UNIT- 3

What is an Electrical Load?

The electric load is the device that consumes electrical energy. In other words,
it is a device that converts electrical energy into different forms, such as heat,
light, work, and so on. The electrical load could be resistive, inductive,
capacitive, or combined.

Different Types of Electrical Loads:

1. Resistive Loads
Resistive loads consume electrical energy and convert it directly into heat. The
current andvoltage in a resistive load are in phase, meaning they reach their peak
at the same time.
Examples:
Incandescent light bulbs: Convert electrical energy into light and heat.
Electric heaters: Use resistive elements to produce heat.

2. Inductive Loads
Inductive loads store energy in a magnetic field. In these loads, the current
lags behind thevoltage due to the time it takes to build and collapse the magnetic
field.
Examples:
Electric motors: Found in fans, pumps, and compressors.
Transformers: Used to step up or step-down voltages in power distribution.
Relays and solenoids: Electromagnetic switches that control circuits.

3. Capacitive Loads
Capacitive loads store energy in an electric field between two conductors. In
these loads, the current leads the voltage. Capacitive loads are less common in
power systems but are used in certain applications like power factor correction.
Examples:
Capacitors: Used in AC circuits to correct power factor.
Cable and long transmission lines: These can behave as capacitive loads due
to thecapacitance between conductors.

Construction of DC Motor:
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts DC electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
Yoke or Magnetic frame:
It provides mechanical protection and supports the poles and field windings. It also carries
the magnetic flux produced by the field windings.
Poles and pole shoes:
The pole and pole shoe are fixed on the yoke by bolts, support the field coils
(windings). The mainfunction of the poles is to provide the magnetic field required for
the machine operation.

Field winding (Field Coils):

They are usually made of copper. These coils are wound around the poles. When current
flows through these coils, they create the necessary magnetic field for the machine to
operate.

Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine (mounted on the shaft). It
is cylindrical inshape with slots to carry armature winding.
Armature winding: The windings are placed in the slots of the armature core. They are
the part wherethe EMF (electromotive force) is induced in the case of a generator or
where the input current flows inthe case of a motor.
Commutator: The commutator is made up of copper segments insulated from each
other by mica. It converts DC input current into AC in armature winding
Brushes: Brushes are made of carbon or graphite and are held against the commutator
segments by spring pressure. They provide electrical connection between the rotating
commutator and the externalcircuit.
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 Brushless DC Motor
The Brushless DC Motor (BLDC) is a type of synchronous motor powered by direct current
(DC) that uses electronic commutation instead of the mechanical commutator and brushes
found in traditional DC motors (Brushed DC Motor). It operates on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. When the stator windings are energized in a specific sequence, a
magnetic field is generated. This field interacts with the magnetic field of the rotor, causing the
rotor to rotate.
Key Components:
Stator: A stationary part with a set of windings (electromagnets) arranged in a specific pattern
around the rotor. The stator generates a rotating magnetic field to interact with the rotor.
Rotor: A rotating part made of permanent magnets (usually rare-earth magnets like
neodymium). The rotor creates a stable magnetic field.
Magnetic pole sensors: Hall effect sensors - Detect the magnetic pole positions of the
permanent magnets (rotor position).
Electronic Controller: This replaces the traditional commutator and brushes. The controller
switches the current to the stator windings in sequence according to the detected magnetic pole
positions, creating a rotating magnetic field that turns the rotor. As the rotor moves, the
controller switches the current to the next set of windings, keeping the rotor spinning
continuously.

Magnetic pole sensors (Hall sensors) Ha, Hb, and Hc are spaced 120° apart, and they detect the
north pole of the rotor magnets and output a signal.
For each of the stator's phase windings, a south pole is generated in the inner diameter side of
the stator when a current flows from the drive circuit to the motor.

Fig. 5 Three-phase, 2-pole BLDC Motor

Working Principle of BLDC Motors

The BLDC motor relies on the interaction between the stator's rotating magnetic field and the rotor’s
permanent magnets:

 The electronic controller energizes stator windings in a specific sequence to create a rotating
magnetic field.
 This rotating magnetic field induces torque on the rotor, which aligns with the magnetic field
direction.
 Sensors, such as Hall-effect sensors or encoders, provide feedback to the controller about the rotor's
position, enabling precise control of speed and torque.

Applications:

1. Electric Vehicles (EVs): BLDC motors are widely used in electric cars, e-bikes, and
scooters due to their high efficiency and reliability.
2. Drones: BLDC motors power the rotors of drones, providing high torque and speed with
precise control.
3. Hard Drives and Cooling Fans: BLDC motors are used in hard drives and cooling fans
due to their long lifespan and reliability
Permanent magnet Stepper Motor:
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical
movements. Unlike traditional motors, which rotate continuously, a stepper motor moves in fixed
increments called "steps." Each step corresponds to a fixed angle of rotation, which is controlled by
electrical pulses supplied to the motor's windings.
Stator: A stationary part made up of Electromagnetic coils that create magnetic fields when energized
in a specific sequence to move the rotor.
Rotor: A rotating part made of a permanent magnet that aligns with the magnetic field created by the
stator.
When current is passed through a coil (winding) in the stator, it generates a magnetic field. The rotor
(which is magnetized) is attracted to the stator's magnetic field and aligns itself with the energized coil.
This alignment causes the rotor to move to a specific position. The rotor stays in this position until the
next coil is energized. By energizing different coils in a precise sequence, the rotor steps forward (or
backward), turning the motor shaft incrementally. By changing the order in which the coils are
energized, the motor's direction can be reversed.

Step Angle: Each step moves the rotor by a certain angle, known as the step angle.

Consider stator has 4 phases (A, B, C & D), 4 poles and rotor have ONE pole pair as shown in Fig.,then
360 360
the step angle is, β = 𝑚∗𝑁𝑟 = = 90
4∗1

m is the number of phases in the stator.

Nr is the number of pole pairs on the rotor
This means that for each electrical step (phase change), the rotor will move by 90°.

Fig. 8
Energize Coil A (By closing the S1 switch): The rotor aligns with the magnetic field produced
by pole A. At the end of this step, the rotor is aligned with pole A. - Step: 0° (initial position).
Energize Coil B (By closing the S2 switch): The current is now switched to coil B, and the
rotor moves by 90° to align with pole B. The rotor moves 90° clockwise (CW) from its original
position to align with the magnetic field generated by pole B. - Step: 90° (rotor has moved by
one step).

Step Rotor Position

Energized Coil Movement
Number (Degrees)
Step 1 A 0° Initial position
Step 2 B 90° Moves 90° clockwise
Step 3 C 180° Moves 90° clockwise
Step 4 D 270° Moves 90° clockwise
Step 5 A 360° Full 360° rotation

To reverse the rotation of the rotor, the energizing sequence can be reversed (i.e., instead of A
→ B → C → D, the sequence becomes D → C → B → A). This will rotate the motor
counterclockwise.

Applications:
Robotics, 3D Printers, Automated Camera Systems, Hard Disk Drives (HDD), Printers and
Scanners, Aerospace, Industrial Automation, Satellite Dish Positioning, Medical Equipment,
Textile Machines, Automated Stage Lighting etc.
ELECTRIC SHOCK
When a person comes in contact with a live conductor, directly or indirectly, he gets a
shock. The shock may be minor or severe. The severity of shock depends upon the following:
1. Nature of the current whether AC or DC: Since DC flows continuously and does not pass
through zero current value as in AC, so DC is considered more dangerous than AC supply.
2. Duration of flow of current: Shock will be more severe if duration of contact with the live
wire of a person is more. However, the severity of shock can be reduced by disengaging the
person from live wire contact immediately.
3. Path of current through human body: Severity of shock also depends upon the path of the
electric current through human body. A person has severe shock if current path involves his
heart. The effect of electric current when passes through human body is given in Table
Effect of Electric Current Through Human Body

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST ELECTRIC SHOCK

The following precautions should be taken as preventive measures from electric shock
while dealing with electrical equipment fittings or appliances:
1. Never work on live circuit.
2. Always stand on the insulating material, such as rubber mat, wooden board, etc., while
switching on the main switch, motor switch, etc.
3. While switching ON the circuit, equipment, etc., ensure that your hands and feet are dry.
4. Avoid working at all those places where your head is liable to touch the live parts.
5. While working with electrical circuits/equipment’s, never come in contact with the metallic
casing, earth conductor, cross arms, etc.
6. While working on the high-voltage circuit, avoid your direct contact with concrete flooring.
7. Never touch the person directly, while rescuing him from electric shock.
8. Consider all conductors as live, till you are not sure.

EARTHING
The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and equipment to the
huge mass of earth by a wire of negligible resistance is called earthing.
When a body is earthed, it is basically connected to the huge mass of earth by a wire having
negligible resistance. Therefore, the body attains zero potential, that is, potential of earth. This
 ensures that whenever a live conductor comes in contact with the outer body, the charge is
released to the earth immediately.
Methods of Earthing
There are various methods of earthing, some of them are given below:

1. PIPE EARTHING:

Description
In pipe earthing, a galvanized steel or copper pipe is buried vertically into the ground, serving as a
conductive path for current.

Materials Required
 Galvanized Steel or Copper Pipe (50-75 mm in diameter, 2-3 meters long)
 Salt and Charcoal: Added around the pipe to improve soil conductivity.
 Earth Wire: Connects the pipe to the electrical system.
 Watering Funnel: Maintains moisture levels for better conductivity.
Installation Procedure
1. Dig a Pit: Create a pit about 3 meters deep and 0.3 meters wide to place the pipe.
2. Position the Pipe: Insert the galvanized steel or copper pipe vertically in the pit.
3. Add Salt and Charcoal: Fill the pit around the pipe with layers of salt and charcoal, which retain
moisture and enhance conductivity.
4. Connect Earth Wire: Connect an earth wire from the top of the pipe to the electrical installation that
requires earthing.
5. Install Watering Funnel: Attach a funnel at the top to regularly add water to maintain moisture.
Advantages of Pipe Earthing
 Effective for Moist Soils: Works well in areas with high moisture content.
 Low Resistance Path: Provides an efficient low-resistance path for fault current.

2. PLATE EARTHING

Description
In plate earthing, a metal plate (usually made of copper or galvanized iron) is buried horizontally in the
ground. The larger surface area of the plate enhances its capacity to dissipate current.
Materials Required
 Copper or Galvanized Iron Plate (600 mm x 600 mm x 3.15 mm for GI, or 600 mm x 600 mm x
2.0 mm for copper)
 Salt and Charcoal: Filled around the plate to improve and maintain conductivity.
 Earth Wire: Heavy-gauge conductor wire to connect the plate to the earthing system.
 Watering Funnel: Maintains moisture around the plate.
Installation Procedure
1. Excavate a Pit: Dig a pit about 3 meters deep and 1 meter square.
2. Place the Plate: Position the copper or GI plate horizontally at the bottom of the pit.
3. Add Salt and Charcoal: Fill the space around the plate with alternating layers of salt and charcoal to
enhance conductivity.
4. Connect the Earth Wire: Attach an earth wire to the plate, leading it up to the ground level and
connecting it to the electrical installation.
5. Install a Watering Funnel: Place a funnel at ground level to add water and maintain soil moisture
around the plate.
Advantages of Plate Earthing
 High Conductivity: The large surface area of the plate improves earthing efficiency.
 Suitable for Rocky or Dry Soils: Plate earthing works well even in low-conductivity soils.

FUSE

Fuse is a short piece of metal wire, inserted in series with the circuit, which melts when over
current flows through it and breaks the circuit.
A fuse is connected in series with the circuit to be protected and carries the load current
without overheating itself under normal conditions. However, when abnormal condition
occurs, an excessive current flows through it. This raises the temperature of the fuse wire to
the extent that it melts and opens the circuit. This protects the machines or apparatus from
damage that can becaused by the excessive current.

Fig. Electric circuit with fuse and switch

Advantages of Fuse
1. The cost of this protective device is very low.
2. It requires no maintenance.
3. It interrupts heavy current without noise or smoke.
4. The smaller size of fuse element imposes a current-limiting effect under short circuit.
5. The minimum time of operation can be predetermined by selecting proper material of the
fuse wire.
6. The inverse time–current characteristic makes it suitable for over current protection.

Disadvantages of Fuse
1. Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing fuses after every operation.
2. On short circuit, determination between fuses in series can only be obtained if there is
considerable difference in the relative sizes of the fuse concerned.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

A Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is an electrical protection device that automatically
switches off electrical circuits during abnormal conditions such as overloads or short circuits.
It is designed to protect electrical circuits from damage caused by excess current and is widely
used in residential, commercial, and industrial applications.
MCBs provide two types of protection based on the cause of the fault:
a) Overload Protection (Thermal Protection): Protects against prolonged high currents that
are higher than the rated current but not enough to cause an immediate fault.

The MCB uses a bimetallic strip made from two different metals with different expansion
rates. When an overload occurs (i.e., the current exceeds the MCB’s rated value for an
extended period), the bimetallic strip heats up and bends due to the unequal expansion of the
two metals. As the bimetallic strip bends, it gradually pushes the latch mechanism that holds
the contacts together. When the strip bends sufficiently, it releases the latch, causing the
moving contact to separate from the fixed contact, thereby opening the circuit and stopping
the flow of current. Once the MCB cools down, the bimetallic strip returns to its original
shape, and the breaker can be manually reset to reconnect the circuit.

Fig. Working of MCB

b) Short Circuit Protection (Magnetic Protection): Protects against sudden, very high
current surges caused by short circuits.

For short circuits, the MCB uses an electromagnetic coil or solenoid to detect a sudden, very
high current surge. When a short circuit occurs, the current flow through the solenoid
generates a strong magnetic field. This field moves a plunger or trip mechanism, instantly
separating the moving and fixed contacts. This action is extremely fast, typically within
milliseconds, to prevent the high current from causing damage to the wiring or devices.
Advantages of MCBs:
1. Quick Reaction: MCBs react quickly to fault conditions (short circuits and
overloads), providing fast protection.
2. Reusable: Unlike fuses, MCBs can be reset after tripping, making them more
convenient and cost-effective.
3. Reliable: MCBs offer consistent protection without requiring frequent maintenance.

EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER (ELCB)

In the industrial, commercial, and domestic buildings, sometimes (usually in rainy season)
leakage to earth occurs. This leakage may cause electric shock or fire. Hence, the leakage to
earth is very dangerous and needs protection.
ELCB is a device that provides protection against earth leakage faults.

Fig. Electrical circuit of an earth leakage circuit breaker

Principle of Operation
Under normal conditions, the magnitude of currents flowing through the phase wire and
neutral are the same and core of the core-balanced transformer does not carry any flux (i.e.,
two windings neutralize the flux). Therefore, no emf is induced in the operating coil of the
relay wound on the same core. However, when the earth fault (earth leakage) occurs, the
current in the phase wire becomes more than the neutral wire. This unbalancing sets up flux
in the core of the core-balanced transformer, which in turn induces an emf in the operating
coil of the relay. Hence, relay is energized and the plunger of the ELCB goes to the off position
or disconnects the load from the supply. Therefore, ELCB protects the system against leakage.