General Chemistry

CHM115
The Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change

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 Chapter 4

Three Major Classes of Chemical

Reactions

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 The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions
4.1 Solution Concentration and the Role of Water as a Solvent
4.2 Precipitation Reactions
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Learning outcomes:

 Determination of amount of ions in solution

 Determining the concentration/volume of dilute solution
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 Solution

Solute + Solvent

Ionic compounds (Salts) – In case of Water: aqueous solution

Strong electrolytes

Molecular compounds –
Weak electrolytes

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 Nature of Aqueous Solutions

• We define the solution as a homogeneous

mixture of substances
• Solute – substance being dissolved.
• Solvent – liquid water.
• Electrolyte – substance that when dissolved in
water produces a solution that can conduct
electricity.

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 Water, the common solvent

• One of the most important substances on Earth.

• Can dissolve many different substances.
• Bent molecular shape (V-shaped)
• the bond of angle =104.5◦
• A polar molecule because of its unequal charge
distribution.

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 Ionic compounds in water

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Strong Electrolytes – Substances that are
completely dissociated (or ionized) in water hence
conduct current very efficiently (bulb shines brightly).
[Link] salts: NaCl(s)  Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
[Link] Acids: HCl(g) → H+(aq)+ Cl–(aq)
[Link] bases:KOH(s) → K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Weak Electrolytes – Substances that are partially dissociated

(or ionized) in water hence conduct only a small current (bulb
glows dimly).
[Link] Acids:

[Link] bases:

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

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Figure 4.6

The electrical conductivity of ionic solutions.

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Non-electrolytes: Species which dissolve in water but do not dissociate
into ions hence does not conduct electricity(bulb remains unlit)

Eg:
- usually polar covalent compounds

Ethanol (C2H5OH), sugars (C12H22O11)

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Sample Problem 4.6

Determining Amount (mol) of Ions in Solution

PROBLEM: What amount (mol) of each ion is in each solution?

(a) 5.0 mol of ammonium sulfate dissolved in water

(b) 78.5 g of cesium bromide dissolved in water
(c) 7.42x1022 formula units of copper(II) nitrate dissolved in water

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 Concentration of Solutions & Molarity

● Many reactions occur in solution.

● A solution consists of one or more solutes dissolved
in a solvent.
● The concentration of a solution is given by the
quantity of solute present in a given quantity of
solution.
● Molarity (M) is often used to express concentration.

Molarity = moles solute mol solute

M=
liters of solution L soln

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Sample Problem 4.1

Calculating the Molarity of a Solution

PROBLEM: What is the molarity of an aqueous solution that

contains 0.715 mol of glycine (H2NCH2COOH) in
495 mL?

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 Figure 4.1

Summary of mass-mole-number-volume
relationships in solution.

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Sample Problem 4.2

Calculating Mass of Solute in a Given

Volume of Solution

PROBLEM: How many grams of solute are in 1.75 L of 0.460 M

sodium monohydrogen phosphate buffer solution?

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 Figure 4.2
Laboratory preparation of molar solutions.
(Standard Solutions)

A
•Weigh the solid needed.
•Transfer the solid to a C Add solvent until the solution
volumetric flask that contains reaches its final volume.
about half the final volume of
solvent.
B Dissolve the solid
thoroughly by swirling.

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Figure 4.3 Converting a concentrated solution to a dilute solution.

Dilution with water not alter the number of moles of solute present.
Mdil x Vdil = # mol solute = Mconc x Vconc
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Sample Problem 4.3

Preparing a Dilute Solution from a Concentrated Solution

PROBLEM: “Isotonic saline” is a 0.15 M aqueous solution of

NaCl. How would you prepare 0.80 L of isotonic
saline from a 6.0 M stock solution?

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 The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions
4.1 Solution Concentration and the Role of Water as a Solvent
4.2 Precipitation Reactions
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Learning outcomes:

 Determination of amount of ions in solution

 Determining the concentration/volume of dilute solution
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Figure 4.7: Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions

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 1) The molecular equation shows all reactants and
products as a complete chemical formulas.

2) The total ionic equation shows all soluble ionic

substances dissociated into ions.
This gives the most accurate information about species in solution.

2Ag+ (aq) + 2NO3– (aq) → Ag2CrO4 (s)

+ 2Na+ (aq) + CrO42– (aq) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2NO3– (aq)

Spectator ions are ions that are not involved in the actual
chemical change. Spectator ions appear unchanged on
both sides of the total ionic equation.

2Ag+ (aq) + 2NO3– (aq) → Ag2CrO4 (s)

+ 2Na+ (aq) + CrO42– (aq) [Link] + 2Na+ (aq) + 2NO3– (aq)
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3) The net ionic equation eliminates the spectator
ions and shows only the actual chemical change.

2Ag+ (aq) + 2NO3– (aq) → Ag2CrO4 (s)

+ 2Na+ (aq) + CrO42– (aq) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2NO3– (aq)

The net ionic equation

2Ag+ (aq) + CrO42– (aq) → Ag2CrO4 (s)

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 Precipitation Reactions
● In a precipitation reaction two soluble ionic compounds
react to give an insoluble product, called a precipitate.

● The precipitate forms through the net removal of ions from

solution.

● It is possible for more than one precipitate to form in such a

reaction.

● Can be used to remove some cations such as Ca2+ and

Mg2+ from water.

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 Figure 4.8 The precipitation of calcium fluoride.

2NaF (aq) + CaCl2 (aq) → CaF 2 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)

2Na+ (aq) + 2F– (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) + 2Cl– (aq) → CaF (s) + 2Na (aq) + 2Cl (aq)
2
+ –

Ca2+ (aq) + 2F– (aq) → CaF2 (s)

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Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form

● Note the ions present in the reactants.

● Consider all possible cation-anion combinations.

● Use the solubility rules to decide whether any of

the ion combinations is insoluble.
○ Any insoluble combination identifies a
precipitate that will form.

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Figure 4.8

The precipitation of PbI2, a metathesis reaction.

+- 2+ - 2+ - + -
2NaI (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) → PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

2Na+ (aq) + 2I– (aq) + Pb2+ (aq) + 2NO3– (aq)

→ PbI (s) + 2Na (aq) + 2NO

2
+ -
3 (aq)

Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) → PbI (s)

2

Precipitation reactions are also called

double displacement reactions or
metathesis reactions.

2NaI (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) → PbI (s) + 2NaNO (aq)

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Ions exchange partners and a precipitate forms, so there

is an exchange of bonds between reacting species.
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Sample Problem 4.7

Predicting Whether a Precipitation Reaction Occurs;

Writing Ionic Equations

PROBLEM:
Predict whether or not a reaction occurs when each of the
following pairs of solutions are mixed. If a reaction does
occur, write balanced molecular, total ionic, and net ionic
equations, and identify the spectator ions.
(a) potassium fluoride (aq) + strontium nitrate (aq) →
(b) ammonium perchlorate (aq) + sodium bromide (aq) →

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 Figure 4.9 Summary of amount-mass-number relationships for a
chemical reaction in solution.

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Sample Problem 4.9
Calculating Amounts of Reactants and
Products in a Precipitation Reaction
PROBLEM:Magnesium is the second most abundant metal in
sea water after sodium. The first step in its industrial
extraction involves the reaction of Mg2+ with Ca(OH)2
to precipitate Mg(OH)2. What mass of Mg(OH)2 is
formed when 0.180 L of 0.0155 M MgCl2 reacts with
excess Ca(OH)2?

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Sample Problem 4.10

Solving Limiting-Reactant Problems

for Precipitation Reactions

PROBLEM:

Iron(III) hydroxide, used to adsorb arsenic and heavy metals from

contaminated soil and water, is produced by reacting aqueous solutions
of iron(III) chloride and sodium hydroxide.

(a) What mass of iron(III) hydroxide is formed when 0.155 L of 0.250 M

iron(III) chloride reacts with 0.215 L of 0.300 M sodium hydroxide?

(b) Write a reaction table for this process.

FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) ⟶ Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)

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 The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions
4.1 Solution Concentration and the Role of Water as a Solvent
4.2 Precipitation Reactions
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Learning outcomes:

 Determination of amount of ions in solution

 Determining the concentration/volume of dilute solution
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 Acid-Base Reactions
We considered Arrhenius’s concept for the
definition of an acid and a base.
An acid is a substance that produces H+ ions
when dissolved in H2O.
H2O
HX → H+ (aq) + X- (aq)

A base is a substance that produces OH- ions when

dissolved in H2O.
H2O
MOH → M+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

An acid-base reaction is also called a neutralization reaction.

H+(aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O(l)
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 Figure 4.11 Acids and bases as electrolytes.

Strong acids and strong bases Weak acids and weak bases dissociate very
dissociate completely into ions in little into ions in aqueous solution.
aqueous solution.
They are weak electrolytes and conduct poorly
They are strong electrolytes and in solution.
conduct well in solution.

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Sample Problem 4.11

Determining the Number of H+ (or OH-) Ions in Solution

PROBLEM: How many H+(aq) ions are in 25.3 mL of 1.4 M

nitric acid?

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 Reaction Between Strong Acids and Strong Bases

The molecular equation is HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Ionic equation is
H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH−(aq) ⟶ Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + H2O(l)

In the net ionic equation, we eliminate the spectator ions, Na+(aq)

and Cl−(aq): H+(aq) + OH−(aq) ⟶ H2O(l)

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Sample Problem 4.12

Writing Ionic Equations for Acid-Base Reactions

PROBLEM: Write balanced molecular, total ionic, and net ionic

equations for the following acid-base reactions and
identify the spectator ions.

(a) hydrochloric acid (aq) + potassium hydroxide (aq) →

(b) strontium hydroxide (aq) + perchloric acid (aq) →
(c) barium hydroxide (aq) + sulfuric acid (aq) →

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Sample Problem 4.13

Calculating the Amounts of Reactants

and Products in an Acid-Base Reaction

PROBLEM: A 0.10 M HCl solution is used to simulate the acid

concentration of the stomach. How many liters of
“stomach acid” react with a tablet containing 0.10 g
of magnesium hydroxide?

Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

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 Acid-Base Titrations

● In a titration, the concentration of one solution is used to

determine the concentration of another.
● In an acid-base titration, a standard solution of base is
usually added to a sample of acid of unknown molarity.
● An acid-base indicator has different colors in acid and
base, and is used to monitor the reaction progress.
● At the equivalence point, the mol of H+ from the acid
equals the mol of OH- ion produced by the base.
○ Amount of H+ ion in flask = amount of OH- ion added
● The end point occurs when there is a slight excess of
base and the indicator changes color permanently.

● SEE NEXT SLIDE

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 Figure 4.14
An acid-base titration.

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Sample Problem 4.14

Calculating the Amounts of Reactants

and Products in an Acid-Base Reaction

PROBLEM:

To standardize an H2SO4 solution, you put 50.00 mL of it in a flask with

a few drops of indicator and put 0.1524 M NaOH in a buret. The buret
reads 0.55 mL at the start and 33.87 mL at the end point. Find the
molarity of the H2SO4 solution.

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 The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions
4.1 Solution Concentration and the Role of Water as a Solvent
4.2 Precipitation Reactions
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Learning outcomes:

 Determination of amount of ions in solution

 Determining the concentration/volume of dilute solution
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 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Oxidation is the loss of electrons.

The reducing agent loses electrons and is oxidized.

Reduction is the gain of electrons.

The oxidizing agent gains electrons and is reduced.

A redox reaction involves electron transfer.

Oxidation and reduction occur together.

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Sample Problem 4.17

Determining the Oxidation Number of

Each Element in a Compound (or Ion)

PROBLEM: Determine the oxidation number (O.N.) of each

element in these species:

(a) Zinc (II) chloride (b) sulfur trioxide (c) nitric acid

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 Identifying Redox Reactions and Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

Sample Problem 4.16

PROBLEM:

Use oxidation numbers to decide which of the following are redox reactions.
For each redox reaction, identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent:

(a) 2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) ⟶ Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)

(b) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

(c) PbO(s) + CO(g) ⟶ Pb(s) + CO2(g)

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Figure 4.16

A summary of terminology for redox reactions.

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 Example related to: Civil Engineerig

Acid rain (H₂SO₄) reacts with calcium carbonate

(CaCO₃) in concrete, leading to its degradation,
requiring neutralization strategies.

A statue eroded in acid rain

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Example related to: Mechanical Engineering

Engine oil additives neutralize acidic byproducts of fuel

combustion, preventing corrosion of mechanical parts.

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Example related to: Electrical Engineering
Electrolytic refining of copper (Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu)
ensures high-purity copper for wiring.

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Example related to: Chemical Engineering

Neutralization processes remove acidic contaminants

from crude oil to prevent corrosion in pipelines.

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Example related to: Industrial Engineering

Antioxidants like ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) prevent

oxidation of packaged foods.

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Example related to: Architectural Engineering

Paint formulations use acid-base reactions to stabilize pigments and

binders, ensuring durability and resistance to environmental conditions.

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