MODULE2 CN MCA

Data link layer design issues

• The data link layer in the OSI (Open System

Interconnections) Model, is in between the physical layer
and the network layer. This layer converts the raw
transmission facility provided by the physical layer to a
reliable and error-free link.

• The main functions and the design issues of this layer are
Providing services to the network layer
Framing
Error Control
Flow Control

• Services to the Network Layer

• In the OSI Model, each layer uses the services of the
layer below it and provides services to the layer above
it. The data link layer uses the services offered by the
physical [Link] primary function of this layer is to
provide a well defined service interface to network layer
above it.
• Unacknowledged connectionless service
• Acknowledged connectionless service
• Acknowledged connection - oriented service
• Framing
• The data link layer encapsulates each data packet from the
network layer into frames that are then transmitted.
• A frame has three parts, namely −
• Frame Header
• Payload field that contains the data packet from network layer
• Trailer
Error Control
• The data link layer ensures error free link for data
transmission. The issues it caters to with respect to error
control are −
• Dealing with transmission errors
• Sending acknowledgement frames in reliable connections
• Retransmitting lost frames
• Identifying duplicate frames and deleting them
• Controlling access to shared channels in case of broadcasting
• Flow Control
Flow Control
• The data link layer regulates flow control so that a fast
sender does not drown a slow receiver. When the
sender sends frames at very high speeds, a slow
receiver may not be able to handle it. There will be
frame losses even if the transmission is error-free. The
two common approaches for flow control are −
• Feedback based flow control
• Rate based flow control
Error Detection and Correction in Data link Layer

• uses error control techniques to ensure that frames, i.e. bit streams of
data, are transmitted from the source to the destination with a certain
extent of accuracy.
Errors
• When bits are transmitted over the computer network, they are subject
to get corrupted due to interference and network problems. The
corrupted bits leads to spurious data being received by the destination
and are called errors.
Types of Errors
Single bit error − In the received frame, only one bit
has been corrupted, i.e. either changed from 0 to 1 or
from 1 to 0.
Multiple bits error − In the received frame, more than one bits
are corrupted.
Burst error − In the received frame, more than one consecutive
bits are corrupted.
Error Control
Error control can be done in two ways

• Error detection − Error detection involves checking whether any error has
occurred or not. The number of error bits and the type of error does not matter.
• Error correction − Error correction involves ascertaining the exact number of bits
that has been corrupted and the location of the corrupted bits.
For both error detection and error correction, the sender needs to send some additional bits along
with the data bits. The receiver performs necessary checks based upon the additional redundant
bits. If it finds that the data is free from errors, it removes the redundant bits before passing the
message to the upper layers.
Error Detection Techniques

There are three main techniques for detecting errors in

frames: Parity Check, Checksum, and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
Parity Check
• The parity check is done by adding an extra bit, called parity bit
to the data to make a number of 1s either even in case of even
parity or odd in case of odd parity.
• While creating a frame, the sender counts the number of 1s in it
and adds the parity bit in the following way

• In case of even parity: If a number of 1s is even then parity bit value is 0. If the
number of 1s is odd then parity bit value is 1.
• In case of odd parity: If a number of 1s is odd then parity bit value is 0. If a
number of 1s is even then parity bit value is 1.
Error Detection Methods

• To detect errors, a common technique is to introduce redundancy bits

that provide additional information. Various techniques for error
detection include:
• Simple Parity Check
• Two-Dimensional Parity Check
• Checksum
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 1. Simple Parity Check
Simple bit parity is a basic error detection technique in which an extra bit, called a parity bit, is
added to a data unit before transmission. This parity bit helps the receiver determine whether the
transmitted data has been corrupted.
• Detects all single-bit errors in transmitted data.
• Detects any odd number of bit errors, since odd bit changes alter the parity.
• Easy to implement in both hardware and software.
• Fails to detect errors when an even number of bits are corrupted.
• Not suitable for noisy communication channels with frequent errors.
• Parity bits are used to maintain a specific parity condition in the data. There are two types of
parity:
• Even Parity: The parity bit is set so that the total number of 1s in the data (including the parity
bit) is even.
• Odd Parity: The parity bit is set so that the total number of 1s in the data (including the parity bit)
is odd.
Simple Parity Check
2. Two-Dimensional Parity Check

• In two-dimensional parity check, parity bits are calculated for each row,
similar to a simple parity check. In addition, parity bits are also computed
for each column. These row and column parity bits are transmitted along
with the data. At the receiver, parity bits are recalculated and compared
with the received parity bits to detect errors.
• Can detect and correct all single-bit errors by identifying the exact row and
column where the error occurred.
• Can detect many multiple-bit errors occurring at different positions in the
data matrix.
• Provides better error detection capability than simple parity check.
• Certain patterns of multiple-bit errors may remain undetected.
• If parity bits themselves are corrupted, error detection may fail.
column1
Number of 1s = 3 (odd)
1
We want even parity, so we add 1 at the bottom.
1
0 Column 1 parity bit = 1
1
On receiving a frame, the receiver counts the number of 1s in it.
In case of even parity check, if the count of 1s is even, the frame
is accepted, otherwise, it is rejected. A similar rule is adopted for
odd parity check.
The parity check is suitable for single bit error detection only.
Checksum
• Data is divided into fixed sized frames or segments.
• The sender adds the segments using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the
sum. It then complements the sum to get the checksum and sends it along
with the data frames.
• The receiver adds the incoming segments along with the checksum using
1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum and then complements it.
• If the result is zero, the received frames are accepted; otherwise, they are
discarded.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) involves binary division of the
data bits being sent by a predetermined divisor agreed upon by
the communicating system. The divisor is generated using
polynomials.
• Here, the sender performs binary division of the data segment by the divisor. It
then appends the remainder called CRC bits to the end of the data segment. This
makes the resulting data unit exactly divisible by the divisor.

• The receiver divides the incoming data unit by the divisor. If there is no
remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is accepted. Otherwise, it is
understood that the data is corrupted and is therefore rejected.
• Cyclic Redundancy Check and Modulo-2 Division

• Cyclic Redundancy Check or CRC is a method of detecting accidental

changes/errors in the communication channel. CRC uses Generator
Polynomial which is available on both sender and receiver side.
An example generator polynomial is of the form like x3 + x + 1. This
generator polynomial represents key 1011. Another example is x2 + 1
that represents key 101.
There are two primary variables in CRC:
• n: Number of bits in data to be sent from sender side
• k: Number of bits in the key obtained from generator polynomial.
• Encoded Data Generation from Generator Polynomial (Sender Side)
• The binary data is first augmented by adding k-1 zeros in the end of
the data.
• Then, modulo - 2 binary division is used to divide binary data by the
key and remainder of division is stored.
• At last the the remainder is appended at the end of the data to form
the encoded data which is later sent.
• Checking Error in Transmission (Receiver Side)
• After receiving the data, to check if the data is error free, perform the
modulo-2 division again.
• If the remainder is 0, then there are not errors, otherwise, the data is
faulty and contain transmission errors.
Data = 100100, Generator Polynomial (Key) = x3 + x2 + 1 (1101)
Sender Side

The remainder is 001. Thus the data sent is 100100001.

Receiver Side
Code word received at the receiver side 100100001

The remainder is 0, hence the data received has no errors.

CRC Implementation - O(n) Time and O(n) Space
Various kind of Framing in Data link layer
• function of Data Link Layer that is used to separate message from source

or sender to destination or receiver or simply from all other messages to

all other destinations just by adding sender address and destination

address. The destination or receiver address is simply used to represent

where message or packet is to go and sender or source address is simply

used to help recipient to acknowledge receipt.

• Frames are generally data unit of data link layer that is transmitted or

transferred among various network points. It includes complete and full

addressing, protocols that are essential, and information under control.

Methods of Framing :
There are basically four methods of framing as given
below –
[Link] Count
[Link] Byte with Character Stuffing
3. Starting and Ending Flags, with BitStuffing
4. Encoding Violations
• Character Count :
This method is rarely used and is generally required to count
total number of characters that are present in frame. This is be
done by using field in header. Character count method ensures
data link layer at the receiver or destination about total number
of characters that follow, and about where the frame
[Link] is disadvantage also of using this method i.e., if
anyhow character count is disturbed or distorted by an error
occurring during transmission, then destination or receiver
might lose synchronization. The destination or receiver might
also be not able to locate or identify beginning of next frame.
character stuffing
• character stuffing is also known as byte stuffing or character-
oriented framing and is same as that of bit stuffing but byte
stuffing actually operates on bytes whereas bit stuffing
operates on bits. In byte stuffing, special byte that is basically
known as ESC (Escape Character) that has predefined pattern
is generally added to data section of the data stream or frame
when there is message or character that has same pattern as
that of flag [Link] receiver removes this ESC and keeps data
part that causes some problems or issues. In simple words, we
can say that character stuffing is addition of 1 additional byte if
there is presence of ESC or flag in text.
Bit stuffing
• Bit stuffing is also known as bit-oriented framing or bit-
oriented approach. In bit stuffing, extra bits are being added by
network protocol designers to data streams. It is generally
insertion or addition of extra bits into transmission unit or
message to be transmitted as simple way to provide and give
signaling information and data to receiver and to avoid or
ignore appearance of unintended or unnecessary control
[Link] is type of protocol management simply performed
to break up bit pattern that results in transmission to go out of
synchronization. Bit stuffing is very essential part of
transmission process in network and communication protocol.
It is also required in USB.
• Physical Layer Coding Violations :
Encoding violation is method that is used only for network in
which encoding on physical medium includes some sort of
redundancy i.e., use of more than one graphical or visual
structure to simply encode or represent one variable of data.
LAN Switching:

• LAN Switching:

• LAN stands for Local-area Network. It is a computer network that

covers a relatively small area such as within a building or campus of
up to a few kilometers in size. LANs are generally used to connect
personal computers and workstations in company offices to share
common resources, like printers, and exchange information.
• LAN switching is a technology that promises to increase the
efficiency of local area networks and solve the current bandwidth
problems. Examples of Lan Switching are as follows:
Advantages of LAN Switching:

• It can give rise to an increase in network scalability, which

means that network can expand as the demand grows.

• Each network user can experience good and improved

bandwidth performance.

• The setup of LAN is easy as compared to other switching

techniques.
Disadvantages of LAN Switching
The cost of setting up a LAN network is quite High.

• privacy violations is another disadvantage as one LAN

user/administrator can check the personal files of every user
present in that network.

• since each one has the power to check other users data security
is a major issue.

• LAN faces many problems mainly related to hardware

problems and system failure. so a good cost of maintenance.

• since all the computers are connected to the network a virus-

infected to one of the computers may cause a spread to all the
computers present in that network.
 Network layer design issues
The Network layer is majorly focused on getting packets from the source to the
destination, routing error handling, and congestion control. Before learning
about design issues in the network layer, let’s learn about its various functions.
• Addressing: Maintains the address at the frame header of both source and
destination and performs addressing to detect various devices in the
network.

• Packeting: This is performed by Internet Protocol. The network layer

converts the packets from its upper layer.

• Routing: It is the most important functionality. The network layer chooses the
most relevant and best path for the data transmission from source to
destination.

• Inter-networking: It works to deliver a logical connection across multiple

1. Store and Forward packet switching

• The host sends the packet to the nearest router. This packet is
stored there until it has fully arrived once the link is fully
processed by verifying the checksum then it is forwarded to the
next router till it reaches the destination. This mechanism is
called “Store and Forward packet switching.”
• Services provided to the Transport Layer

• Through the network/transport layer interface, the network layer

transfers its patterns services to the transport layer. These services are
described below. But before providing these services to the transfer
layer, the following goals must be kept in mind:-
• Offering services must not depend on router technology.

• The transport layer needs to be protected from the type, number, and
topology of the available router.

• The network addresses for the transport layer should use uniform
numbering patterns, also at LAN and WAN connections.
• Based on the connections there are 2 types of services
provided :
• Connectionless – The routing and insertion of packets into the
subnet are done individually. No added setup is required.

• Connection-Oriented – Subnet must offer reliable service and

all the packets must be transmitted over a single route.
• 3. Implementation of Connectionless Service
• Packets are termed as “datagrams” and corresponding subnets
as “datagram subnets”. When the message size that has to be
transmitted is 4 times the size of the packet, then the network
layer divides into 4 packets and transmits each packet to the
router via. a few protocols. Each data packet has a destination
address and is routed independently irrespective of the packets.
• 4. Implementation of Connection-Oriented service:
• To use a connection-oriented service, first, we establish a
connection, use it, and then release it. In connection-oriented
services, the data packets are delivered to the receiver in the
same order in which they have been sent by the sender. It can
be done in either two ways :
• Circuit Switched Connection – A dedicated physical path or a
circuit is established between the communicating nodes and
then the data stream is transferred.

• Virtual Circuit Switched Connection – The data stream is

transferred over a packet switched network, in such a way that
it seems to the user that there is a dedicated path from the
sender to the receiver. A virtual path is established here. While,
other connections may also be using the same path.
Link Layer Address
• A Link Layer Address refers to the address used to identify devices at the
Link layer of the network. It is essential for translating between IP
addresses and MAC addresses to ensure proper connectivity and
communication between network devices.
Link Layer
• Link layer addressing in computer networks is the process of identifying
devices on a network using link layer addresses. These addresses are used
to translate between IP addresses and MAC addresses.
• At the Link layer, there is limited troubleshooting that an enterprise
applications administrator can do.
• Any issues around a high number of Ethernet collisions, for example,
would require a higher level of expertise than the normal expectation for
this role as well as very powerful analysis tools.
• However, one area that an enterprise applications administrator may be
able to analyze revolves around the Link layer address resolution using ARP.
Address Resolution Protocol

• As previously mentioned, ARP is used to translate between Internet

layer addresses (IP addresses) and Link layer addresses (MAC
addresses).
• In some cases, something can go wrong with this address resolution
and translation causing a variety of connectivity issues such as the
inability to reach a specific host.
• Knowing how ARP works is the first step to understanding how this
can happen; but, just as important, is being able to positively identify
an ARP issue to ensure that it isn’t something else causing the
problem.
• Most network devices that use ARP maintain an ARP table that caches
the translation between MAC address and IP address.
• In some cases, this table can contain incorrect data either through
configuration errors such as adding a system to the network with a
duplicate IP address or through malicious intent such as an ARP
poisoning/spoofing attack.
• When this happens, the system with the incorrect ARP table will
attempt to send messages to the wrong MAC address.
• If it appears that a system should be up and available on the network,
but no traffic can reach the device, it is possible that there is an ARP
problem.
• The easiest way to confirm this is to run the arp—a command on a
Windows or Unix-based system that is trying to communicate with
the destination system.
• If the MAC address in the ARP table matches that set on the
destination device, then it is unlikely that there is an ARP problem.
• If the address does not match, you can try clearing the ARP cache and
try again. If that is not effective, you will need to determine where the
erroneous ARP data is coming from and correct it at the source.
How Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) Works?
• When computer programs send or get messages, they usually use something called an IP address,

which is like a virtual address. But underneath, the real talk happens using another type of address

called a MAC address, which is like a device’s actual home address.

• So, our goal is to find out the MAC address of where we want to talk to. That’s where ARP comes

in handy. It helps by turning the IP address into the physical MAC address, so we can chat with

other devices on the network

• Most computer programs/applications use logical addresses (IP Addresses) to send/receive

messages. However, the actual communication happens over the Physical Address (MAC

Address) from layer 2 of the OSI model. So our mission is to get the destination MAC Address

which helps communicate with other devices. This is where ARP comes into the picture; its

functionality is to translate IP addresses into physical addresses.

• What is Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)?
• The acronym ARP stands for Address Resolution
Protocol which is one of the most important protocols of the
Data link layer in the OSI model. It is responsible to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. There
are three basic ARP terms.
• Note: ARP finds the hardware address, also known as the
Media Access Control (MAC) address, of a host from its known
IP address.
Address Resolution Protocol
• Important Terms Associated with ARP
• Reverse ARP

• Proxy ARP

• Inverse ARP
• Reverse ARP

• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol is a protocol that is used in local

area networks (LAN) by client machines for requesting IP Address (IPv4)
from Router’s ARP Table. Whenever a new machine comes, which
requires an IP Address for its use. In that case, the machine sends
a RARP broadcast packet containing MAC Address in the sender and
receiver hardware field.

• Proxy ARP

• Proxy Address Resolution Protocol work to enable devices that are

separated into network segments connected through the router in the
same IP to resolve IP Address to MAC Address. Proxy ARP is enabled so
that the ‘proxy router’ resides with its MAC address in a local network as it
is the desired router to which broadcast is addressed. In case, when the
sender receives the MAC Address of the Proxy Router, it is going to send
the datagram to Proxy Router, which will be sent to the destination device.
• Inverse ARP

• Inverse Address Resolution Protocol uses MAC Address to find

the IP Address, it can be simply illustrated as Inverse ARP is
just the inverse of ARP. In ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
Networks, Inverse ARP is used by default. Inverse ARP helps in
finding Layer-3 Addresses from Layer-2 Addresses.
Link layer (Layer 2) switches
• Link layer (Layer 2) switches are intelligent networking devices that
operate at the Data Link Layer of the OSI model, connecting devices
within a Local Area Network (LAN).
• They efficiently manage data traffic by using Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses to forward frames directly to specific destinations,
reducing collisions and improving network performance
 Functions and Characteristics of Layer 2 Switches:
•MAC Address Learning: Switches build a MAC address table (also called a switching table) to
map devices to specific ports, allowing them to know exactly where to send data.
•Frame Forwarding: When a frame arrives, the switch reads the destination MAC address and
forwards the frame only to the corresponding port, rather than broadcasting it to all devices
like a hub.
•Collision Domain Separation: Each port on a switch is a separate collision domain, which
means traffic from one device does not interfere with another.
•Full-Duplex Communication: Switches support simultaneous bidirectional (full-duplex)
communication, increasing efficiency.
•VLAN Support: Advanced layer 2 switches can support Virtual LANs (VLANs), allowing for the
segmentation of a network into smaller, more manageable sub-networks.
•Multiport Bridge: A switch can be considered a sophisticated, high-speed, multi-port network
bridge
virtual local area network (VLAN)
• A virtual local area network (VLAN) is a virtualized connection that
connects multiple devices and network nodes from different LANs
into one logical network.
• A virtual local area network (VLAN) is a logical network that separates
devices into broadcast domains. VLANs can help improve network
security, management, and bandwidth allocation.
• Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a concept in which we can divide the
devices logically on layer 2 (data link layer). Generally, layer 3
devices divide the broadcast domain but the broadcast domain
can be divided by switches using the concept of VLAN.
• A broadcast domain is a network segment in which if a device
broadcast a packet then all the devices in the same broadcast
domain will receive it.
• The devices in the same broadcast domain will receive all the
broadcast packets but it is limited to switches only as routers
don’t forward out the broadcast packet
Features of VLAN
• A VLAN forms sub-network grouping together devices on separate physical LANs.
• VLAN's help the network manager to segment LANs logically into different broadcast domains.
• VLANs function at layer 2, i.e. Data Link Layer of the OSI model.
• There may be one or more network bridges or switches to form multiple, independent VLANs.
• Using VLANs, network administrators can easily partition a single switched network into multiple
networks depending upon the functional and security requirements of their systems.
• VLANs eliminate the requirement to run new cables or reconfiguring physical connections in the
present network infrastructure.
• VLANs help large organizations to re-partition devices aiming improved traffic management.
• VLANs also provide better security management allowing partitioning of devices according to
their security criteria and also by ensuring a higher degree of control connected devices.
• VLANs are more flexible than physical LANs since they are formed by logical connections. This aids
is quicker and cheaper reconfiguration of devices when the logical partitioning needs to be
changed.
•Protocol VLAN − Here, the traffic is handled based on the
protocol used. A switch or bridge segregates, forwards or
discards frames the come to it based upon the traffics
protocol.
•Port-based VLAN − This is also called static VLAN. Here, the
network administrator assigns the ports on the switch / bridge
to form a virtual network.
•Dynamic VLAN − Here, the network administrator simply
defines network membership according to device
characteristics.
Wireless Links and Network Characteristics

• Attenuation: reduce force, effect, or value

• Path loss: decreased signal strength. When a electromagnetic
radiation attenuates as it passes
• through matter or even free space as the signal disperses. As distance
between sender and
• receiver increases, signal strength decreases
• Multipath propagation: when waves reflect off objects and the
ground and take different paths
• CRC(cyclic redundancy check) error detection: an error detecting code used to
determine if a block of data has been corrupted
• Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR): relative measure of the strength of the received
signaland the background noise of the environment - measured in decibels (dBs)
• Bit error rate (BER): probability that a transmitted bit is received in error at the
receiver
• Modulation: process of converting data into electrical signals optimized for
transmission
• Hidden terminal problem: physical obstructions in the environment may
preventA and C from hearing the other's transmissions, even though A and C
transmissions are interfering at station B.
• Code division multiple access (CDMA): each bit being sent is encoded by
multiplying the bit simultaneously onto a single communication channel
Code Division Multiple Access-CDMA
• CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is
basically a channel access method and is also an example
of multiple access. Multiple access basically means that
information by several transmitters can be sent
simultaneously onto a single communication channel.
•
Characteristics of CDMA
• Characteristics of CDMA
• It allows more users to connect at a given time and thus provides improved data and
voice communication capacity.

• A full spectrum is used by all the channels in CDMA.

• CDMA systems make the use of power control to eliminate the interference and noise
and to thus improve the network quality.

• CDMA encodes the user transmissions into distinct and unique codes in order to secure
its signals.

• In CDMA systems all the cells can thus use the same frequency.

• CDMA systems have a soft [Link] there is no particular limit to the number of
users in a CDMA system but with increase in the number of users the performance
degrades.
Encoder for DS-SS CDMA(Direct sequence-Spread
spectrum)
• The input provided to the CDMA encoder can be in the form of Pulse code
modulation (PCM) encoded voice band signal or can be a digital signal from
computer.
• It is multiplied with N bit, which is an unique chip code.
• The output of balanced modulator is the product code.
• In IF(Intermediate frequency-signal converting after receiving, before sending)
carrier it is used as an PSK (phase shift keying)modulation.
• The balanced modulator is sometimes referred to as multiplier.
• Further the modulated signal is then converted to RF(radio Frequency-for
wireless) band and is used for transmission purpose.
• The high power amplifier basically raises the level of power to a very high level
and then the antennas transmit this signal.
• The encoder is also called as multiplexer.
Decoder for DS-SS CDMA(Direct sequence-Spread
spectrum)
BPF-Band pass frequency-with in range
• The decoder helps in reconverting the RF signal to IF.
• A coherent PSK (phase shift keying) carrier is been obtained from IF.
• The chip code is been used by the receiver and it helps in synchronizing the
receiver station's code generator.
• The recovered chip is then multiplied with recovered PSK carrier to
generate PSK modulated signal which contains PSK carrier and the chip
code.
• The IF signal which is received, contains chip code, PSK carrier and data. In
correlator it is compared with the received IF signal.
• The correlator helps in comparing this two signals and helps in recovering
the original data.
• The decoder is also called as demultiplexer.
Advantages
• Increased user capacity is an advantage of the CDMA as it supports a lot more users in comparison to
TDMA or FDMA.(time&frequency multiple access)
• CDMA is more secure as the information transmitted is below the noise floor making the intrusion of the
spectrum difficult.
• CDMA systems have comparatively fewer dropouts than GSM. Thus, it can also be used in rural areas.
• The cost of the calls in CDMA is lower in comparison to the cost in GSM.
• CDMA provides a high quality of voice with almost no noise during the calls.
• Using CDMA problems like multipath and fading do not occur.
• CDMA has a very low power requirement.
Disadvantages
• CDMA lacks the facility of international roaming which is provided by GSM(Global System for Mobile)
• Since there is no limit to the number of users the system performance degrades with an increase in the
number of users.
• Self-jamming problem occurs in CDMA systems because of loss of orthogonality.
• The problem of channel pollution occurs in CDMA systems which thus degrades the quality of audio.
• Since most of the mobile companies use GSM thus there is a lack of handsets for CDMA technology.
802.11
• The IEEE 802.11 standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, outlines
the architecture and defines the MAC and physical layer
specifications for wireless LANs (WLANs).
• Wi-Fi uses high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for
connecting the devices in LAN.
• Given the mobility of WLAN nodes, they can move unrestricted
within the network coverage zone. The 802.11 structure is
designed to accommodate mobile stations that participate
actively in network decisions
 Important Terminologies of IEEE 802.11 Architecture
• Station: Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected to the
wireless LAN. It can be of two types:

• Wireless Access Point (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are wireless routers
that bridge connections for base stations.

• Client: Examples include computers, laptops, printers, and smartphones.

• Access Point: It is a device that can be classified as a station because of its functionalities
and acts as a connection between wireless medium and distributed systems.

• Distribution System: A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and integrated LANs to
create an ESS.

• Frame:Itis a MAC protocol data unit.

• SSID (Service Set Identifier): It’s the network name for a particular WLAN. All-access
points and devices on a specific WLAN must use the same SSID to communicate.
802.11 MAC
• MAC layer provides functionality for several tasks like control medium
access, can also offer support for roaming, authentication, and power
conservation. The basic services provided by MAC are the mandatory
asynchronous data service and optional time-bounded service
• IEEE 802.11 defines how devices communicate over wireless radio waves in a
local area network (LAN).
• Instead of cables (like Ethernet), it uses radio frequency (RF) signals.
• The MAC (Medium Access Control) layer in IEEE 802.11 controls how devices
access and share the wireless medium (radio channel).
• Channel Access Control – Uses CSMA/CA
• Frame Formatting
• Error Control – ACK mechanism
• Fragmentation & Reassembly
• Authentication & Association
• Power Management
Standard Wi-Fi Name Frequency Max Speed

802.11a Wi-Fi 2 5 GHz 54 Mbps

802.11b Wi-Fi 1 2.4 GHz 11 Mbps

802.11g Wi-Fi 3 2.4 GHz 54 Mbps

802.11n Wi-Fi 4 2.4/5 GHz 600 Mbps

802.11ac Wi-Fi 5 5 GHz ~3.5 Gbps

802.11ax Wi-Fi 6 2.4/5/6 GHz ~9.6 Gbps

• MAC Sublayer frame of IEEE 802.11
• The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −

• Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains control information of the
frame.

• Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its acknowledgement
occupy the channel.

• Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source, immediate
destination and final endpoint respectively.

• Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.

• Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size of data field is
2312 bytes.

• Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.