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Air Pollution & Its Monitoring

Definition: “Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological
molecules, etc. into the air that is harmful to human health and the environment.” Air pollution
refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination of air by
harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically. There is
a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the
composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous composition
has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming. There
are two types of air pollutants:
Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-
dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.
Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as
secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary
pollutant.
Following are the important causes of air pollution:
Burning of Fossil Fuels
The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide
released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.
Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment.
These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.
Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and
contaminate it.
Factories and Industries
Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds,
hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.
Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of
equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also
deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.
Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air.
The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It
not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.

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The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans.
The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted
areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct
or indirect effects of air pollution.
Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of
the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s
temperature is known as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an
increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.
Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides
in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain
which damages human, animal and plant life.
Ozone Layer Depletion
The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere
is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent
the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems
among individuals.
Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend on the water bodies and affect the aquatic life. Pollution also compels
the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also
led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.
Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:
Avoid Using Vehicles
People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public
modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but
also conserves energy.
Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch
off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the
individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such CFLs also controls pollution to a greater
level.
Use of Clean Energy Resources
The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various
countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a
cleaner environment.

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Other air pollution control measures include:

1. By minimizing and reducing the use of fire and fire products.
2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants
can be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the
reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be
substituted with other less polluting materials.
3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India,
petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural Gas fueled
vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal
emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air,
most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of
vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain
existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimized.
6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have
process control equipment to control the pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation.
Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in
areas of high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

Figure 1. Air pollution system.

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Monitoring Technologies

Intensive industrialization and the use of chemicals in agriculture have contributed to the build-
up of many toxic compounds in air, soil, and water, which cause environmental pollution. The
analysis of these toxic compounds in environmental matrices depends generally on two
concepts. In the first, the pollutants are identified and quantified by classical analytical
techniques such as gas chromatography (GC/MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC/MS). These techniques are time- consuming because of sample preparation and need
for pre-concentration, expensive, and, in case of water samples, cannot be performed easily
outside the laboratory. The analysis of various biological and chemical pollutants in
environmental matrices has entered in a new phase during the last decade. Improvements in
instrumentation, sampling, and sample preparation techniques have become essential to keep-
up with the requirements of detection at low levels as ppb or ppt range, as well as to achieve a
faster analysis. The creation of electrochemical biosensors is probably one of the most
promising ways to solve some problems concerning sensitive, fast and cheap analytical
techniques.
Conductometric measurement methods
The conductivity of liquids results from the dissociation of the dissolved substance, an
electrolyte, into ions and the migration of the latter induced by an electrical field. When a
potential difference is applied to the electrode, there is an electrical field within the electrolyte,
so the chaotic ion movement is influenced by the ordered, oppositely directed movement of
ions (those with negative charge more towards anodes, while positively charged ones move
towards cathodes). Thus, the current in the electrolyte is caused by the ion movement towards
the electrodes where the ions are neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms (or molecules).

an enzyme reaction is followed by a change in the solution's conductivity in the vicinity of the
electrode, which is recorded by the conductometric transducer. This change can be simulated
by the change of background conductivity which in our experiments was realized by varying
the KCl concentration in solution and its temperature. The conductometric measuring method
can be used in enzyme catalysis to determine substance concentration and enzyme activity,
selectivity in this case being provided just by the enzymes which catalyse only defined
reactions. As a matter of fact, the subject under consideration is not a biosensor as such but an
application of this method in enzymology. Conductometric biosensors also have advantages
over other types of transducers. First, they may be produced through inexpensive thin-film
standard technology without any reference electrode. This, along with using an optimised

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method of immobilisation of biological material, results in considerable decrease in both the

primary cost of devices and the total price of analyses. Sure, the price of conductometric
biosensor depends on quantity of sensors fabricated.
The coulometric method
The coulometric method is a reliable method for the direct analysis of CO2/air cylinder gas
mixtures. It is based on Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. The coulometric method is rapid,
sensitive, precise, and with the proper experimental controls, will yield accurate results. Sulphur
dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere is a common pollutant and is a major contributor to the
formation of acid rain. Accurate and precise determinations of SO2 in the atmosphere are
essential to determine the magnitude of the problem. Reference gas mixtures such as NIST
SRMs are an important part of the measurement procedure. The method is intended for the
analysis of cylinder gas mixtures of SO2 in nitrogen. The accuracy of constant current
coulometry is dependent upon several factors: The Faraday, electrode processes, electrode
kinetic parameters, and the current efficiencies. These critical factors and their importance in
coulometry. The coulometric system consists of essentially three components: a reaction
chamber (the cell), an absorption solution, and an amplified photometric feedback circuit for
end-point detection. The reaction chamber is an “H-base” glass cell with two electrode
compartments separated by a glass frit and a salt-agar bridge

The hydrogen peroxide absorption solution contains a pH indicator and the electrolyte.
Detection of the coulometric titration end-point is achieved through a current feedback circuit.
The feedback current to the working electrode is supplied by the optical detection system which
consists of photodiodes and
interference filters. The absorption
cell compartments are filled with the
appropriate solutions. The cell is
placed in the optical system so that the
light from the lamp strikes the cell at
the window and passes through the
absorption solution without any
obstructions. The appropriate
connections are made to the gas inlet
tube, and to the anode and cathode of
the cell. The cover is placed over the
cell to eliminate as much background
light as possible. The current flow is

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adjusted to zero using the nulling potentiometer and SO2-free zero gas (N2) is allowed to flow
through the cell. At this point the system is ready, and the entire analysis can be controlled by
the computer.

Paper Tape Method

The use of sticky paper in collecting particle fallout for study. Much use has been made of such
materials as greased aluminium foil or adhesive materials mounted horizontally as flat surfaces
on which the particles are trapped as they fall to the ground from high places. The usual
evaluation is by weight, before and after exposure. Having before us the need for a direction
indication from which the particles originate and a better means of evaluation than mass rate of
fall, attention was given to the possibility of using an adhesive surface placed vertically with
the catch being evaluated by visual means. Since the nuisance of large particles is associated
largely with particles which are dark coloured, mostly black, the use of white adhesive paper
was a logical choice. The use of the vertical surface for direction indication and the
determination of an estimated count of the particle catch by visual reference to. a set of
standards which have been carefully counted. An instrument was then constructed to rapidly
evaluate the test catch according to 8 directions of the compass as well as the vertical fallout
and the results recorded by a count number ranging from 1 to 9. Thus, the result of the particle
catch is recorded as a number which in turn has been calibrated to a psi. (of collecting surface)
value. One of the early instruments constructed and then discarded was a circle of adhesive
paper wrapped around the outside of an 8 in, dia. fruit cake tin plus a flat disc faced upward.
This holder was stationary. Around this holder was a rotating shield in which was a 2 x 2
window cut in the shield in the vertical side and one in the top. To the shield was fastened a
wind vane and the unit set out to rotate with the wind and expose only the downwind face while
the rest of the adhesive strip was protected. The results were not in any way commensurate with
the effort and little directional pattern was evident on the catch. However, when the complicated
shield was removed and the circular adhesive paper exposed the results were quite directional.
Then a few strips of the adhesive paper were wrapped around light poles and from this point
the circular jar methods for holding the sticky paper in the field were developed. The use of the
jar tied nicely with the construction of the particle comparator. The standards are mounted on
the cylinder, directly under an observation slot, by means of black plastic tape. The cylinder is
rotated manually as each point of the compass is read. The standards and samples are then
viewed through a fluorescent, illuminated magnifier of 4 power magnification with rigid 6 in.
arms and a portable base. The comparator was designed and constructed by the author. The
viewer is a standard illuminated inspection glass. The standards are prepared by random
scattering of typical particulate matter on sticky paper. This may be accomplished by use of an
air spray or by physical scattering. These catches are then sprayed with clear plastic
preservative, and, after drying, portions are selected which visually approximate the desired
particle count. These portions are cut into 1in. squares and then counted under 14x
magnification. By necessity, a trial and error method of selection must be used until the desired
standards are found.

Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (DOAS)

DOAS is a remote sensing measurement of atmospheric trace gases in the atmosphere
measurement is based on absorption spectroscopy in the UV and visible wavelength range to
avoid problems with extinction by scattering or changes in the instrument throughput, only
signals that vary rapidly with wavelength are analysed (thus the differential in DOAS).

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Measurements are taken at moderate spectral resolution to identify and separate different
species. When using the sun or the moon as light source, very long light paths can be realised
in the atmosphere which leads to very high sensitivity even longer light paths are obtained at
twilight when using scattered light scattered light observations can be taken at all weather
conditions without significant loss in accuracy for stratospheric measurements use of simple,
automated instruments for continuous operation. Figure shows the Multi Axis Differential
Optical Absorption Spectroscopy

zenith sky observation

computer
off axis observation

mirror
cooled CCD-
detector
heating

shutter

lens

heating
calibration calibration
lamp lamp

quartz fibre bundle spectrometer

Measurements at many wavelengths facilitating simultaneous retrieval of several absorbers.

Observation of scattered light in the zenith or horizon directions to achieve long light paths
temperature stabilised grating spectrometer to guarantee high stability cooled diode arrays or
CCD detectors to minimize noise and provide simultaneous measurements at all wavelengths
spectral range between 320 and 700 nm
spectral resolution 0.2 – 1 nm
Use of depolarizing quartz fibre bundles or polarized instrument tracking the solar azimuth to
minimize impact of polarisation dependency
Target species: O3, NO2, BrO, IO, OClO, SO2, H2O, HCHO, O4, O2, ...
operation from ground, ship, aircraft, balloons, satellites are possible
Air sampling
Air Sampling is a means of collecting contaminates from air to identify and quantify the
concentration of the contaminates. Typically, we need to concentrate the contaminates with
some sort of media. The exceptions are when we take “whole air samples” then the
concentration step takes place in the lab.
Concentration are calculated in either dimensionless terms: ppm or ppb or
Concentrations are calculated in mass per volume terms: µg/m3 or mg/m3

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Why we take Air Samples?

To identify & measure air pollutants.
To monitor personal exposures to chemicals.
To assess the environmental impact of manufacturing processes.
To comply with government regulations.
To identify the source of the pollutants.
To evaluate the effectiveness of engineering controls (i.e., ventilation)
Commonly Sampled Air Contaminants are

Personal Sampling: What concentration are people exposed to? Sampled taken in the breathing
zone
Area Sampling: What is the concentration in the air? Fence line monitoring. Evaluating
engineering controls and Smoke Stacks
Different type of Sampling and their time duration
Grab Sampling • ~1-minute
STEL Sampling (Short-term exposure limit) 15-minute exposure
TWA Sampling (Time weighted average) 8-hour exposure (typical personal sampling time)
Risk Assessment 24-hour
Real Time is continuous sampling
When taking air samples - there are three factors in determining the concentration:
Sampling Rate – Active Samplers – Requires a pump to control the flow rate – Passive Sampler
– Design of the sampler dictates the flow rate “it’s fixed” by diffusion
Sampling Time – How long of a sample do we need?
Sample Volume – The sample volume is calculated by multiplying the flow rate x sampling
time:
Flow Rate x Sampling Time = Sample Volume

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Gases and Vapor – typically need to be adsorbed using a adsorbent, such as Charcoal, Silica
Gel, Porous Polymer, or Synthetic Carbons Reactive analytes like aldehydes, and isocyanates
need to be derivatized to stabilize them until they can be analysed.
Aerosols and Particles – typically are trapped using a filter media, or liquid media
Passive Sampling
– also called Diffusive Sampling
• Relies on the natural diffusion of analytes through the sampler
Passive Sampling is the contaminated air enters the device by diffusing onto the adsorbent
media inside the device. The analytes in the air are concentrated on to the media. The mass
uptake of the monitor is controlled by the design of the device that surrounds the adsorbent
media

Active Sampling
– also called Pumped Sampling
• Relies on physically pulling the analytes through the sampler
• Requires an air sampling pump
• Concentrating the analytes on some sort of media (adsorbents, or filters)
Active Sampling is performed by pulling air (vacuum) through the sampling media using an air
sampling pump. The chemicals in the air are concentrated on the adsorbent media.

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Solution Sampling: Impinger & Bubbler

Impinger: Small Hole in Glass Tip - Used to sample aerosols and particles
Bubbler: Fritted Glass – Used to sample gases and vapours

Filters & Cassettes

Used for sampling particles (dust) and aerosols. Different filter materials are available: PVC,
Cellulose ester, PTFE, Glass Fiber
Whole Air Samplers: do not concentrate the sample, the air is included with the sample. If the
sample needs to be concentrated - it is done in the lab. Used to sample compounds that cannot
be trapped or concentrated – Methane, Carbon Monoxide

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