required, electrode conductivity is
the best choice, not only for its sensitivity but also because electrode conductivity
analysers have the features that support conductivity measurements in this range.
Toroidal conductivity should only be considered for use in this range, if the potential
for fouling is a major concern. The toroidal analyser may not have the features to
provide a highly accurate reading in very low-conductivity samples.
• Toroidal conductivity is generally favoured for applications above 20,000 mS/cm, and
it is favoured, by some for applications above 5000 mS/cm, because of its lower
maintenance requirements.
• Below 5000 mS/cm either toroidal or electrode conductivity can be used. Toroidal
sensors are favoured because they rarely require cleaning in a reasonably clean
application. Electrode sensors are typically smaller and easier to install than toroidal
sensors.

Application of Conductivity Measurement Technique

1. Nonspecific Applications: Nonspecific applications involve simply measuring
conductivity to detect the presence of a certain bulk concentration of electrolytes, that
is, there is no attempt to derive the concentration of a particular electrolyte from the
measurement. The majority of conductivity applications fall within this category. They
include monitoring and control of demineralization, leak detection, and monitoring to
a prescribed conductivity specification, as in the case of power generation equipment.
In most instances, there is a maximum acceptable concentration of electrolyte, which
is related to a conductivity value, and that conductivity value is used as an alarm point.
2. Interface Detection: An often over looked application of conductivity is in detecting
the interface between a conductive solution and a nonconductive solution. The
nonconductive solution can be a solvent or hydrocarbon, and the conductive solution
can be virtually any water sample. The principle is simple: There is some upscale
conductivity reading in the water solution and no conductivity reading in the
nonconductive solution. The conductivity output is used to provide an on/off signal to
indicate which phase the sensor is in. This application almost always employs a toroidal

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 19 | P a g e

conductivity sensor, because solutions of solvents and hydrocarbons can foul an

electrode sensor.
3. Leak Detection with Conductivity: Conductivity can be used to detect the leak of more
conductive contaminant into a less conductive sample. The greater the difference in
conductivity is between the contaminant and the sample, the greater the sensitivity of
leak detection will be. In general, unless the contaminant is at least 100 times more
conductive than the sample, the sensitivity of leak detection will be poor.
4. Concentration Measurements: Conductivity is nonspecific, but it can sometimes be
applied to concentration measurements if the composition of the solution and its
conductivity behaviour are known. The first step is to know the conductivity of the
solution as a function of the concentration of the electrolyte of interest. These data can
come from published conductivity–concentration curves for electrolytes, or from
laboratory measurements. The conductivity of mixtures usually requires a laboratory
measurement due to the scarcity of published conductivity data on mixed electrolytes.
5. Reaction Monitoring and Endpoint Detection: Chemical reactions, typically batch
reactions, in electrolyte solutions can be accompanied by conductivity change
sufficient to allow their progress to be followed by conductivity. Potential applications
can be evaluated by measuring the conductivity at various stages in the reaction and
relating it to a laboratory analysis of the reaction mixture at each stage. Conductivity
can be related to the percent completion of the reaction or to the concentration of any
reactant or product.
Atomic Absorption Photometer
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy is a very common technique for detecting metals and
metalloids in samples. It is very reliable and simple to use, can analyse over 62 elements and It
also measures the concentration of metals in the sample. Like a spectrophotometer, an atomic
absorption photometer measures how much light is absorbed when the light flux from a light
source passes through a material to be measured. The fundamental difference from a
spectrophotometer is the condition of the material to be measured. That is, an atomic absorption
photometer analyses using atomic absorption, while a spectrophotometer analyses using
molecular photo absorption.

The technique uses basically the principle that free atoms (gas) generated in an atomizer can
absorb radiation at specific frequency. Atomic-absorption spectroscopy quantifies the
absorption of ground state atoms in the gaseous state. The atoms absorb ultraviolet or visible

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 20 | P a g e

light and make transitions to higher electronic energy levels. The analyte concentration is
determined from the amount of absorption.
Atomic absorption means that an atom absorbs (eats) a particular wavelength. For example, Na
eats only light at the wavelength of 589.0 nm. As for discovery of atomic absorption, A long
time ago…in the early 19th century, a man named Fraunhofer observed the spectrum of sunlight
and found dark lines in it. These lines were named Fraunhofer lines after the discoverer of the
dark lines. In the middle of the 19th century, Kirchhoff inferred that Fraunhofer lines might be
due to absorption by atoms.

An atom usually exists in its lowest, stable energy level (the ground state). However, ... An
atomic vapor in the ground state will be converted into an atomic vapor in an excited state by
irradiation of light at a particular wavelength. A part of the irradiated light will be consumed.
This is called atomic absorption.

Simple diagram showing atomic energy levels

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 21 | P a g e

LIGHT SOURCE: Hollow Cathode Lamp are the most common radiation source in AAS. It
contains a tungsten anode and a hollow cylindrical cathode made of the element to be
determined. These are sealed in a glass tube filled with an inert gas (neon or argon). Each
element has its own unique lamp which must be used for that analysis.
NEBULIZER: Suck up liquid samples at controlled rate, create a fine aerosol spray for
introduction into flame. Mix the aerosol and fuel and oxidant thoroughly for introduction into
flame.
Atomizer: Elements to be analysed needs to be in atomic sate. Atomization is separation of
particles into individual molecules and breaking molecules into atoms. This is done by exposing
the analyte to high temperatures in a flame or graphite furnace. Two types are available
1. FLAME ATOMIZER: To create flame, we need to mix an oxidant gas and a fuel
gas, in most of the cases air-acetylene flame or nitrous oxide acetylene flame is
used. liquid or dissolved samples are typically used with flame atomizer.

2. GRAPHITE TUBE ATOMIZER: Uses a graphite coated furnace to vaporize the

sample. ln GFAAS sample, samples are deposited in a small graphite coated tube
which can then be heated to vaporize and atomize the analyte. The graphite tubes
are heated using a high current power supply.
MONOCHROMATOR: This is a very important part in an AA spectrometer. It is used to
separate out all of the thousands of lines. A monochromator is used to select the specific
wavelength of light which is absorbed by the sample, and to exclude other wavelengths. The
selection of the specific light allows the determination of the selected element in the presence
of others.
DETECTOR: The light selected by the monochromator is directed onto a detector that is
typically a photomultiplier tube, whose function is to convert the light signal into an electrical
signal proportional to the light intensity. The processing of electrical signal is fulfilled by a
signal amplifier. The signal could be displayed for readout, or further fed into a data station for
printout by the requested format.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 22 | P a g e

Calibration Curve: A calibration curve is used to determine the unknown concentration of an

element in a solution. The instrument is calibrated using several solutions of known
concentrations. The absorbance of each known solution is measured and then a calibration
curve of concentration vs absorbance is plotted. The sample solution is fed into the instrument,
and the absorbance of the element in this solution is measured. The unknown concentration of
the element is then calculated from the calibration curve
APPLICATIONS:

• Determination of even small amounts of metals (lead, mercury, calcium, magnesium,

etc)
• Environmental studies: drinking water, ocean water, soil.
• Food industries
• Pharmaceutical industry.

Atomic Emission Spectroscopy

Technique is also known as OPTICAL EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY (OES) The
study of radiation emitted by excited atoms and monatomic ions. Relaxation of atoms in the
excited state results in emission of light, Produces line spectra in the UV-VIS and the vacuum
UV regions. Used for qualitative identification of elements present in the sample. Also for
quantitative analysis from ppm levels to percent Multielement technique can be used to
determine metals, metalloids, and some non-metals simultaneously. Emission wavelength and
energy are related by ΔE = hc/λ
Which does not require light source and excited atoms in the flame emit light that reaches the
detector (luminescence)
Principle: Atomic emission spectroscopy is also an analytical technique that is used to measure
the concentrations of elements in samples. It uses quantitative measurement of the emission
from excited atoms to determine analyte concentration. The analyte atoms are promoted to a
higher energy level by the sufficient energy that is provided by the high temperature of the
atomization sources. The excited atoms decay back to lower levels by emitting light. Emissions
are passed through monochromators or filters prior to detection by photomultiplier tubes. The
instrumentation of atomic emission spectroscopy is the same as that of atomic absorption, but
without the presence of a radiation source. In atomic Emission the sample is atomized and the
analyte atoms are excited to higher energy levels.

Fig: Schematic Diagram of an Atomic Emission spectrometer

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 23 | P a g e

Sources:

• Flame – still used for metal atoms

• Alternating current arc (AC arc)
• Direct current (DC arc)
• Alternating current spark (AC spark)
• Direct current Plasma
• Microwave Induced Plasma
• Inductively Coupled Plasma – the most
• important technique
The Direct Current Plasma Technique:
Plasma is an electrically conducting gaseous mixture containing significant
concentrations of cations and electrons. The direct current plasma is created by the electronic
release of the two electrodes.

The samples are placed on an electrode. In the technique solid samples are placed near the
discharge to encourage the emission of the sample by the converted gas atoms.
Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP)
Plasma generated in a device called a Torch up to 1" diameter. Argon cools outer tube, defines
plasma shape. Rapid tangential flow of argon cools outer quartz and centres plasma Rate of
Argon Consumption 5 - 20 L/Min. Radio frequency (RF) generator 27 or 41MHz up to 2 kW
Telsa coil produces initiation spark. Ions and electrons interact with magnetic field and begin
to flow in a circular motion. Resistance to movement (collisions of electrons and cations with
ambient gas) leads to ohmic heating. Sample introduction is analogous to atomic absorption.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 24 | P a g e

Detectors: For Quantitative analysis photographic plate is used on which all the emission lines
from the samples are recorded. This photograph of the emission spectrum helps in the
measurement of wavelength of radiation lines. From these lines emitting elements can be
identified. The instrument with photographic recording is called spectrograph and the one using
photoelectric device as spectrometer.
Advantages of Photographic plates over Photomultiplier tubes are

• Large number of spectral lines can be recorded.

• Photographic plates provides a permanent record of the spectrum.
• Emission spectrum can be integrated by a photographic emulsion for long time.
• Photographic emulsions are preferred because of their high sensitivity in UV and
visible region.
Disadvantages of Photographic plates over Photomultiplier tubes

• Photographic plates do not show quick response to spectral lines and their interpretation
is not easy Photographic plates provides a permanent record of the spectrum
• In Photographic detection, controlled photographic development is required. This
requires much time and increases the risk of error.
Nebulizer: Convert solution to fine spray or aerosol, Ultrasonic nebulizer uses ultrasound waves
to "boil" solution flowing across disc. Pneumatic nebulizer uses high pressure gas to entrain
solution

Applications of AES
Qualitative analysis is done using AES in the same manner in which it is done using FES. The
spectrum of the analyte is obtained and compared with the atomic and ionic spectra of possible
elements in the analyte. Generally, an element is considered to be in the analyte if at least three
intense lines can be matched with those from the spectrum of a known element. Quantitative
analysis with a plasma can be done using either an atomic or an ionic line. Ionic lines are chosen
for most analyses because they are usually more intense at the temperatures of plasmas than are
the atomic lines.
In practice ~60 elements detectable, 10 ppb range most metals, In determining the impurities
of Ni, Mn, Cu, Al etc., in iron and steel in metallurgical processes. The percentage determined
is 0.001% in iron to 30 in steel.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T

IC363 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTRUMENTATION AND SAFETY- MODULE-2 25 | P a g e

• Lubricating oils can be analysed for Ni, Fe, Mn etc.,

• Solid samples and animal tissues have been analysed for several elements including K, Na,
Ca, Zn, Ni, etc.,
• To detect 40 elements in plants and soils, thus metal deficiency in plants and soils can be
diagnosed.
Advantages of AES
• Highly specific
• Sensitive (low concentration 0.0001%)
•Metalloids (arsenic, silicon, selenium) have been identified by this technique
• Samples in solid or liquid state and rarely gas samples can be used
• Techniques requires minimum sample preparation
• No preliminary treatment of sample is required
• Spectra can be taken simultaneously for more than 2 elements and no separation is required.
(1 – 10 mg)
• Rapid results, if automated, times required is 30 – 60 seconds
Disadvantages of AES
•Equipment is costly and experience is required for handling and interpretation of spectra.
•Recording is done on a photographic plate which takes sometime to develop, print and interpret
the results.
•The spectrograph is essentially a comparator. For quantitative analysis, standards of similar
composition are required.
•Radiation intensities are not always reproducible
•Method limited to the analysis of elements
Comparison Between Atomic Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy

Absorption Emission
Measure trace metal concentrations in Measure trace metal concentrations in
complex matrices complex matrices.
Atomic absorption depends upon the Atomic emission depends
number of ground state atoms upon the number of
excited atoms
It measures the radiation absorbed by It measures the radiation emitted by the
the ground state atoms. excited atoms

Presence of a light source (HCL) Absence of the light

source
The temperature in The temperature in the atomizer is big
the atomizer is adjusted to atomize the enough to atomize the analyte atoms and
analyte atoms in the ground state only. excite them to a higher energy level

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING AJISH. T