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Microbial Diversity
(General Microbiology and GEBT202)

Table of Contents

CONTENT
S. No.

4.1 Binomial Nomenclature

Whittaker’s Five Kingdom Classification

4.2

4.3 Diverse Domains of Microorganisms

4.4 Model Questions

4.5 References

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4.1 BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

In biology, binomial nomenclature is essential to integrate the naming system across life sciences and
therefore assign one particular unique name identifier for a particular species across different languages.
Binomial nomenclature is used especially by taxonomists in naming or identifying a species of a particular
organism.
It is used to come up with a scientific name for a species that is often based on the Greek or Latin language.
Although Latin is now a defunct language, the naming of organisms is still being used in this language.
The scientific name of a species that is set by binomial nomenclature entails two parts: (1) generic name
(or genus name) and (2) specific name (or specific epithet). In this regard, the scientific name is also referred
to as the binomial name (or simply, binomial or binomen).
The generic name is the taxonomic genus. A genus is a rank in the classification system that is generally
below the family and above the species level. It is comprised of species with common attributes. These
attributes may be based on structural similarities or on phylogeny.
The second part of the binomial name is the specific name. In botanical nomenclature, the second part is
particularly referred to as the “specific epithet”. The second name (the specific name or the specific epithet)
sets a particular species apart from the rest of the species within the genus.

History

The adoption of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carolus
Linnaeus (1707–1778) who attempted to describe the entire known natural world and gave every species
(mineral, vegetable or animal) a two-part name. However, binomial nomenclature in various forms existed
before Linnaeus, and was used by the Bauhins, who lived nearly two hundred years before Linnaeus. Before
Linnaeus, hardly anybody used binomial nomenclature. After Linnaeus, almost everybody did.

The Science of Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the classification, description, identification, and naming of living organisms. Classification
is the practice of organizing organisms into different groups based on their shared characteristics. The most
famous early taxonomist was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician named Carolus Linnaeus (1701–
1778). In 1735, Linnaeus published Systema Naturae, an 11-page booklet in which he proposed the
Linnaean taxonomy, a system of categorizing and naming organisms using a standard format so scientists
could discuss organisms using consistent terminology. He continued to revise and add to the book, which
grew into multiple volumes.

Value of binomial nomenclature

The value of the binomial nomenclature system derives primarily from its economy, its widespread use,
and the stability of names it generally favors:

• Every species can be unambiguously identified with just two words.

• The same name can be used all over the world, in all languages, avoiding difficulties of translation.
• Although such stability as exists is far from absolute, the procedures associated with establishing
binomial nomenclature tend to favor stability. For example, when species are transferred between
genera (as not uncommonly happens as a result of new knowledge), if possible the species descriptor
is kept the same. Similarly, if what were previously thought to be distinct species are demoted from
species to a lower rank, former species names may be retained as infraspecific descriptors.

Despite the rules favoring stability and uniqueness, in practice a single species may have several scientific
names in circulation, depending largely on taxonomic point of view (see synonymy).
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A major source of instability is the resurrection of forgotten names, which can claim priority of publication.
In this case, however, conservation according to the nomenclature Codes is possible.

Codes of nomenclature
From the mid nineteenth century onwards it became ever more apparent that a body of rules was necessary
to govern scientific names. In the course of time these became Nomenclature Codes governing the naming
of animals ( ICZN), plants (incl. Fungi, cyanobacteria) ( ICBN), bacteria ( ICNB) and viruses. These Codes
differ.

• For example, the ICBN, the plant Code does not allow tautonyms, whereas the ICZN, the animal
Code does allow tautonymy.
• The starting points, the time from which these Codes are in effect (retroactively), vary from group
to group. In botany the starting point will often be in 1753 (the year Carolus Linnaeus first published
Species Plantarum), in zoology in 1758. Bacteriology started anew, with a starting point in 1980).

A BioCode has been suggested to replace several codes, although implementation is not in sight. There also
is debate concerning development of a PhyloCode to name clades of phylogenetic trees, rather than taxa.
Proponents of the PhyloCode use the name "Linnaean Codes" for the joint existing Codes and "Linnaean
taxonomy" for the scientific classification that uses these existing Codes.

Derivation of names
The genus name and species descriptor may come from any source whatsoever. Often they are Latin words,
but they may also come from Ancient Greek, from a place, from a person (preferably a naturalist), a name
from a local language, etc. In fact, taxonomists come up with specific descriptors from a variety of sources,
including inside-jokes and puns.

However, names are always treated grammatically as if they were a Latin sentence. For this reason the name
of a species is sometimes called its "Latin name," although this terminology is frowned upon by biologists
(and philologists), who prefer the phrase scientific name.

There is a separate list of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names.

The genus name must be unique inside each kingdom. Species names are commonly reused, and are usually
an adjectival modifier to the genus name, which is a noun. Family names are often derived from a common
genus within the family.

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4.2 WHITTAKER’S FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION

Evolving trees of life (phylogenies)

With advances in technology, other scientists gradually made refinements to the Linnaean system and
eventually created new systems for classifying organisms. In the 1800s, there was a growing interest in
developing taxonomies that considered the evolutionary relationships, or phylogenies, of all different
species of organisms on earth. One way to depict these relationships is via a diagram called a phylogenetic
tree (or tree of life). In these diagrams, groups of organisms are arranged by how closely related they are
thought to be. In early phylogenetic trees, the relatedness of organisms was inferred by their visible
similarities, such as the presence or absence of hair or the number of limbs. Now, the analysis is more
complicated. Today, phylogenic analyses include genetic, biochemical, and embryological comparisons, as
will be discussed later in this chapter.
Linnaeus’s tree of life contained just two main branches for all living things: the animal and plant kingdoms.
In 1866, Ernst Haeckel, a German biologist, philosopher, and physician, proposed another kingdom,
Protista, for unicellular organisms. He later proposed a fourth kingdom, Monera, for unicellular organisms
whose cells lack nuclei, like bacteria.
Nearly 100 years later, in 1969, American ecologist Robert Whittaker (1920–1980) proposed adding
another kingdom—Fungi—in his tree of life. Whittaker’s tree also contained a level of categorization above
the kingdom level—the empire or superkingdom level—to distinguish between organisms that have
membrane-bound nuclei in their cells (eukaryotes) and those that do not (prokaryotes). Empire Prokaryota
contained just the Kingdom Monera. The Empire Eukaryota contained the other four kingdoms: Fungi,
Protista, Plantae, and Animalia. Whittaker’s five-kingdom tree was considered the standard phylogeny for
many years.

The figure below shows how the tree of life has changed over time. Note that viruses are not found in any
of these trees. That is because they are not made up of cells and thus it is difficult to determine where they
would fit into a tree of life.

The classification of living things into five kingdoms

The first person to divide living things into five broad kingdoms was North American ecologist Robert
Whittaker. This researcher proved in 1959 that fungi were not plant organisms - previously it was thought
that they were - and a decade later he proposed the creation of the fungi kingdom to differentiate them from
plants. Whittaker's theory was widely accepted and the scientific community thereby added a new
group to the previous four-kingdom system, established by the American biologist Herbert Copeland in
1956.
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Whitaker proposed that organisms should be broadly divided into kingdoms, based on certain characters like
the structure of the cell, mode of nutrition, the source of nutrition, interrelationship, body organization, and
reproduction. According to this system, there are five main kingdoms. They are

Distinguishing Features of the Five Kingdoms

Kingdom Monera
These organisms are prokaryotic and unicellular. They do not have a well-defined nucleus and also lack cell
organelles. Some organisms show the presence of cell wall while there are others without a cell wall.
Consequently, some organisms are autotrophic and others are heterotrophic. Examples include Bacteria,
Cyanobacteria, and Mycoplasma.

Features of Monerans
1. They are typically unicellular organisms (but one group is mycelial).
2. Sap vacuoles do not occur. Instead, a gas vacuole may be present.
3. The predominant mode of nutrition is absorptive but some groups are photosynthetic (holophytic) and
chemosynthetic.
4. The organisms are non-motile or move by the beating of simple flagella or by gliding.
5. The genetic material in these organisms is the naked circular DNA.
6. A nuclear envelope is absent. Both, ribosomes and simple chromatophores, are the only subcellular
organelles in the cytoplasm.

Types of Monerans
Kingdom Monera is classified into three sub-kingdoms-
• Archaebacteria
• Eubacteria
• Cyanobacteria

Kingdom Protista
Organisms grouped under Kingdom Protista are all unicellular,
but eukaryotic organisms. These are the simplest forms of
eukaryotes that exhibit either autotrophic or heterotrophic mode
of nutrition. Some organisms have appendages such as cilia or
flagella or pseudopodia to move around. Some examples are
Diatoms, Protozoans like Amoeba, Paramoecium

Features of Kingdom Protista:

1. They are primarily aquatic.
2. They form a link with the others dealing with plants, animals and fungi.
3. Also, they have a well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
4. Some have flagella or cilia.
5. They can reproduce asexually and sexually.

Sub-groups of Protista:
• Chrysophytes
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• Dinoflagellates
• Euglenoids
• Slime Moulds
• Protozoans

Kingdom Fungi
Heterotrophic, Multicellular and Eukaryotic organisms are grouped under Kingdom Fungi. Their mode of
nutrition is saprophytic as they use decaying organic matter as food. They have cell walls, which are made up
of a substance called Chitin. Fungi also form a symbiotic association with some blue-green algae. Yeast,
Mushroom, Aspergillus are examples of Fungi.

Features of Fungi
1. The plant body of true fungi is a thallus. It may be non-mycelial or mycelial.
2. The cell wall of fungi is mainly made up of chitin and cellulose.
3. The fungi are achlorophyllous organisms. Hence, they cannot prepare their food. They live as
heterotrophs i.e., as parasites and saprophytes. Some forms live symbiotically with other green forms.
4. The fungi either reproduce vegetatively, asexually or sexually.

Kingdom Plantae
These are Eukaryotic, Multicellular organisms with a cell wall that is made up of cellulose. They are autotrophs
and synthesize their own food through the process of photosynthesis. This kingdom includes all plants.
Based on the body differentiation and presence or absence of specialized vascular tissue, Kingdom Plantae is
divided into different divisions, namely Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms, and
Angiosperms. Examples are Spirogyra, Lichens/algae,Ferns, Pines, and Mango Plant etc.

Features of Plantae

1. They have special organelles called chloroplasts.

2. They are autotrophic.
3. Reproduction can be asexual and sexual.
4. They show alternation of generation.

Kingdom Animalia
This Kingdom includes organisms that are Multicellular, Eukaryotic, without the presence of cell wall. They
have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition. They also exhibit great diversity. Some organisms are simple while
others have a complex body with specialized tissue differentiation and body organs.
The Animal Kingdom is divided into many phyla and classes. Some of the phyla
are Porifera, Coelenterata, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Chordata etc. Examples – Hydra, Sea anemone,
crabs, Starfish, Monkeys etc.

Features of Animalia
1. They are multicellular organisms that do not possess chlorophyll.
2. The mode of nutrition is heterotrophic i.e. they depend on other organisms for food.
3. They have muscle cells due to which they have the capability to contract and relax the body parts.

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4. Reproduction is sexual. However, asexual reproduction is also found in lower forms.

5. During development, the multicellular embryo is formed from the zygote.
6. They require oxygen for aerobic respiration.

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4.3 DIVERSE DOMAINS OF MICROORGANISMS

Archea
Archaea can be spherical, rod, spiral, lobed, rectangular or irregular in shape. An unusual flat, square-
shaped species that lives in salty pools has also been discovered. Some exist as single cells, others form
filaments or clusters. Until the 1970s this group of microbes was classified as bacteria. These
microorganisms physically resemble the bacteria but are genetically distinct from the latter. Archaea are
typically found inhabiting and thriving in extreme environmental conditions. They
include halophiles (archaea inhabiting extremely salty environments), methanogens (archaea producing
methane), and thermophiles (archaea that thrive in scorching environments). Examples of archaea habitats
are boiling hot springs and geysers such as those found in Yellow Stone Park, USA and ice such as the
Arctic and Antarctic oceans, which remain frozen for most of the year.
Characteristics
• Archaea or archaebacteria evolved separately from eubacteria and eukaryotes.
• They are similar to eubacteria in being prokaryotes and lacking a distinct nucleus. However, they
differ in terms of ribosomal structure, the presence
of introns (in some archaeal species),
and membrane structure composition.
• They are similar to eukaryotes in ways that
archaea possess genes and several metabolic
pathways that are more closely related to those of
eukaryotes, notably, the enzymes involved in
transcription and translation.
• They are regarded to be living fossils and
survivors of an ancient group of organisms that
bridged the gap in evolution between eubacteria and eukaryotes.
• Archaeal membrane is formed by lipids containing ether links. Contrastingly, bacterial membranes
are formed by lipids containing ester links.
• A large number of Archaea have a proteinaceous S-layer that is considered to be part of the cell
wall itself (unlike in Bacteria, where an S-layer is a structure in addition to the cell wall)
• Archaea lack peptidoglycan, a few contain a substance with a similar chemical structure, known as
pseudomurein. Instead of NAM, it contains N-acetylalosaminuronic acid (NAT) linked to NAG,
with peptide interbridges to increase strength.

Structures
• Cannulae, a structure unique to archaea, have been discovered in some marine archaeal strains.
These hollow tube-like structures appear to connect cells after division, eventually leading to a dense
network composed of numerous cells and tubes. This could serve as a means of anchoring a
community of cells to a surface.
• Pili have been observed in archaea, composed of proteins most likely modified from the bacterial
pilin. The resulting tube-like structures have been shown to be used for attachment to surfaces.
• The archaeal flagellum, while used for motility, differs so markedly from the bacterial flagellum
that it has been proposed to call it an “archaellum,” to differentiate it from its bacterial counterpart.

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Similarities to Bacteria
So, why were the archaea originally thought to be bacteria? Perhaps most importantly, they lack a nucleus
or other membrane-bound organelles, putting them into the prokaryotic category (if you are using the
traditional classification scheme). Most of them are unicellular, they have 70S sized ribosomes, they are
typically a few micrometers in size, and they reproduce asexually only. They are known to have many of
the same structures that bacteria can have, such as plasmids, inclusions, flagella, and pili. Capsules and
slime layers have been found but appear to be rare in archaea.
While archaea were originally isolated from extreme environments, such as places high in acid, salt, or
heat, earning them the name “extremophiles,” they have more recently been isolated from all the places
rich with bacteria: surface water, the ocean, human skin, soil, etc.

Archaeal Groups Inhabiting Different Extreme Habitats

Since archaea inhabit extreme habitats, they are called extremophiles. Within extremophiles, there are
different physiological categories or types of archaea like:

1. Halophiles (live in extreme salt conditions like salt lakes, and brackish waters)
Example: Halobacterium spp.
2. Thermophiles (live in extremely high temperatures like hot springs and vents)
Example: Thermus aquaticus
3. Alkaliphiles (live in extreme alkaline conditions like marine hydrothermal systems)
Example: Thermococcus alcaliphilus is a marine archaea.
4. Acidophiles (live in extremely acidic conditions like dry hot soil and volcanic sites)
Example: Picrophilus torridus

Bacteria

Bacteria are defined as organisms that are microscopic, unicellular, independently reproducing, and mostly
free-living. Bacteria are ubiquitous in nature. They are structurally simple but functionally complex
organisms that form the basis of all life on earth. Most bacteria, barring a few, are beneficial for their
environment. They play a variety of important roles in the ecosystem such as breaking down the toxic
components, recycling the nutrients, fixing nitrogen in the soil from the air, among many others.

The following is the list of characteristics of bacteria:

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• Unicellular
• Free-living
• Independently reproducing
• Ubiquitous
• Prokaryotic
• Functionally Complex
• Structurally simple
• Divide by binary fission

Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms belonging to Kingdom Monera that possess a prokaryotic
type of cell structure, which means their cells are non-compartmentalized, and their DNA (usually circular)
can be found throughout the cytoplasm rather than within a membrane-bound nucleus. They reproduce by
fission or by forming spores. They can practically live everywhere. They can inhabit all kinds of
environments, such as in soil, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, seawater, deep in the Earth’s crust, the
stratosphere, and even in the bodies of other organisms. Word origin: from Ancient Greek baktēria, meaning
“rod” or “stick”. Synonym: eubacteria.

Bacterial Classification

1. Bacterial Classification based on Oxygen requirements

• Obligate Aerobes – They need oxygen for survival as they are incapable of respiring anaerobically.
For example, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Obligate Anaerobes – They cannot grow in the presence of oxygen as they are poisoned by it. For
example, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum
• Facultative Anaerobes – They can grow either with or without oxygen. They respire aerobically in
the presence of oxygen and can ferment in the absence of it. For example., Enterobacteriaceae group,
Staphylococcus aureus
• Microaerophiles – They grow best in low oxygen concentrations. If the oxygen concentrations are
increased beyond a certain point, they get poisoned by it. For example, Campylobacter jejuni,
Helicobacter pylori
• Aerotolerant – They do not require oxygen for respiration. However, unlike obligate anaerobes,
they are not poisoned by oxygen. For example, Lactobacillus sp.

2. Bacterial classification according to the shape of the bodies of organisms

• Cocci – bacteria that are round shaped. For example,streptococcus
• Bacilli – rod-shaped bacteria, are generally 0.2 to 2 µm wide and 1 to 10 µm long.,Bacillus subtilis
• Coccobacilli – Small rod-shaped bacteria that are often mistaken to appear like cocci. Hence, they
are named coccobacilli. Haemophilus influenzae
• Spirilla – bacteria with a spiral shape and a stiff body. Campylobacter jejuni
• Spirochetes – bacteria with a spiral shape and a flexible body. Treponema pallidum
• Fusiform – thick central body with tapering ends. F. nucleatum
• Vibrio – comma-shaped bacteria. [Link]

3. Bacterial classification according to the types of staining in microbiology

• Gram-positive bacteria – They have the tendency to retain the crystal violet stain in their cell walls
due to their thick peptidoglycan layer. Hence, purple appearing bacteria under the microscope are
gram-positive. For example: Staphlococcus aureus

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• Gram-negative bacteria – They do not retain the crystal violet stain during the decolorization step
of gram staining and get stained with the counterstain, safranin. Hence, they appear pink when
observed under the microscope. For Example Escherichia coli
• Acid-fast bacteria – they are a group of bacteria that resist decolorization with strong acids during
the staining process. For example, Mycobacteria are acid-fast in nature due to the high amount of
mycolic acid present in their cell wall.

4. Bacterial classification according to the source of nutrition

• Heterotrophs – bacteria that derive their energy from organic compounds. For example, lactic acid
bacteria are used to make yogurt from milk by fermenting [Link] example, [Link]
• Chemoautotrophs – bacteria that derive their energy from inorganic compounds. They are
generally extremophiles. They feed on chemicals that are good electron donors, such as hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur, or iron. Like all autotrophs, chemoautotrophs are able to “fix” carbon. They take
atoms of carbon from inorganic compounds, such as carbon dioxide, and using it to make organic
compounds such as sugars, proteins, and lipids. For example, nitrobacter

Bacteria structure
The structure of bacteria can be discussed under the following heads.

1. Size
Bacteria are by far the smallest independently reproducing organisms. Most pathogenic bacteria are 0.1 –
10 µm in size.

• The largest bacterium is Thiomargarita namibiensis that can reach up to a size of 0.75 mm.
• The smallest bacterium is Mycoplasma genitalium of size 200 to 300 nm.

2. Shape
As previously discussed, there are a variety of shapes of different bacteria. Some of the common shapes of
bacteria are named below.
• Coccus
• Bacillus
• Coccobacillus
• Spirilla
• Spirochete
• Fusiform
• Vibrio

3. Arrangement
Newly divided bacteria from certain genera have a special ability to stick together and form peculiar
arrangements. For example, Streptococci often arrange themselves in chains, Staphylococci arrange
themselves in irregular clusters, Diplococci can be seen arranging themselves in pairs. These arrangements,
however, should not be used for the purpose of identification of bacteria.

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Algae
The algae are autotrophic protists that can be unicellular or
multicellular. These organisms are found in the supergroups
Chromalveolata (dinoflagellates, diatoms, golden algae, and
brown algae) and Archaeplastida (red algae and green algae).
Structure: Like protozoans, algae often have complex cell
structures. For instance, algal cells can have one or more
chloroplasts that contain structures called pyrenoids to
synthesize and store starch.
The chloroplasts themselves differ in their number of
membranes, indicative of secondary or rare tertiary endosymbiotic events. Primary chloroplasts have two
membranes—one from the original cyanobacteria that the ancestral eukaryotic cell engulfed, and one from
the plasma membrane of the engulfing cell. Chloroplasts in some lineages appear to have resulted from
secondary endosymbiosis, in which another cell engulfed a green or red algal cell that already had a primary
chloroplast within it. The engulfing cell destroyed everything except the chloroplast and possibly the cell
membrane of its original cell, leaving three or four membranes around the chloroplast.

Different algal groups have different pigments, which are reflected in common names such as red algae,
brown algae, and green algae. Some algae, the seaweeds, are macroscopic and may be confused with plants.
Seaweeds can be red, brown, or green, depending on their photosynthetic pigments. Green algae, in
particular, share some important similarities with land plants; however, there are also important distinctions.
For example, seaweeds do not have true tissues or organs like plants do. Additionally, seaweeds do not have
a waxy cuticle to prevent desiccation.

General characteristics of algae

1. Algae are the simplest multicellular plants. Some are unicellular eg. Chlamydomonas
2. Plant body: known as Thallus and they are avascular
3. Habitat: Algae are usually aquatic, either freshwater or marine and some are terresterial.
4. Algae are eukaryotic thallophytes.
5. Algae are photoautotrophs.
6. Storage form of food: Starch
7. Reproduction: Algae reproduce either by vegetative, asexual or sexual method
8. Vegetative method: fragmentation, hormogonia (Any vegetative part of the thallus grows into a
fresh new organism in this form.)

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9. Asexual spore: zoospores (motile exposed spores containing two, four, or several flagella),
aplanospores (non-motile spore), hypnospores (non-motile,thick walled), akinetes (lengthened
thick-walled spore-like formations with ample food reserves).
10. Sexual method: isogamous (merger of two gametes that are physiologically and morphologically
identical, resulting in the formation of a zygote), anisogamous (uniting gametes are physiologically
and morphologically distinct), and oogamous(small motile male gamete (sperm or antherozoids) is
fertilised by a large non-motile female gamete (egg or ovum) .

Classification of algae
On the basis of photosynthetic pigments algae classified into three classes.

1. Chlorophyceae (green algae)

2. Phaeophyceae (brown algae)
3. Rhodophyceae (red algae).

1. Chlorophyceae (Green algae)

• It is the largest class of algae
• They are commonly known as green Algae.
• Photosynthetic pigments: They possesses chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and small amount of β-
carotenoids.
• The chloroplasts shows various shape ie. Spiral shape in Spirogyra, cup shaped in Chlamydomonas,
star shaped in Zygnema, girdle shaped in Ulothrix
• Habitat: Mostly freshwater (Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, etc), some are
marine (Sargassum, Laminaria, etc) and some are parasitic (Polysiphonia, Harvevella,
Cephaleuros)
• Distribution: they are cosmopolitan in distribution
• They are unicellular as well as multicellular.
• Each cell is eukaryotic
• Thallus: their body structure, shape and size varies.
• Examples: Chlamydomonas: unicellular free living
• Volvox: colonial form
• Spirogyra: multicellular, unbranched filamentous form
• Ulva: multicellular, parenchymatous form
• Storage form of food: Starch
• Pyrenoids stores starch
• Cell wall has two layers: outer layer composed of pectose and inner layer is composed of cellulose
• Reproduction: vegetative, asexual and sexual method
• Vegetative: fragmentation
• Asexual: asexual spore (akinete, aplanospore, azygospore)
• Sexual: isogamous, anisogamous, oogamous type gametic fusion

2. Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)

• Pheophyceae are called commonly known as brown algae
• Photosynthetic pigments: They possesses brown colored photosynthetic pigments fucoxanthin and
β-carotenoids in addition to chlorophyll a and c.
• Habitat: They are almost marine, very few are fresh water eg.
• Thallus: they are multicellular brown algae. No unicellular and colonial (motile or non-motile)
brown algae till known.
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• Storage form of food: laminarin starch, manitol (alcohol) and some store iodine also.
• Reproduction: vegetative, asexual and sexual methods
• Vegetative: fragmentation.
• Asexual: asexual spores (motile zoospores).
• Sexual: isogamous or oogamous type gametic fusion.

3. Rhodophyceae (Red algae)

• Rhodophyceae are commonly known as Red Algae
• Photosynthetic pigments: They possesses Red colored photosynthetic pigments r-phycocyanin and
r-phycoerythrin along with chlorophyll a, d, xanthophyll and β-carotenoid
• Habitat: They are aquatic, mostly marine. Some are freshwater e.g. Batrachospermum.
• Thallus: Red algae show a variety of life forms-
• Examples: Unicellular- Porphyridium,
• multicellular- Goniotrichum,
• Parenchymatous- Porphyra,
• unicellular colonies-Chroothece,
• Storage form of food: Floridean starch and floridosides sugar.
• Reproduction: vegetative, asexual and sexual mode
• Vegetative: fragmentation
• Asexual reproduction: non- motile spores( akinete, aplanospore, azygospore)
• sexual reproduction: Oogamous.
• Some species shows Alternation of generations in their life cycle.

Importance of Algae:

• They are important ecologically and environmentally because they are responsible for the
production of approximately 70% of the oxygen and organic matter in aquatic environments.
• Additionally, algae are the source for agar, agarose, and carrageenan, solidifying agents used in
laboratories and in food production. Agar is obtained from red algae such as Gelidium and
Gracilaria.
• Although algae are typically not pathogenic, some produce toxins. Harmful algal blooms, which
occur when algae grow quickly and produce dense populations, can produce high concentrations of
toxins that impair liver and nervous-system function in aquatic animals and humans. They are
caused by diverse organisms, including toxic and noxious phytoplankton, cyanobacteria,
benthic algae, and macroalgae
• Crude oil and natural gas are the remnants of photosynthetic products of ancient algae, which were
subsequently modified by bacteria. The North Sea oil deposits are believed to have been formed
from coccolithophore algae (class Prymnesiophyceae), and the Colorado oil shales by an alga
similar to Botryococcus (a green alga).
• Algal extracts are commonly used in preparing foods and other products, and the direct
consumption of algae has existed for centuries in the diets of East Asian and Pacific Island societies.
The red alga nori, or laver (Porphyra), is the most important commercial food alga.

Protozoa

The kingdom Protista, as defined by Whittaker’s five-kingdom scheme, is an artificial grouping of over
64,000 different single-celled life forms that lack common evolutionary heritage; that is to say, they are
polyphyletic. In fact, the protists are unified only by what they lack: absent is the level of tissue organization
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found in fungi, plants, and animals. The term protozoa [s., protozoan; Greek protos, first, and zoon, animal]
has traditionally referred to chemoorganotrophic protists, and protozoology generally refers to the study of
protozoa. The term algae can be used to describe photosynthetic protists. “Algae” was originally used to
refer to all “simple aquatic plants,” but this term has no phylogenetic utility.

Distribution
Protists grow in a wide variety of moist habitats. Moisture is absolutely necessary for their existence
because they are susceptible to desiccation. Most protists are free living and inhabit freshwater or marine
environments. Many terrestrial chemoorganotrophic forms can be found in decaying organic matter and in
soil, where they are important in recycling the essential elements nitrogen and phosphorus. Others are
planktonic—floating free in lakes and oceans. Planktonic microbes (both procaryotic and eucaryotic) are
responsible for a majority of the nutrient cycling that occurs in these ecosystems.

Characteristics
Nutrition: Photosynthetic protists are exclusively aerobic. Most photosynthetic forms are
photoautotrophic, obtaining energy from light and fixing CO2 to meet their carbon requirements.
However, some are photoheterotrophic, using organic carbon rather than CO2. Chemoheterotrophic
protists can be holozoic or saprozoic. In holozoic nutrition, solid nutrients such as bacteria are acquired by
phagocytosis and the subsequent formation of phagocytic vacuoles. In saprozoic nutrition, soluble nutrients
such as amino acids and sugars cross the plasma membrane by endocytosis, diffusion, or carrier-mediated
transport (facilitated diffusion or active transport).
Many protists are capable of encystment. During encystment, the organism de-differentiates (becomes
simpler in morphology) and develops into a resting stage called a cyst. The cyst is a dormant form marked
by the presence of a cell wall and by very low metabolic activity.
All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites. They are believed to be primitive relatives
of animals. There are four major groups of protozoans:

• Flagellated Protozoans
• Amoebid Protozoans
• Sporozoans
• Ciliated Protozoans

Structure
Most parasitic protozoa in humans are less than 50 μm in
size. The smallest (mainly intracellular forms) are 1 to 10
μm long, but Balantidium coli may measure 150 μm.
Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotes. As in all eukaryotes,
the nucleus is enclosed in a membrane. In protozoa other
than ciliates, the nucleus is vesicular, with scattered
chromatin giving a diffuse appearance to the nucleus, all
nuclei in the individual organism appear alike.
One type of vesicular nucleus contains a more or less
central body, called an endosome or karyosome(meiosis
specific structure). The endosome lacks DNA in the
parasitic amoebas and trypanosomes.

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In the phylum Apicomplexa, on the other hand, the vesicular nucleus has one or more nucleoli that contain
DNA.

The ciliates have both a micronucleus and macronucleus, which appear quite homogeneous in composition.
(The macronucleus is the centre of all metabolic activities of the organism. The micronucleus is a
storage site for the germline genetic material of the organism.)

The organelles of protozoa have functions similar to the organs of higher animals. The plasma membrane
enclosing the cytoplasm also covers the projecting locomotory structures such as pseudopodia, cilia, and
flagella. The outer surface layer of some protozoa, termed a pellicle, is sufficiently rigid to maintain a
distinctive shape, as in the trypanosomes and Giardia. However, these organisms can readily twist and bend
when moving through their environment.

In most protozoa the cytoplasm is differentiated into ectoplasm (the outer, transparent layer) and endoplasm
(the inner layer containing organelles); the structure of the cytoplasm is most easily seen in species with
projecting pseudopodia, such as the amebas. Some protozoa have a cytosome or cell “mouth” for ingesting
fluids or solid particles. Contractile vacuoles for osmoregulation occur in some, such as Naegleria and
Balantidium. Many protozoa have subpellicular microtubules; in the Apicomplexa, which have no external
organelles for locomotion, these provide a means for slow [Link] other structures occur in
parasitic protozoa, including the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, food vacuoles, conoids in the
Apicomplexa, and other specialized structures. Electron microscopy is essential to visualize the details of
protozoal structure. From the point of view of functional and physiologic complexity, a protozoan is more
like an animal than like a single cell.

Some key points about protozoa

• Protozoan diseases range from very mild to life-threatening. Individuals whose defenses are able to
control but not eliminate a parasitic infection become carriers and constitute a source of infection
for others. In geographic areas of high prevalence, well-tolerated infections are often not treated to
eradicate the parasite because eradication would lower the individual's immunity to the parasite and
result in a high likelihood of reinfection.
• Many protozoan infections that are inapparent or mild in normal individuals can be life-threatening
in immunosuppressed patients, particularly patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS). Evidence suggests that many healthy persons harbor low numbers of Pneumocystis carinii
in their lungs. However, this parasite produces a frequently fatal pneumonia in immunosuppressed
patients such as those with AIDS.
• Toxoplasma gondii, a very common protozoan parasite, usually causes a rather mild initial illness
followed by a long-lasting latent infection. AIDS patients, however, can develop fatal toxoplasmic
encephalitis.
• Cryptosporidium was described in the 19th century, but widespread human infection has only
recently been recognized. Cryptosporidium is another protozoan that can produce serious
complications in patients with AIDS. Microsporidia’s in humans was reported in only a few
instances prior to the appearance of AIDS. It has now become a more common infection in AIDS
patients. As more thorough studies of patients with AIDS are made, it is likely that other rare or
unusual protozoan infections will be diagnosed.
• Acanthamoeba species are free-living amoebas that inhabit soil and water. Cyst stages can be
airborne. Serious eye-threatening corneal ulcers due to Acanthamoeba species are being reported in
individuals who use contact lenses. The parasites presumably are transmitted in contaminated lens-
cleaning solution. Amoebas of the genus Naegleria, which inhabit bodies of fresh water, are
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responsible for almost all cases of the usually fatal disease primary amebic meningoencephalitis.
The amebas are thought to enter the body from water that is splashed onto the upper nasal tract
during swimming or diving. Human infections of this type were predicted before they were
recognized and reported, based on laboratory studies of Acanthamoeba infections in cell cultures
and in animals.

Fungi
Microbiologists use the term fungus [pl., fungi; Latin fungus, mushroom]
to describe eukaryotic organisms that are spore-bearing, have absorptive
nutrition, lack chlorophyll, and reproduce sexually and asexually.
According to the universal phylogenetic tree, fungi are members of the
domain Eucarya. They are sometimes referred to as the true fungi or
Eumycota [Greek eu, true, and mykes, fungus]

porcini mushroom

Distribution
Fungi are primarily terrestrial organisms, although a few are freshwater or marine. Many are pathogenic
and infect plants and animals. Fungi also form beneficial relationships with other organisms. For example,
the vast majority of vascular plant roots form associations (called mycorrhizae) with fungi. Fungi also are
found in the upper portions of many plants. These endophytic fungi affect plant reproduction and
palatability to herbivores. Lichens are associations of fungi and photosynthetic protists or cyanobacteria.

Characteristics of Fungi
1. Morphology:
• Except for yeasts, which grow as single cells, most fungi grow as thread-like filaments. The
filaments are called hyphae (singular, hypha). Each hypha consists of one or more cells surrounded
by a tubular cell wall. A mass of hyphae make up the body of a fungus, which is called
a mycelium (plural, mycelia). Hyphae absorb nutrients from the environment and transport
them to other parts of the thallus (fungus body).
• The hyphae of most fungi are divided into cells by internal walls called septa (singular, septum).
Septa usually have little pores that are large enough to allow ribosomes, mitochondria and
sometimes nuclei to flow among cells. Hyphae that are divided into cells are called septate hyphae.
However, the hyphae of some fungi are not separated by septa. Hyphae without septae are
called coenocytic hyphae. Coenocytic hyphae are big, multinucleated cells.

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2. Fungi lacks Chloroplast.

3. The fungal cell usually is encased in a cell wall of chitin. Chitin is a strong but flexible nitrogen containing
polysaccharide consisting of N-acetylglucosamine residues.

4. Cell membrane consists of ergosterol (it regulates permeability and fluidity)

5. Mode of nutrition:

• Fungi are organotropic heterotrophs.

• Mostly Fungi are saprophytic and some are Parasitic

6. Fungi grow best in acidic environment (tolerate acidic pH).

7. Fungi can tolerate high sugar concentration and dry condition

8. Most of the fungi are Obligate aerobes (molds) and few are facultative anaerobes (yeasts)

9. Optimum temperature of growth for most saprophytic fungi is 20-30 C while (30-37) C for parasitic
fungi.

10. Growth rate of fungi is slower than that of bacteria.

11. Reproduction: both asexual (Axamorph) and sexual (Teliomorph) mode of reproduction

• Asexual methods: fragmentation, somatic budding, fission, asexual spore formation

• Sexual methods: gametic copulation, gamate-gametangium copulation, gametangium copulation,
somatic copulation and Spermatization.

12. More than 20 species are responsible to cause severe systemic human infection, 35 species causes less
severe systemic disease or might causes cutaneous or sub cutaneous infection and 45 species causes
superficial cutaneous infection.

13. Some fungi shows mutualistic relationship with higher plants, eg Mycorrhiza is symbiotic associated
with root of gymnosperm

Classification of Fungi
Kingdom Fungi are classified based on different modes. The different classification of fungi is as follows:

Based on Mode of nutrition

On the basis of nutrition, kingdom fungi can be classified into 3 groups.

1. Saprophytic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by feeding on dead organic substances.
Examples: Rhizopus, Penicillium and Aspergillus.
2. Parasitic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by living on other living organisms (plants or animals)
and absorb nutrients from their host. Examples: Taphrina and Puccinia.

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3. Symbiotic – These fungi live by having an interdependent relationship with other species in which
both are mutually benefited. Examples: Lichens and mycorrhiza. Lichens are the symbiotic
association between algae and fungi. Here both algae and fungi are mutually benefited as fungi
provide shelter for algae and in reverse algae synthesis carbohydrates for fungi. Mycorrhiza is the
symbiotic association present between fungi and plants. Fungi improve nutrient uptake by plants,
whereas, plants provides organic molecules like sugar to the fungus.

Based on Spore Formation

Kingdom Fungi are classified into the following based on the formation of spores:

1. Zygomycetes – These are formed by the fusion of two different cells. The sexual spores are known
as zygospores, while the asexual spores are known as sporangiospores. The hyphae are without the
septa. Example – Mucor.
2. Ascomycetes – They are also called sac fungi. They can be coprophilous, decomposers, parasitic or
saprophytic. The sexual spores are called ascospores. Asexual reproduction occurs by
conidiospores. Example – Saccharomyces.
3. Basidiomycetes – Mushrooms are the most commonly found basidiomycetes and mostly live as
parasites(club fungi). Sexual reproduction occurs by basidiospores. Asexual reproduction occurs by
conidia, budding or fragmentation. Example- Agaricus.
4. Deuteromycetes – They are otherwise called imperfect fungi as they do not follow the regular
reproduction cycle as the other fungi. They do not reproduce sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs
by conidia. Example – Trichoderma.

Importance of fungi
1. Fungi are important to humans in both beneficial and harmful ways. With bacteria and a few other
groups of chemoorganotrophic organisms, fungi act as decomposers, a role of enormous
significance. In this way carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other critical constituents of dead
organisms are released and made available for living organisms.
2. On the other hand, fungi are a major cause of disease. Plants are particularly vulnerable to fungal
diseases because fungi can invade leaves through their stomates. Fungi also cause many diseases of

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animals and humans. Aspergillus flavus cause diseases in Poultry, swine, cattle, sheep, dogs.
Candida albicans causes infection in humans.
3. Fungi, especially the yeasts, are essential to many industrial processes involving fermentation.
Examples include the making of bread, wine, and beer. Fungi also play a major role in the
preparation of some cheeses, soy sauce, and tofu; in the commercial production of many organic
acids (citric, gallic) and certain drugs (ergometrine, cortisone); and in the manufacture of many
antibiotics (penicillin, griseofulvin) and the immunosuppressive drug cyclosporin.
Examples;
• Penicillium notatum is used for production of penicillin antibiotics
• Aspergillus niger is used for prodution of citric acid
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used for alcohol production
4. Fungi are important research tools in the study of fundamental biological processes. Cytologists,
geneticists, biochemists, biophysicists, and microbiologists regularly use fungi in their research. The
yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the best understood eucaryotic cell. It has been a valuable model
organism in the study of cell biology, genetics, and cancer. in their research.

Virus
Viruses are microscopic organisms that are known to be the connecting link between living and non-living.
These were not placed under the five-kingdom classification since they are neither living nor dead.
Hence, they form their own group.
Viruses were initially characterized as filterable agents capable of causing disease. Since that time, advances
in microscopy and scientific techniques have led to a better classification of viruses and their properties.
Electron microscopy has allowed us to visualize viruses in great detail, while molecular and cellular assays
have broadened our understanding of how viruses function and are related to one another.

Common characteristics

1. Viruses are Small in Size: The smallest of viruses are about 20 nm in diameter, although influenza and
the human immunodeficiency virus have a more typical size, about 100 nm in diameter. However, some
viruses are significantly larger than 100 nm. Poxviruses, such as the variola virus that causes smallpox,
can approach 400 nm in length, and filoviruses, such as the dangerous Ebola virus and Marburg virus,
are only 80 nm in diameter but extend into long threads that can reach lengths of over 1000 nm.
2. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, meaning that they are completely dependent upon the
internal environment of the cell to create new infectious virus particles, or virions.
3. Viruses, on the other hand, have genomes, or genetic material, that can be composed of DNA or RNA
(but not both). Genomes are not necessarily double-stranded, either; different virus types can also have
single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes, and viruses with RNA genomes can be single-stranded or
double-stranded. Any particular virus will only have one type of nucleic acid genome, however, and so
viruses are not encountered that have both ssDNA and ssRNA genomes.
4. Capsid is the protective protein coat. It comprises many capsomeres, which are arranged tightly together
in repeating patterns. It is an impenetrable shell. Its main function is to help introduce a viral genome
into the host cell during infection. The structure of a capsid is what gives symmetry to the virus. The
structures can be cubical, helical, or complex.
5. Some viruses even contain an envelope surrounding the nucleocapsid. It is a layer of lipoprotein and
glycoprotein, and the envelope results from the budding process from the host cell. The proteins can also
project out as telomeres such as neuraminidase and haemagglutinin involved in binding virus to the host
cells.

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Structure of Viruses
Viruses vary in their structure. A virus particle consists of DNA or RNA within a protective protein coat
called a capsid. The shape of the capsid may vary from one type of virus to another. The capsid is made
from the proteins that are encoded by viral genes within their genome.

The shape of the capsid serves as one basis for classification of viruses

Icosahedral Viruses: The capsid of the virus shown in figure below is icosahedral. Virally coded proteins
will self-assemble to form a capsid. Some viruses have an envelope of phospholipids and proteins. The
envelope is made from portions of the host’s cell membrane. It surrounds the capsid and helps protect the
virus from the host’s immune system. The envelope may also have receptor molecules that can bind with
host cells. They make it easier for the virus to infect the cells.

Diagram of a Cytomegalovirus. The capsid encloses the genetic material of the virus. The envelope which
surrounds the capsid is typically made from portions of the host cell membranes (phospholipids and
proteins). Not all viruses have a viral envelope.

Icosahedral capsid symmetry gives viruses a spherical appearance at low magnification, but the protein
subunits are actually arranged in a regular geometrical pattern, similar to a soccer ball; they are not truly
spherical. An icosahedral shape is the most efficient way of creating a hardy structure from multiple copies
of a single protein. This shape is used because it can be built from a single basic unit protein which is used
over and over again. This saves space in the viral genome. Adenovirus, an icosahedral virus. An icosahedron
is a three-dimensional shape made up of 20 equilateral triangles. Viral structures are built of repeated
identical protein subunits, making the icosahedron the easiest shape to assemble using these subunits.

Helical Viruses: Helical capsids are made up of a single type of protein subunit stacked around a central
axis to form a helical structure. The helix may have a hollow center, which makes it look like a hollow tube.
This arrangement results in rod-shaped or filamentous virions. These virions can be anything from

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short and very rigid, to long and very flexible. The well-studied tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is an example
of a helical virus, as seen in the figure below.

A helical virus, tobacco mosaic virus. Although their diameter may be very small, some helical viruses can
be quite long, as shown here. 1. Nucleic acid; 2. Viral protein units, 3. Capsid. TMV causes tobacco mosaic
disease in tobacco, cucumber, pepper, and tomato plants.

Complex Viruses: Complex viruses possess a capsid which is neither purely helical, nor purely icosahedral,
and which may have extra structures such as protein tails or a complex outer wall. Viral protein subunits will
self-assemble into a capsid, but the complex virus’s DNA also codes for proteins which help in building the
viral capsid. Many phage viruses are complex-shaped; they have an icosahedral head bound to a helical tail.
The tail may have a base plate with protein tail fibers. Some complex viruses do not have tail fibers.

This “moon lander”-shaped complex virus infects Escherichia coli bacteria.

Enveloped Viruses: Some viruses are able to surround (envelop) themselves in a portion of the cell
membrane of their host. The virus can use either the outer membrane of the host cell, or an internal
membrane such as the nuclear membrane or endoplasmic reticulum. In this way the virus gains an outer
lipid bilayer known as a viral envelope. This membrane is studded with proteins coded for by both the viral
genome and the host genome. However, the lipid membrane itself and any carbohydrates present come

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entirely from the host cell. The influenza virus, HIV, and the varicella zoster virus (Figure below) are
enveloped viruses.

An enveloped virus. Varicella zoster virus causes chicken pox and shingles.

The viral envelope can give a virus some advantages over other capsid-only viruses. For example, they
have better protection from the host's immune system, enzymes and certain chemicals. The proteins in the
envelope can include glycoproteins, which act as receptor molecules. These receptor molecules allow host
cells to recognize and bind the virions, which may result in easier uptake of the virion into the cell. Most
enveloped viruses depend on their envelopes to infect cells. However, because the envelope contains lipids,
it makes the virus more susceptible to inactivation by environmental agents, such as detergents that disrupt
lipids.

One classification scheme was developed in the 1970s by Nobel laureate David Baltimore. The Baltimore
classification system categorizes viruses based on the type of nucleic acid genome and replication strategy
of the virus. The system also breaks down single-stranded RNA viruses into those that are positive strand
(+) and negative strand (−). As will be further discussed in the next chapter, positive-strand (also positive-
sense or plus-strand) RNA is able to be immediately translated into proteins; as such, messenger RNA
(mRNA) in the cell is positive strand. Negative-strand (also negative-sense or minus-strand) RNA is not
translatable into proteins; it first has to be transcribed into positive-strand RNA. Baltimore also considered
viruses that are able to reverse transcribe, or create DNA from an RNA template, which is something that
cells are not capable of doing. Together, the seven classes are
Group I: These viruses contain double-stranded DNA in their genome. For example, Adenovirus, and
Poxvirus
Group II: These viruses have single-stranded DNA in their genome. For example, Parvoviruses
Group III: They use double-stranded RNA as their genome. The 2 strands separate, and one of them is used
as a template for generating mRNA. For example, Reoviruses
Group IV: They have single-stranded RNA in their genome with a positive sense of polarity. Positive
polarity means that the genomic RNA can serve directly as mRNA molecules. For example, common cold
virus
Group V: They have single-stranded RNA as their genome with a negative sense of polarity. Negative
polarity means that the sequence will be complementary to the mRNA strands. For example, Rabies virus
Group VI: They have two copies of single-stranded genomes that are converted using an enzyme called
reverse transcriptase, and the result is double-stranded DNA. For example, Retroviruses
Group VII: These have partial double-stranded genomes and make single-stranded DNA intermediaries that
act as mRNA. For example, Hepadnaviruses.

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4.4 MODEL QUESTIONS

MCQ type Questions
1. What is the primary criterion used by Whittaker in his classification system?
a. Genetic material
b. Morphological characteristics
c. Ecological factors
d. Geographical distribution
Answer: c. Ecological factors
2. Who is credited with the development of binomial nomenclature?
a. Charles Darwin
b. Linnaeus
c. Mendel
d. Watson and Crick
Answer: b. Linnaeus
3. In Whittaker's classification, which kingdom includes organisms that are primarily
photosynthetic and possess cell walls made of cellulose?
a. Animalia
b. Plantae
c. Protista
d. Fungi
Answer: b. Plantae
4. What is the purpose of binomial nomenclature in taxonomy?
a. To assign random names to organisms
b. To create confusion in the scientific community
c. To provide a universal system for naming and classifying organisms
d. To emphasize common names over scientific names
Answer: c. To provide a universal system for naming and classifying organisms
5. Which of the following is not one of Whittaker's recognized kingdoms?
a. Monera
b. Protista
c. Animalia
d. Prokaryota
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Answer: d. Prokaryota
6. In the scientific name "Homo sapiens," what does "sapiens" represent?
a. Genus
b. Species
c. Family
d. Order
Answer: b. Species
7. How does Whittaker's classification system consider ecological factors in grouping organisms?
a. Based on genetic similarities
b. Based on size and shape
c. Based on their roles in the ecosystem
d. Based on geographic location
Answer: c. Based on their roles in the ecosystem
8. Which of the following is an essential characteristic of a scientific name in binomial
nomenclature?
a. It must be in Latin
b. It must be at least five syllables long
c. It must include the common name of the organism
d. It must be assigned by the discoverer
Answer: a. It must be in Latin
9. In Whittaker's classification, which kingdom includes unicellular eukaryotes that may be
autotrophic or heterotrophic?
a. Plantae
b. Animalia
c. Protista
d. Fungi
Answer: c. Protista
10. What is a defining characteristic of algae?
a. Heterotrophic nutrition
b. Lack of chlorophyll
c. Multicellular structure
d. Presence of chitinous cell walls
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Answer: c. Multicellular structure

11. Which of the following is a common feature of fungi?
a. Autotrophic nutrition
b. Presence of chlorophyll
c. Hyphal structure
d. Unicellular organization
Answer: c. Hyphal structure
12. How do protozoa obtain their nutrition?
a. Absorption
b. Photosynthesis
c. Ingestion
d. Chemosynthesis
Answer: c. Ingestion
13. What is a key characteristic of bacteria?
a. Eukaryotic cells
b. Presence of a nucleus
c. Unicellular prokaryotes
d. Multicellular organization
Answer: c. Unicellular prokaryotes
14. In which type of environment are archaea often found?
a. Temperate forests
b. Deep-sea hydrothermal vents
c. Tropical rainforests
d. Polar ice caps
Answer: b. Deep-sea hydrothermal vents
15. Which of the following statements about viruses is true?
a. They have a cellular structure.
b. They can perform independent metabolic activities.
c. They are considered living organisms.
d. They require a host cell for replication.
Answer: d. They require a host cell for replication.

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16. What pigment is responsible for the green color in most algae?
a. Chlorophyll
b. Carotenoid
c. Xanthophyll
d. Phycocyanin
Answer: a. Chlorophyll
17. Which of the following is a role of fungi in ecosystems?
a. Photosynthesis
b. Decomposition
c. Nitrogen fixation
d. Oxygen production
Answer: b. Decomposition
18. What is the primary mode of locomotion in protozoa?
a. Flagella
b. Cilia
c. Pseudopodia
d. Spores
Answer: c. Pseudopodia
19. What is the shape of a bacterium that has a spherical or round morphology?
a. Bacillus
b. Coccus
c. Spirillum
d. Vibrio
Answer: b. Coccus
Short answer type Questions
1. What are the major kingdoms proposed by Whittaker's classification system, and how do they
contribute to organizing living organisms?
2. Provide an example of a scientific name using binomial nomenclature for an organism and explain
its significance.
3. What are the main characteristics that classify organisms as algae, and how do they differ from
other plant-like organisms?
4. Describe the unique features of fungi in Whittaker's classification.
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5. Briefly outline the characteristics of protozoa and explain their classification within Whittaker's
system.
6. Differentiate between bacteria and archaea in terms of their cellular structure and metabolic
processes.
7. Discuss the challenges in classifying viruses and explain why they are not included in traditional
biological classification systems like Whittaker's.
8. Write down the classification of fungi based on mode of nutrition
9. Define viral structure.
10. Explain the structure of bacterial cell with the aid of a neatly labelled diagram.
11. What types of cell walls exist in Archaea and what are they composed of?
12. Discuss viral capsid structure
13. Determine the characteristics of a virus
Long answer type Questions
1. Name the person who proposed binomial nomenclature. What are the advantages of binomial
nomenclature?
2. Examine Whittaker's five kingdom classification and explain each group with suitable examples.
3. Write the characters of the kingdom fungi with suitable examples.
4. Describe the archaeal group based on their different modes of nutrition
5. Describe the bacterial classification depending on oxygen requirements

4.5 References
Prescott’s and Dunn’s Microbiology. Prescott. Willey et al, 10th Ed. Tata McGraw-Hill.
Brock: Biology of Microorganisms. Madigan et al, 15th Ed. Pearson.

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