EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

This is a branch of psychology that focuses on the scientific study of how humans learn in
different settings.

- It is concerned with the best educational interventions and the most effective
methods of teaching and learning.
- It also includes the social, emotional and cognitive processes that involved in
learning throughout the life span.
- It is also concerned with the psychological problems associated with the
teaching and training of students.

HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The early roots of educational psychology can be traced back to the Greek philosophers
Plato and Aristotle.

Discuss the contributions of the following people to educational psychology

Plato.

He believed that all knowledge is innate at birth and is perfected by experiential learning
during growth.

Aristotle

Who was a student of Plato was the first to make the observation that association among
ideas facilitated understanding and recall

He believed that understanding was aided by contiguity, succession, similarity and contrast

John Locke

In the late 1600’s Locke advanced the hypothesis that people learn from external forces. i.e.
we learn from others
He believed that we are born with mind which is like a blank slate (tabula rasa). According
to him, we know nothing at birth as we grow we start to fill in the blank slate with
knowledge and experience.

John Comenius

Comenius in the 1670s was the first to recognize the age difference in children’s ability to
learn.

He also noticed that children learn more effectively when they are involved with
experiences that they can understand.

E was the first to bring visual aids into the classroom.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau published in 1762 his belief that knowledge acquisition occurs through
experience.

He came up with a new theory of educational pedagogy (scientific study of how children
study or learn).

He proposed educating children according to their natural inclinations, impulses and

feelings.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1946 - 1927)

He was the first applied educational psychologist. He came up with his ideas in the 18th
century.

He was the first to apply Rousseau’s teachings by teaching children by drawing upon their
natural interests.

He taught children by letting them learn through activities and things that make them feel
free to pursue their own interests and conclusions.

According to him, teachers should gradually build up the level of complexity of information
that is being taught.

He also stressed on the importance of student teacher relationships.

Herbert Spencer

He emphasized on the scientific study of the educational process.

He promoted the systems theory. According to this theory everything is viewed as a system
of interrelated chain where one will and shall affect the other systems i.e. the physical,
social, psychological

In relation to education, one must consider this chain for learning to occurs.

Johannan Friedrich Herbart

He was the first to distinguish instructural process from subject matter.

He is known as the father of scientific pedagogy

He proposed that interests develop when vivid ideas are hospitable towards new ones thus
past associations motivate apperception of current ones.

According to him learning follows from building up a sequence of ideas important to the
individual. This gave teachers a resemblance of theory of motivation.

Wilhelm Wundt

Wundt extended Herbart theory of apperception in to a theory of consciousness. He sort to

explain associations among mental processes.

He is known as the father of modern psychology.

William James

In 1890s, James talked to teachers about psychology

His ideas included:-

- Relating new information to information that a student already knows

- Project based learning.
Alfred Binet

Developed IQ tests which were designed to help the French government identify children
with developmental delays in order for them to receive special attention through the
creation of special education programmes.

John Dewey

John Dewey believed and proposed that school should focus on students rather than on
subjects.

He advocated for active learning and believed that hands on experience was an important
part of the learning process.

Edward Lee Thorndike

Sort to explain learning in forms of the stimulus response connections.

He was identified as a connectionist.

He established the law of effect to account for the strengthening or weakening of stimulus
response connections as a result of experience.

He proposed the transfer of training theory – this theory states that what is learned in one
sphere of activity transfers to another sphere only when the two sphre share common
elements.

Benjamin Bloom

Developed an important taxonomy designed to categorize and describe different

educational objectives.

The major domains were cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning objectives.
MAJOR PERSPECTIVES IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Behavioral perspective

Suggests that behaviors are learnt through conditioning and imitation. E.g. through the use
of rewards for appropriate behavior and punishment for bad behavior

This perspective has been criticized because it does not account for attitudes and
intrinsic motivation.

Developmental perspective

Focuses on how children acquire new skills as they grow.

By understanding how children think at different stages of development educational

psychologists can better understand what children are capable at each point of their
growth.

This information is useful in creating appropriate teaching methods and materials at

each stage of development.

Cognitive perspective

Focuses on understanding how people think, learn, remember and process information.

They try to understand

- how kids become motivated to learn

- how they remember the things they have learnt
- And how they solve problems.

Constructivists approach

Focuses on how children construct their knowledge of the world.

They are more interested in the social and cultural influences on learning.
SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The total subject matter of educational psychology revolves around the learner, learning
experiences, the learning process, learning environment, and the teacher.

Learner

Our main aim of studying educational psychology is to equip us with knowledge about the
learner.

This involves:-

- Understanding the developmental characteristics and abilities of the students.

- Problems a learner can face and how it can be dealt with
- Learner differences such as intelligence, personality.
- Explains the causes of these differences.

Learning Experiences

Educational psychology equips us with knowledge of the kinds of learning experiences

desirable and different stages of growth and development so that these experiences can be
acquired with greater ease and satisfaction.

This is based on what we learn at the different stages of growth and development.

Learning Process

Educational psychology deals with the nature of learning and how it takes place .

it involves:-

- Principles and theories of learning

- Remembering and forgetting
- Perceiving
- Concept formation
- Thinking and reasoning process
- Problem solving
- Ways and means of learning
It also gives information on factors that influence learning such as:-

- Maturation
- Motivation
- Attention
- Interest

Learning Environment

Educational psychology focuses on the environmental and situational factors which come
between the learner and the teacher.

Teacher

Educational psychology emphasizes the need of knowing the self as a teacher to play the
role properly in the process of education.

Concerned with:-

- Conflicts
- Motivations
- Anxiety
- Personality traits
- Interests
- Characteristics of an effective teacher.

PURPOSE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. To provide knowledge on the nature of the child i.e. personality

2. To provide an understanding of the nature and aims of education
3. Provide knowledge on the development processes
4. Provide an understanding on the principles that govern learning together with
knowledge on the techniques for guiding improvement in learning and their
applications to the practical problems in the classroom
5. To present the theories underlying measurement and evaluation of mental abilities,
achievement and personality e.t.c.
 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION

Growth

Refers to physical increase in some quantity over time. It includes changes in weight,
height, body proposing and physical appearance.

Development

Refers to the qualitative changes in an organism as a whole. It is a continuous process

through which physical, emotional and intellectual changes occur.

It is a function of both maturation and interaction with environment.

Comparison between growth and development

Growth Development
- Refers to physical changes - The overall changes in an individual
- The changes are orderly and
coherent towards the goal of
maturity
- Are in terms of quantitative aspects - Are in terms of both qualitative and
quantitative aspects
- Does not continue throughout life - Continues throughout life
- Stops after maturation - Its progressive
- Occurs due to multiplication of cells - Occurs due to maturation and
interaction with environment
- May or may not bring development - Possible without growth
Principles of human development
 Development involves changes

Human beings undergo changes from the moment of conception to death. E.g changes in
physical appearance, changes in cognitive performance

 Development is a continuous process

One stage of development is a basic framework for the next stage of development. As
human beings explore, he/she adds on to the skills already acquired and the new skills
become the basis for further achievement.

 Development follows direction and a uniform pattern

Development proceeds from the centre of the body outwards (proximodistal dev). i.e
Spinal cord develops befor the rest of the body

Development proceeds from the head downwards (cephalocaudal ) i.e. the child gains
control of the head first before the arms and legs

 Individual differences exists in the development process

The rate of development varies from child to child i.e each child develops as per his ability
or perception of the environment.

 Development depends on maturation and learning

The biological changes in the brain and the nervous system account largely for maturation.

The child’s environment and learning that occurs as a result of the child’s experiences
determine whether the child will reach optimal development.

i.e. an enriched environment and varied experiences helps the child develop to his/ her
potential.
  development is predictable

Development occurs in a predictable manner. E.g. language development, intellectual

development and emotional development.

 Early development is more critical than latter development

If negative experiences occur during a child’s early life . preschool years are important
years in a child’s development.

 Development is determined by social expectation

In every society there are certain rules and standards which everyone is expected to follow.

Hence development is determined by social norms and expectation of behavior from the
individual.

 Development has potential hazards

Development may be affected by hazards from the environment that may either be physical
of psychological in nature.

 Happiness varies at different periods of development

Childhood is the most happy while puberty is the most unhappy.

Patterns of happiness also vary from child to child and is influenced by the child rearing
process.
 JEAN PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

This theory tries to explain how a child constructs a mental model of the world.

This theory is based on the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore
and manipulate the world around them.

He is of the idea that cognitive development is a process that occurs as a result of biological
maturation and interaction with the environment.

He proposed four stages of cognitive development which reflect the increasing

sophistication of children’s thoughts

According to him:

- each child goes through the stages in the same order

- there are individual differences I the rates at which children progress through
this stages
- Description of each stage includes the age at which the average child would
reach each stage.

Stages of cognitive development

 Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 Years Old)

This stage is characterized by the idea that infants think by manipulating the world around
them.

This is done by using all the five senses seeing, hearing, touching, tasting and smelling.

Examples

- A child would cry when they want something and then observe your reaction to
their cry
- A child may put all sorts of things in their mouth just to feel the taste of the
object. If they like the taste, they go ahead and eat it.

The main achievement at this stage is object permanence.

This occurs at around 5 – 8 months

This implies the understanding of the concept that an object still exists even if it is out of
sight.
 - E.g. before 5 months if you hide something from a child, it will not bother to look
for it because it assumes that the object no longer exists but once they develop
object permanence then they would look for the hidden ball.

By the end of this stage children are able to engage in deferred imitation – the ability to
reproduce a previously witnessed action later on rather than copying it right away.

- I.e. They are able to reproduce it form a mental representation of the observed
behavior.

 Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 Years)

During this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images and ideas – they are
able to make one thing stand for something other than itself.

This is the reason why they engage in pretend play

What do they substitute for the following?

Child
Sufuria
Unga
Money

Thinking is still egocentric – they have a difficulty in taking the viewpoint of others
They assume that everyone thinks, feels and sees things from their point of view.

They focus more on how actions will impact them rather than others.

For example a child who wants something that another child has may simply
just take it from the child

 Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 Years)

Characterized by children’s reasoning becoming more logical and focused.

It is marked by operational thought – the child can work out things internally in their heads
rather than physically trying things out in the real world

e.g. if you ask a child which is bigger between a ½ and a ¼ of an orange , they
can think through it and give a response without the need to draw.
They start to demonstrate a logical understanding of conservation – understanding that
something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance change

Children can conserve

- Numbers by the age of 6. (they can understand that 2+2 =3 +1 = 4 +0)

- Mass by the age of 7 (e.g. if the same amount of liquid is poured on two different
containers with different shapes then the amount of liquid in the two containers
is the same)
- Weight by the age of 9 (understand that 1kg of sand is the same as 1kg of cotton
wool)

Children can organize objects by classes

By the end of this stage, children are able to master the following concepts

1. Reversibility – the idea that something can be changes back to its original state after
it has been altered. E.g when water is poured from a slender glass to a wide
glass even though it may appear little, they know that if it is poured back in the
original glass it will still be the same.
2. Transivity – the concept of relation e.g. if my mom is related to you then you are
related to me.
3. Assimilation – absorbing new ideas and linking them to what they already know e.g
if you tell a child at this stage to multiply 2x3 they will add 2 three times.
4. They are able to incorporate inductive reasoning – they can draw inferences from
observations in order to make generalizations

 Formal operational stage (11 years +)

Children develop the ability to think in abstract ways hence they can solve problems.

They are also able to combine ideas and come up with new ones.

By the end of this stage they have developed

- Logical and systematic thinking

- Are capable of deductive reasoning.

Beyond formal operational thought

There are psychologists who are of the opinion that a fifth stage should be created known
as post formal stage

In post formal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances.
Emotions also play a great role in our decisions.

Implications to education

a) Discovery learning – the idea that children learn better by doing nad actively
exploring.
b) Children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the
appropriate stage of cognitive development
c) Learning should be student centered.
d) As teachers we should encourage the following in the classroom
- Focus on the process of learning rather than the end product - mastering the
concept is much more important than getting an A
- Using active methods that require rediscovering e.g doing research
- Using collaborative as well as individual activities – so that children can learn from
each other
- Evaluate the child’s level of development so that suitable tasks can be set.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

- Stages of prenatal development

- Principles of prenatal development (assignment)
- Stages of pregnancy
- Physical development
- Birth proccess

 PRENATAL ENVIRONMENT AND INFLUENCES.

After conception, the environment in which the baby grows is crucial to development.

Teratogens.

These refer to any harmful substances that cross the placental barrier, harm the fetus and
cause birth defects. The first 8 weeks of the development are the most crucial however,
damage to the central nervous system, the eyes and the genitals may occur during the last
weeks of pregnancy.

Let’s look at some of the teratrogens that may harm the unborn baby

 Drugs

Narcotics and sedatives - such as heroine and morphine, aspirin. If the mother is an addict
of heroine then the baby will also be born an addict. Taking aspirin in large amounts can
lead to bleeding and spontaneous abortion.

Alcohol – drinking alcohol during pregnancy is the leading cause of birth defects. Leads to
retardation, joint abnormalities, facial defects and a small head and heart problems. It also
increases the chances of a miscarriage.

Nicotine – results to low birth weight, growth retardation, premature birth, stillbirth and
spontaneous abortion and increases the risk of sudden infant death.

Marijuana – premature birth, low birth weight,

Cocaine – leads to constriction of uterine arteries and blood vessels which impairs blood
supply and oxygen delivery to the fetus.

This results in reduction in infant’s birth weight, length and head circumference. tremors,
irritability, excessive and high pitched crying, hyperactivity, hypertension, vigorous
sucking, feeding difficulty and poor sleep wake schedules.

 Chemicals, heavy metals and environmental pollutants

Herbicides containing dioxin – have been associated with high rates of miscarriage,
malformed infants and cancer
Lead- this is a toxic metal and mothers exposed to it may give birth to infants with low birth
weight, low neurological development and reduced intelligence.

Radiation

Exposure to radiation may lead to miscarriage, stillbirths and babies with congenital
malformation. Pregnant mothers should not be exposed to x-rays especially in the first
three months of pregnancy.

Heat

Too much heat or very hot water may damage the development of the central nervous
system.

Maternal diseases

 Rubella / German measles.

If the mother is infected with the virus before the 11th weak of pregnancy it may lead to

- Deafness of the baby

- Heart defects
- Visual and intellectual deficiency
- Mental retardation

 Toxoplasmosis

This is a parasite found in uncooked meat and feces of animals. This affects the nervous
system of the fetus resulting in

- Retardation
- Deafness

Sexually transmitted diseases.

 AIDS

If the mother is a carrier then she may give birth to a child with the disease. Hiv infected
children develop

- Lung inflammation
- Coughing
- Swelling at the end of the fingers
- Pneumonia
 - Progressive brain damage that interferes with walking and talking and causes
impaired intelligence.
- Loose social and language skills
- Losses muscle control
- Head may be small in relation to body size.
- Inflammation of the liver (hepatitis)
- Heart failure / damage to the heart
- Kidney failure.

 Congenital syphilis

Lead to

- Bone, liver or brain damage

- Blindness
- deafness
- If a pregnant mother is not treated the child may die before or shortly after birth
- If treated before the forth month of pregnancy, the baby will not develop syphilis.

If detected before labor a cesarean delivery will prevent the baby from coming into contact
with the disease in the birth canal

 Genital herpes

Lead to

- Death
- Half of those who survive suffer brain damage and blindness.

 Gonorrhea - Leads to
- Blindness
- Death

To prevent blindness caused by gonorrhea, penicillin is dropped in the eyes of the

newborn.

 Chlamydia bacterium - Leads to

- Eye infection
- Pneumonia
- Sudden infant death

Maternal conditions

 Maternal age
Younger teenage mothers

- Are more likely to have miscarriages, premature birth and still birth than are
mothers in their twenties.
- The infants are more likely to have low birth weight, have physical defects and to be
retarded compared to those born by mothers who are over 20 years old.

Women who are over 35 years experience greater risks during pregnancy

- Miscarriage
- Complication during pregnancy and miscarriage
- A greater chance of having twins of developmental abnormalities.
- Downs syndrome.

 Nutrition

Nutritional deficiencies such as lack of vitamins, proteins and minerals during pregnancy
have been associated with

- Stillbirths
- Miscarriages
- And major deformities.
- For example, lack of vitamin A or calcium in the mother may result in poorly
developed teeth of the infant
- Protein deficiency may cause mental retardation, premature birth, low resistance to
infections low birth weight.

 Stress

A pregnant woman who is undergoing a lot of stress is

- Likely to have pregnancy complications

- High rates of down syndrome
- miscarrage

 High blood pressure and hypertension

- May result into miscarriage.

 Incompatibility of maternal and fetal blood

- Anemia, death and jaundice
  HEREDITY AND GENETICS

The nucleus of each cell of our bodies contains a set of 46 chromosomes. When a child is
conceived, he/she receives 23 chromosomes from the mother and 23 chromosomes from
the father which make up the 46 chromosomes.

The chromosomes carry the heredity material known as the genes which control the
physical characteristics that are inherited. The genes direct physical changes in the body
through ought development.

Genes are made up of numerous molecules known as deoxyribonucleicacid (DNA) which

looks like a spiral stair case.

The outer parts of the ladder are made of sugars and phosphates while the rungs of the
ladder are made up of four chemicals referred to as bases.

- Adenine
- Thymine
- Guanine
- Cytosine.

Each rung consists of a pair of bases

- adenine occur with thymine

- While guanine occur with cytosine

Each of these combinations is unique and so it’s possible that siblings will have different
inheritances.

Each cell in the body has the same DNA code and the same gene that direct growth. The
particular code that we inherit from our parents is responsible for the physical
characteristics we develop.

Each sperm cell and ovum contains 23 chromosomes. 22 of which are labeled autosomes
and is responsible for most aspects of human development.

The23rd pair is referred to as the sex chromosome which determines whether an

offspring will be male / female.

- The man produces 2 types of sperms one with an X chromosome and the other with
a Y chromosome.
- The woman produces an ova with 2 X chromosomes
- If the sperm containing the X chromosome combines with an ovum then a girl is
conceived
- Ifthe sperm containing a Y chromosome combines with an ovum then a boy is
conceived.
Heredity disorders
Identical (monozygotic) twins results when an ovum fertilized by one sperm divides
during development to produce two embryos.

- The embryos have same heredity

- Same sex
- Share a common placenta.

If the two don’t completely separate then conjoined (Siamese) twins result.

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins result when two ova are fertilized by two separate sperms.

- May be of the same sex or different

- Different in heredity just like other siblings
- Develop in separate placentas.

When an organism inherits competing traits such as the color of skin then only one trait is
expressed. The trait that is expressed is the dominant trait and the other is the
recessivetrait.

Genes that govern alternate expressions of a particular characteristic such as skin color are
referred to as alleles. An organism receives a pair of alleles, one from each parent.

- When the two are the same then the organism is homozygous for the trait.
- When the two are different then the two are heterozygous for the trait.

In some cases, one allele is not completely dominant over the other. This is referred to as
incomplete dominance. The person then has a mixture of the two types of alleles.

Heredity defects

Majority of babies are born normal however some are born with defects. This is referred to
as congenital deformity.

Birth defects result from

- Heredity factors
- Environmental factors
- And birth injuries.
-
Heredity disorders can either reside in the chromosomes or genes.

Chromosomal and genetic disorders

Chromosomal disorders

Chromosomal disorders are of two types

 - Sex chromosomal disorders
- Autosomal chromosomal disorders

Autosomal chromosomal disorders.

The most common is Down syndrome.

 Down syndrome

Caused by an extra chromosome 21 resulting in an individual having 47 chromosomes.

Its symptoms include

- Distinctive facial features such as flattened skull, folds of skin over the eyes,
- Small hands
- Large tongues
- Heart defects
- Mental retardation
- Short in nature

Down syndrome is common among children born by mothers above 40 years of are and it
increases with increase in mother’s age. There is also a greater risk when the father is over
the 45 years old.

The cause is still a mystery however it is believed that it is caused by eggs remaining in the
ovary for too long

Sex chromosomal disorders.

 Klinefelter’s syndrome

Occurs when a male possesses XXY chromosomes rather than XY. It results into

- Feminine features
- Small penis and testicles
- Low sex drive
- Infertility
- Prominent breasts
- Decreased body hair
- Language impairment.

Condition may be helped by injection of testosterone hormones.

 Tuner’s syndrome
Occurs when a female possess XO (lack of a chromosome) instead of XX chromosomes.
Leads to

- Short stature
- Lack of functional ovaries
- Incomplete development of internal and external sex organs
- Loose skin
- Widely spaced nipples
- Mental deficiency
- Deafness.
- Infertility

 XYY

Leads to

- Tall stature
- Low intelligence
- Severe acne
- Aggressive behavior

 XXX
- Some turn out normal while others are sterile
- Mental retardation.

Genetic disorders

Occurs when a child acquires a dominant or two recessivedefective genes.

 Sickle cell anemia – two recessive defective genes

The red blood cells of the afflicted person are distorted and pointed hence find it difficult to
pass through the blood vessel. The red blood cells pile up leading to oxygen starvation
accompanied by pain.

The body then acts to eliminate this cells resulting in anemia. The symptoms include

- Tiredness
- Lack of appetite
- Death
 Cystic fibrosis- two recessive defective genes

Causes malfunction in the exocrine gland that produces sweat, tears, mucus and saliva.
 - Breathing becomes difficult due to the thickness of mucus
- Secreted sweat is extremely salty
- Can lead to death

Has no cure

 Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Results from the body’s inability to breakdown the amino acid phenylalanine which
accumulates and affects the nervous system

- Causes mental retardation

Has no cure however women treated successfully as children may give birth to retarded
children due to a toxic uterine environment. Pregnant women should take special diet at
the first signs of pregnancy.

 Spina bifida

Caused by both heredity and environmental factors. Results from an incompletely formed
spinal chord.

Causes

- Partial paralysis
- Mental retardation

 Tay – sach disease

Occurs from failure to breakdown fatty material in the central nervous system due to lack
of specific chemicals in the blood. Leads

- Blindness
- Mental retardation
- Death

Prevention and diagnosis of birth defects

 Genetic counseling

Some of the birth defects can be predicted through genetic counseling.

Genetic counseling informs parents of the genetic odds that their children will have birth
defects.

- The genetic counselor begins by obtaining medical history of parents.

- Both parents are asked about he causes of death of their closerelatives and for other
relevant information.
 - Physical examination is performed on the couple
- If necessary, special lab tests are also performed
- Once tests are complete, the genetic counselor explains the findings and describes
alternative courses of action

The genetic counselor explains the options and risks but the decision is up to the couple.

 Prenatal tests

If a woman is already pregnant and the doctor suspects birth defects then special tests are
performed to determine whether specific birth defects are present

i) Ultra sound

Special technique of using sound waves to make a video image of an unborn baby to check
for specific health problems

- It can also show whether the fetus are developing on schedule

- May help in verifying baby’s due date
- Reveal baby’s sex
- Reveal the presence of twins

Can be done during all the trimesters

ii) Amniocentesis

A special needle is used to withdraw a sample of amniotic fluid surrounding the unborn
baby and testing that fluid for indication of specific birth defects or other health problems

Ultra sound is used as a guide when inserting the needle

- Can be used in testing down syndrome when the mother is over 35

- The test is risky and may lead to miscarriage and should only be performed when
there is a valid medical reason.

Can be done during the 2nd trimester at around 15 weeks

iii) Chorionic villi sampling

Involves sampling small amounts of tissues from the membrane that encompasses the fetus
to test for birth defects. It is also guided by ultra sound.

Posses much greater risk.

Can be done during the first trimester

INFERTILITY

Many societies view child bearing as a pointer to the well being of a marital bond and to an
individual’s well being

Infertility is defined as the inability conceive a child after a year of unprotected sexual
intercourse

Affects men and women of every age.

Research has shown that infertility rates in women increases with age

Interventions

- Use of fertility drugs to stimulate ovulation

- Hormonal supplements to foster implantation
- Surgery to clean out the uterus and fallopian tubes
- Artificial insemination (inserting the sperm into the woman’s uterus through a
syringe).
- Assisted reproductive technology (ART)

Refers to any strategy in which the egg is fertilized outside the womb

Can be done in the following form of In vitro fertilization (IVF)

After fertility drugs have been given to stimulate ovulation, a woman’s eggs are
harvested and put in a lab along with the partner’s sperm to be fertilized.
After fertilization the eggs are inserted into the uterus.
There are variations to this. This include
i. The sperm may be placed directly into the woman’s fallopian tube or injected in
the ova.
ii. The fertilized eggs may be injected into a carrier womb – a surrogate mother
who carries the pregnancy to full term

INFANT DEVELOPMENT

- Physical development
- Cognitive development
- Language development
- Emotional and social development
CHILDHOOD

- Physical development
- Cognitive development
- Language development
- Socio emotional development
- Disorders associated with childhood

ADOLESCENCE

- Physical development
- Cognitive development
- Socio emotional development
- Disorders associated with adolescence

ADULTHOOD

- Physical development
- Cognitive development
- Socio emotional development

MIDLIFE

- Physical development
- Cognitive development
- Socio emotional development

LATER LIFE AND OLD AGE

- Physical development
- Cognitive development
- Socio emotional development
- Disorders associated with childhood
- Death and dying
 LEARNING
Behaviorists treat organisms as a blank slate on which learning experiences are
inscribed.

Learning refers to a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to

experience

Learning involves the acquisition of knowledge and skills

Learning can also shape

- Personal habits such as nail biting

- Personality traits such as shyness
- Emotional responses such as fear of certain objects
- Personal preferences such as clothe preferences

Much of our behavior results from learning

TYPES OF LEARNING

 Classical conditioning

In this type of learning a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was
originally evoked by another stimulus

The process was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov and is sometimes referred to a
Pavlovian conditioning.

Through his experiments he demonstrated that we learn by association.

In classical conditioning we have two types of association

 Unconditioned association

This is a natural or unlearned association

When dogs salivate in the presence of meat then this is a natural association
Under unconditioned associations we have

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – this is a stimulus that evokes a natural response

Unconditioned response (UCR) – a natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

 Conditioned association

This is a learned association

When the dog salivates at the sound of the bell, this is a learned association

We have

Conditioned stimulus (CS) - this is a neutral stimulus which through learning has acquired
the capacity to evoke a natural response

Conditioned response – learned response to conditioned stimulus

Basic processes/principles in classical conditioning

i. Acquisition: forming new responses

This is the initial stage of learning something

The acquisition of a conditioned response depends on stimulus contiguity

Stimuli is said to be contagious if they occur simultaneously

ii. Extinction : weakening conditioned responses

Extinction refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned response

tendencies

This occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented continuously without the
unconditioned stimulus

In pavlovian experiment, extinction occurs when the bell is rung without the
presentation of meat. The bell gradually loses its capacity to elicit a the repose of
salivation.

iii. Spontaneous recovery: resurrecting responses

Referrers to the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure
to the conditioned stimulus and without new learning

iv. Stimulus generalization

Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the
same way to new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus.

The more similar the new stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus the greater the
generalization

e.g. a person who has fear for cats is likely to fear things that resemble a cat. When this
happens the person has stimulus generalization

v. stimulus discrimination

Occurs when an organism that has learnt a response to a specific stimulus does not
respond in the same way to new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus

This is possible if the organism has had adequate experiences with both the original
and the new stimulus.

The less similar new stimulus are to the original conditioned stimulus the greater the
likelihood and ease in discrimination.

vi. Higher order conditioning

A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.

e.g the bell now being paired with another stimulus such as a boy running in the house.
In this case the dog salivates at the sight of the boy running even without hearing the
bell or seeing the meat.

Applications of classical conditioning

- Acquiring and overcoming fear

- Attraction by pairing a conditions stimulus with a pleasant stimulus e.g hating
someone simply because they dress like someone you hate
- Sickness and health e.g. in the case of allergies

 Operant conditioning

This is a form of learning in which responses are controlled by their consequences

This type of learning was demonstrated by B.F. Skinner

A response is strengthened or repeated if it leads to a positive consequence.

e.g you study to get good grades

Basic processes in operant conditioning

i. Acquisition and shaping

This is the first stage of learning new patterns of responding

Shaping involves the reinforcement of closer and closer approximation of desired response

Sometimes the organism does not emit the desired response on its own so whenever
the organism responds in a way that is closer to the desired response then they are
reinforced .

Skinner did an experiment by putting a rat in a box. For the rat to get food, it was
expected to step on some lever then the food would drop into the chamber. Since the
rat was not aware of the lever what happened is that whenever the rat moved closer to
the lever skinner would drop in some food but very little. The closer it got to the lever
the more food was dropped with time, the rats started stepping on the lever and more
food dropped.

ii. Extinction

Extinction refers to the gradual weakening or disappearing of a response because the

response is no longer followed by a reinforce.

When the reinforcement is stopped the extinction begins

iii. Stimulus control: generalization and extinction

When a response is consistently reinforced in the presence of a particular stimulus that

stimulus serves as a signal indicating that the response is likely to lead to a reinforce

The stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement is called a discriminative

stimulus.
In stimulus generalization responding increases in the presence of new stimuli that
resemble original discriminative stimulus.

Reinforcement

Consequences that strengthen responses

Types of reinforcement

 Positive reinforcement

Involves following an response with the addition of a reinforcing stimulus.

In positive reinforcement situations a response is strengthened because something is

added or presented.

The addition of a reinforcing stimulus has the effect of making you more likely to
repeat the operant in similar situations in the future.

It is important to note that what constitutes a reinforcing stimulus can vary from
person to person

 Negative reinforcement

Involves a response that is followed by the removal of an aversive/ unpleasant stimulus.

In this case a response is strengthened because something is being subtracted or

removed

e.g when you have headache and then you take a pain killer, the headache is the
aversive stimulus which is removed by taking he medicine hence the behavior being
strengthened is taking medicine.

Aversive stimuli involves physical or psychological discomforts that an organism seeks to

escape or avoid.

e.g you rub some cream on an insect bite (operant) to prevent itching (aversive stimulus).

There are two kinds of reinforcing stimulus

i) Primary reinforcer – is a naturally reinforcing stimulus e.g. food, water

 ii) Conditioned reinforcer – or a secondary reinforcer. Is a reinforcer that has
acquired a reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer e.g.
money, a smile

Continuous reinforcement – occurs when every instance of a desired response is reinforced

Partial reinforcement – occurs when a desired response is reinforced only on some

occasions

Schedules of reinforcement

i. Ratio schedules

Requires an organism to make a desired number of responses to gain reinforcement

 Fixed ratio – the response is given after a fixed number of desired responses e.g.
being paid after selling a given number of goods
 Variable ratio- reinforcement is given after a varied number of desired
responses. e.g. the number of responses required vary from time to time

ii. Interval schedules

Requires some time to pass before presenting reinforcement

 Fixed interval – reinforcement is given after a fixed time has elapsed e.g getting
salary at the end of the month
 Variable interval - the time interval for reinforcement to be given varies from time
to time e.g. dialing a busy number until you get through

 Punishment

This is a processes by which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that

dcreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated

We have two types of punishment

i) Punishment by application - involves a behavior being followed by the

presentation of an aversive stimuli. E.g. an employee is reprimanded
(punishment) for dressing inappropriately (behavior)
ii) Punishment by removal - refers to the loss or withdrawal of a reinforcing
stimulus following a behavior
 Even though punishment may work, it has several draw backs
- Punishment may decrease a specific response but it doesn’t necessarily teach
or promote a more appropriate response.
- Punishment that intense may produce undesirable results such as fear or
hostility.
- Its effects are temporary since the behavior is likely to re-apear once the
punishment is withdrawn

Alternatives to punishment

- Reinforce an alternative behavior that is both constructive and incompatible

with the problem behavior e.g if you have a patient who whines then respond
to their requests only when they talk in a normal tone of voice
- Stop reinforcing the problem behavior e.g if you have a patient with a
problematic behavior ignore them when they seek attention.
- Reinforce the non occurrence of the problematic behavior e.g. reward the
patient if the unwanted behavior is not observed
- Remove the opportunity t obtain positive reinforcement

Enhancing the effectiveness of positive reinforcements

- Make sure that the reinforcer is strongly reinforcing to the individual

- The reinforcer should e delivered immediately after the preferred behavior
occurs
- The reinforcer should be initially given each time the preferred behavior
occurs then gradually decrease the frequency of th reinforcement.
- Use a variety of positive reinforcers
- Encourage the patient to engage in self reinforcement in the form of pride.

Applications of operant conditioning

- Improving worker performance

- Promoting social skills in school children
- Promoting sleep at night
- Training animals to perform in movies
- Modifying behavior such as aggression

 Observational learning
Learning occurs by observing and imitating the actions of others who are considered as
role models

Basic processes

There are four key processes that are crucial in observational learning

Bandura 1986 suggests that cognitive processes interact to determine whether imitation
will occur.

 Attention - First you have to pay attention to the other person’s behavior and its
consequences
 Retention - Secondly you must remember the other person’s behavior so that you
can perform it later. Or store a mental representation of what you have learnt in
your memory
 Reproduction- Third you must transform the stored information into actions that
you are capable of reproducing
 Motivation - Fourthly there must be motivation for you to imitate the behavior. A
person is likely to imitate a behavior if they expect a reinforcement after doing so

Reinforcement determines which responses are performed e.g most of the time we study if
we expect to be tested

Application of observational learning

Most of our behavior is acquired through observational learning e.g. learning how to
pronounce word or dress.

-
 COGNITION
 SENSATION

Sensation is the process by which an organism detects stimulus from the environment.

Stimulus – source of physical energy that activates a sense organ such as sound, light e.t.c.

In order to be sensed, a stimulus must be strong enough to be detected, loud enough to beard,
bright enough to be seen and concentrated enough to be sensed.

Stimuli vary in both kind and strength. Different kinds of stimuli also activate different senses for
example light stimulus activates our sense of vision.

In order to be sensed, a stimulus must be strong enough to be detected, loud enough to beard,
bright enough to be seen and concentrated enough to be sensed.

The human sensory system are designed to extract from the environment the information that
we need to function and survive.

We tend to think that our senses are different from one another however we shall learn that
oour senses involve certain common principles/ processes.

All sensations are a result of stimulation of specialized cells known as, sensory receptors by some
form of physical energy

These sensory receptors convert these forms of physical energy into electrical impulses that
are transmitted by neurons to the brain

The process by which a form of physical energy is converted into a coded neural signal that can be
processed by the nervous system is called transduction.

Concepts about sensation

Absolute threshold

Absolute threshold is concerned with how intense a stimulus must be for it to be detected.

Our absolute threshold is the lowest / minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected 50
percent of the time.

This is because people differ considerably in their sensitivity to weak stimuli and the
sensitivity of individuals also differs from time to time.

Absolute thresholds defines the boundaries of an organism’s sensory capability.

As stimulus intensity increases, the subject’s probability of responding to stimulus gradually
increases

Thus, the lower the absolute threshold the greater the sensitivity of the stimulus.

Eugine Galanter 1962 provided some examples of absolute thresholds for the different senses

Sight/vision a candle light can be seen from 30 miles away on a clear dark night.

Hearing the tick of a watch can be heard at 20 feet

Taste one tea spoon of sugarcane be felt in two gallons of water

Smell one drop of perfume can be smelt throughout a 3 bedroom house

Touch a bee,s wing falling on your cheek from a height of about half an inch.

But then again, our absolute thresholds differ

Different threshold

Different threshold refers to the smallest/ minimum difference between two stimuli that a specific
sense can detect 50% of the time. For example, the smallest change in the volume of your radio that
you can detect. Also known as the just noticeable difference (JND).

JND is directly proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus. The JND increases with
increase in magnitude such as size, weight, and pitch e.t.c of the stimulus. JND is greater for heavy
objects than lighter . this principle is referred to as Weber’s law and it applies to all senses.

For example, if you add 5 books to 10 books then you will notice the difference in their
weight but if you add 5 books to 1000 books you will notice the difference in weight
even though the weight increase is similar in both. This principle is referred to as
Weber’s law.

Signal detection theory

This theory is concerned with and attempts to explain the factors that influence our ability to detect
stimuli. The theory proposes that the detection of a stimulus involves a decision making process as
well as sensory processes which are both influenced by a variety of factors.

Signal detection theorists observed that our absolute thresholds vary as a result they seek to
understand why people respond differently to the same stimuli and why the same person’s reaction
varies as circumstances change.

For example in a classroom situation where you have two students sitting close
together, one student is able to hear what you are saying while the other is not able to
and why rain pouring on the roof may prevent the student who was originally hearing
what you are saying from hearing your voice.

According to this theory, detection of stimuli depends on

 Noise – all the irrelevant stimuli in the environment

 Our expectations – if we expect a stimulus to be present in our environ then we are
likely to detect it
 Personal experiences
 Motivation
 Participant characteristics such as attention or level of fatigue
 A stimulus characteristic e.g. how loud is the sound.

(Brainstorm in groups) How can we improve student stimulus detection in the classroom?

 Manipulating rewards and coasts for giving correct responses

 Reducing noise in the classroom
 Improving the physical characteristics of the stimulus e.g. by being audible
 Arousing students attention

Sensory adaptation

This refers to our adjustment to sensory capacity following long exposure to stimuli. It can also be
referred to as our diminishing sensitivity to unchanging stimulus.

What happened the first time you entered a classroom to teach?

Is it still happening? If no then this is a good example of sensory adaptation

What happens when you enter a dark room after long exposure to light?

You may not be able to see anything but with time, your vision adapts and you are able to see
objects in the dark room

Sensory adaptation is a built in process that keeps people tuned in to the changes rather than the
constants in their environment i.e. it allows people to ignore the obvious.
  PERCEPTION

Perception is defined as the process of selecting, organizing and interpreting our sensations.
Perception occurs as a result of selective attention because it cannot attend to all the sensory
information available in our environment.

The basic perceptual processes operate according to a series of principles that describe how we
organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes. These are known as gestalt
principles of organization

Principles of organization.

These are rule that specify how our brain organizes individual pieces of elements into meaning full
wholes. According to gestalt principle of organization, our brain forms a perception by
automatically arranging or grouping visual stimuli according to certain perceptual principles.

 Figure and ground

The figure ground principle states that in organizing stimuli, we tend to distinguish between a
figure and a ground. The figures with more details stand out against a background with lesser
details.

 Closure

The closure principle states that in organizing stimuli we tend to fill in any missing parts of a figure
and see the figure as complete.

 Simplicity

The simplicity principle states that stimuli are organized in the simplest way possible.

 Similarity

In organizing stimuli, elements that appear similar are grouped together. For example we see rows
of circles and squares

 Proximity

Objects that are physically close to one another are grouped together

 Continuity

We tend to favor continuous paths when interpreting a series of dots or lines

Perceptual constancies

Refers to our tendency to perceive sizes, shapes brightness and color as remaining the same even
though their physical characteristics are constantly changing.

a) Size constancy

Refers to our tendency to perceive objects as remaining the same size even when their images are
continuously growing or shrinking.

For example when in a moving vehicle as we approach a tree, the size grows bigger and while you
move away the size becomes smaller however from our own experience, we know that objects do not
increase in size as they move closer.

b) Shape constancy

Our tendency to see an object as remaining the same shape when we view it from different angles.

E.g. the shape of a house

c) color / brightness constancy

Tendency to perceive colors/ brightness of objects as remaining the same under different lighting

E.g. blue dress in a disco light

Importance of perceptual constancy

d) It transforms an ever changing chaotic world into one with stability.

Depth perception

This is the ability to perceive the distance of an object as well as the three dimensional
characteristics of an object.

We use a variety of cues to judge the distance of objects. Some require the use of one eye –
monocular cues – while others require the use of two eyes – binocular cues.

Monocular cues

i. Relative size

If two or more objects are assumed to be equal or similar in size, the object that appears larger is
perceived to be closer.

ii. Interposition / overlap

When one object blocks the view of another object, the partially blocked object is perceived to be
farther away.

iii. Aerial perspective

Objects that are further away appear to be blurred or hazy. E.g. a high flying airplane

iv. Texture gradient

Areas with sharp detailed textures are interpreted as being closer while those with less detail are
perceived as being further away

v. Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to meet in the distance. The closer they seem to be the greater the perception
of distance. E.g. a road.

vi. Motion parallax

When in a moving train or vehicle, nearby objects seem to move faster than distance objects.

vii. Light and shadow

Brightly lit objects appear closer while objects in shadows appear further away.

Binocular cues

Requires information from both eyes.

i. Convergence

The more the eyes converge or rotate inward to focus on an object, the greater the strength of the
muscle signal and the closer the object is perceived to be.

Activity

Hold a coin close to your eyes; you’ll notice a strain in your muscles as eyes converge to focus on the
coin. Now try holding it further away, less convergence is needed.

ii. Binocular disparity

Because our eyes are set further apart, a slightly different image of an object is cast on the retina of
each eye when the two retinal images are very different we interpret the object as being close by.
When they are nearly identical then the object is perceived as being further away.
Try an example in class. Take an object, close one eye and observe then lose the other and observe.
When further away, the images appear more similar.

With both eyes, the images are perceived as one.

Illusions

Illusions are false or incorrect perceptions. They occur as a result of distortion of physical condition
or cognitive process. Illusions related to cognitive processes are related to size and shape. Most
illusions are visual

Ponzo illusions

The two lines are exactly the same in size however (i) appears to be longer than (ii).this illusion
comes as a result of linear perspective created by convergging lines which suggest that line (i) is
further away. Therefore if it’s further away then it must be bigger.

Muller – lyer- illusion

The two lines which are of equal lengths appear unequal. The line with wings pointing outwards
appears longer than the line with wings pointing inward. The wings facing outwards give an illusion
of the line being further away compared to that with wings facing inward.

Moon illusion

This is an illusion of shape. T answers the question ‘why does the moon look bigger in the horizon
than its highest point in the sky?’ This is because when the moon nears the horizon we can see that
it’s further away than objects in the environment. These objects provide our basis for comparison.
They cause us to believe that the moon is far away together with our size constancy. Hence we are
made to believe that it’s bigger when it’s in the horizon than when it’s overhead.

Zoliner illusio
The diagonal lines are parallel however they appear not to be parallel because of the different
patterns drawn across them

Poggendorf illusion

Which line is a continuation of line (a)

This illusion states that, lines that appear to pass behind solid objects appear to be moved over
when they emerge.

There are certain perceptions that occur without sensation. These perceptions are referred to as extra
sensory perceptions

Extra sensory perception (ESP)

This refers to perception without sensation. Also referred to as Psi. They are unusual processes of
energy transfer that are unexplained in terms of known physical and biological mechanisms. They
include:

iii. Precognition – the ability to foretell future events

iv. Clairvoyance – ability to perceive objects that do not directly stimulate sensory organs

v. Telepathy – the ability to sense the thoughts and feelings of another person

vi. Psycho kinesis – the ability to affect the physical world purely through thought and mental
control of physical objects.
  MEMORY

Memory refers to the ability to retain information over time through the process of
encoding, storing and retrieving.

From this definition we see that there are three processes involved in memory:

i) Encoding – refers to getting new information into memory.

There are times when we meet new people and they are introduced to us but a few seconds
latter you realize you can’t recall their names. This results from a failure to form a memory
code for the name. This normally happens because we fail to pay attention to what we are
being told.

There are two types of encoding

Automatic encoding – information is encoded without intention, effort and awareness. It

also requires very minimal attention

Occurs when

ii) information is interesting

iii) information holds our attention
iv) Fits with hundreds of previous associations in our memory.

Effortful encoding - requires working hard to repeat or rehearse the information or by

making association between new and old information.

How can we enrich encoding?

v) Elaborative rehearsal: linking stimulus to other information that you already know
at the time of encoding. For example when we talked about phobias, the best way to
enable you encode the meaning of a phobia is to link it to some irrational fear you
have towards something.
vi) Associating new information with visual imagery e.g. when teaching about an
orange, you show the students what an orange is.
vii)Self- referent encoding: making information personally meaningful e.g. example you
may not be able to remember all the bus stops from homabay to kisumu but you can
recall all the stages where you have been dropped off.
viii) Maintenance rehearsal – repeating or rehearsing the information

ix) Storage – involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time.

x) Retrieval – refers to getting information out of memory.
Types of memory

There are three kinds of memory i.e. sensory memory, short term memory and long term
memory.

 Sensory memory
Holds information in its raw /original form for a brief period of time. Several seconds.

Iconic memory (eyeconic) – this is the sensory memory process that holds visual
information.

Echoic memory (ecooick) – the sensory memory process that holds auditory information

Functions of sensory memory

 prevents us from being overwhelmed by thousands of incoming stimuli

 gives us a moment whether the incoming data should be processed further

 short term memory

Also referred as the working memory. A memory store that holds a limited amount of
information for up to 30 seconds.

Features of short term memory

 Holds information for a limited duration however this can be improved by

maintenance rehearsal – this is the process of intentionally repeating
information or thinking about the information so that it remains longer in the
short term memory.
 Has a limited capacity however more items can be held in the short term memory
through a process of chunking – combining separate items of information into a
larger unit then remembering the larger units instead of individual items. E.g.
telephone numbers 0722-827-150.

 Long term memory

Unlimited capacity store that holds information for long periods of time.

There are 3 kinds of information stored in the long term memory

i. Episodic information – knowledge about one’s personal experiences e.g. what

you ate for breakfast
ii. Semantic information – general knowledge, facts and definition of words e.g.
who was Kenya’s first president.
iii. Procedural information – knowledge about performing motor skills.
Types of long term memory

i. Implicit memory
Occurs when memory influences our behavior without conscious awareness. An example of
information stored in the implicit memory is procedural information.

ii. Explicit memory

Involves conscious or intentional memory retrieval. Stores episodic and semantic
information.

Ways of improving memory

1. maintenance rehearsal – repeating of information

2. Elaborate rehearsal – associating new information with what you already know.
3. make use of mnemonic devices (memory aids) such as
4. chunking
5. Acronyms - combining one or more letters (usually the first letter from each piece of
information) you wish to remember e.g. using ROY-G-BIV to remember colors of the
rainbow.
6. Refresh your memory by activating retrieval cues such as recreating the situation
and mood in which the original learning occurred.
7. Minimize interference e.g. study before sleep to avoid interference.
8. Test your knowledge in order to determine what you already know or don’t know
yet.
9. Participating in the learning process.
10. Pay attention to what is being learnt.
11. Make use of visual imagery.

Memory disorders

There are two types of memory disorders

i. Organic amnesia – occurs as a result of injury or illness.

There are two types of organic amnesia

 anterograde amnesia – memory loss is characterized by inability to create

new permanent memories after the injury or illness
 Retrograde – characterized by inability to recall information that had been
learnt before the injury or illness.
 Psychogenic amnesia – occurs as a result of emotionally disturbing event such
as being raped.
  FORGETTING

Forgetting refers to inability to remember what had been learnt in the past.

Reasons for forgetting

i. Decay theory- this theory proposes that if not used, information in the long term
memory fades away with time.
ii. Encoding failure – failure to encode information into the long term memory. This
may occur due to lack of attention to details during encoding.
iii. Interference theory – this theory proposes that other memory may interfere
with our present retrieval of some particular memory. There are to types of
interference:-
iv. Retroactive inhibition: new learning interferes with old learning and as a result,
old learning is replaced.
v. Proactive inhibition: old learning interferes with the present learning.
vi. Inadequate retrieval cues – there are few associations or reminders for example
you may not be able to remember your 10th birthday because nothing
memorable happened.
vii. Repression – this is a type of motivated forgetting that protects us by blocking
conscious recall when information to be remembered is threatening to one’s self
concept or makes us feel anxious for example if something traumatic happened.
viii. When the amount of material leant is too much then we tend to forget some of it.
ix. Over learning without proper spacing
x. When information is not interesting
xi. Fatigue – when one is tired, information retrieval becomes difficult.
xii. Dementia – refers to impaired memory that results from brain degradation and
interferes with normal functioning.
xiii. Infertile/childhood amnesia – inability to remember experiences from the 1st
few years of our lives. This occurs because:
[Link] regions that encode episodic memories are still immature.
xv. We do not encode our earlier experiences deeply and fail to form rich retrieval cues
for them.
 EMOTION
These are feelings that are made up of 3 components: Physiological elements (bodily
arousal), cognitive elements (subjective conscious experience) and behavioral component
(overt behavior).

Our emotions share 4 different elements or features.

i. An emotion is triggered or evoked by a stimulus.

ii. Emotional responses result from our appraisal/interpretation of this stimulus in

our conscious experience which gives the situation its perceived meaning or
significance.

iii. Our bodies experience physiological arousal (respond physiologically) based on

our appraisal of the stimulus.

iv. Our emotions are also accompanied by behavior. The behavior can either be
expressive e.g. smiling or instrumental i.e. how we do something about the
stimuli such as studying for an exam

Difference between emotions and moods

 Emotions tend to be intense an short lived while moods are milder and may last
for days

 Emotions have a specific case wile moods are general in nature

 Emotions are directed towards a specific /particular object

 Emotions also motivate a person to take a particular action

The neuroscience of emotions

 Emotions and the sympathetic the nervous system

This then triggers the fight or flight response – which are the automatic physical
reactions

 Breathing and heart beat accelerate

 Your blood pressure rises
 You sweat
  The mouth dries
 The hair on your skin may also stand up.
 Pupils dilate allowing you to have a wider field of vision
 Blood sugar levels increase to provide more energy
 Digestion stops so that blood is directed to the brain and muscles which may
cause what we often refer to as butterflies in the stomach.

Note: there are different physloical arousals for different emotions

 Emotions and the brain

The brain structure amygdala in the limbic system is key in the emotional response of
fear in humans

Basic emotions

These are emotions that are either recognized in most cultures or help the species survive
by motivating behavior or signaling physiological needs and psychological moods. Many
psychologists who study emotions have come to agree on 6 basic emotions. Other emotions
are considered as variations of these basic emotions or a combination of the basic
emotions.

At the top of the hierarchy of basic emotions are 2 classes of emotions: pleasant and
unpleasant.

The next level has six emotions: Love, joy, surprise, anger, sadness and fear.

Emotions

Pleasant Unpleasant

Love Surprise Joy Fear Sadness Anger

Expressing emotions

Emotions can be expressed verbally and non-verbally. Examples of non verbal expressions
of emotions include facial expressions and body movement.

Functions of emotions

1. They help us to adapt and survive.

2. Emotions can motivate our behavior.

3. Emotions can also disrupt behavior e.g. a student who is saddened by the loss of a
loved one may not be able to think clearly in an exam.

4. Emotions can also influence decision making – most of our choices are guided by
our feelings

5. The expressions that accompany our emotions send social signals that communicate
our physiological need and psychological moods.

6. Emotions help regulate our social interactions. The emotions we experience are
frequently obvious to our observers and they are communicated through our verbal
and non-verbal behaviors.

THEORIES OF EMOTION

 James-Lange theory – proposed by William James and Carl Lange 1980

This theory suggests that our bodily reaction determines the subjective emotion we
experience. Our brains interpret specific physiological changes as feelings or emotions.
This theory also proposes that there is a different physiological pattern underlying each
emotion.

 The Cannon – Bard theory – Walter Cannon 1927 and was later revised by Philip
bard 1934

This theory proposes that subjective experience of emotion and physiological arousal do
not cause one another but instead are independent responses to an emotion arousing
situation and that that they occur simultaneously

 Two factor theory of emotion – Stanley schachter and Jerome Singer 1962

According to this theory, an emotional stimulus causes physiological arousal which are
interpreted then followed by emotions. The intensity of physiological arousal tells us how
strongly we are feeling something but environmental cues gives us the information we
need to label the emotion as either anger or joy.

Our appraisal or interpretation of environmental cues leads to emotion.

This theory emphasizes that we identify the emotion that we are experiencing by observing
our environment and comparing ourselves with others

 Facial feedback theory – Adelmann & Zajonc 1989

Feedback from the facial muscles to the brain play a key role in determining the nature and
intensity of emotions we experience. Feedback from the facial muscles are interpreted by
the brain as emotions.

7. Cognitive appraisal theory – Lazarus 1991

According to this theory, interpretation of the stimulus is the primary cause of emotion
 MOTIVATION
Motivation refers to the forces (biological, social, cognitive or emotional) within us
initiating and directing behavior

Motivations cannot be measured directly but can be inferred when an organism performs a
particular behavior.

Range and diversity of human motives

Human motives are divided into two broad categories

i. Biological that originate in bodily needs such as hunger

ii. Social originates from social experiences such as achievement.

Motivational theories

i. Drive theories

Apply the concept of homeostasis to behavior (maintaining balance).

The source of motivation lies within the organism.

A drive is an internal state of tension that motivates organisms to behave in a particular

way

Behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological
needs

When a particular behavior successfully reduces a particular drive the behavior is likely to be
repeated when the same drive arises again.

Example; when hungry we are motivated to eat food so as to reduce tension brought about by
hunger

This theory has however been criticized

- Some human motives such as the thirst for knowledge has nothing to do with
homeostasis
- Some motives exist without a drive e.g. you may want to eat without feeling hungry
 ii. Incentive theories

Emphasize environmental control of behavior

This theory proposes that the source of motivation lies outside the organism.

Behavior is motivated by external goals such as rewards, money or recognition. This are
what are referred to as incentives.

Ones motivation to pursue a goal will depend on

- Expectations – if we expect to get an incentive then we get more motivated

- Value of desired incentive. Incentive of higher value motivate behavior more

iii. Evolutionary theories

Motives are explained in terms of their adaptive value.

We are more motivated to perform a certain behavior if they can help us to adapt and
survive

If a behavior can help us solve a problem which we are experiencing then we are motivated
to engage in that behavior

iv. Arousal theories

Based on the idea that people find both very high and very low levels of arousal unpleasant.

When level of arousal is too low we experience boredom and become motivated to increase
arousal by seeking out stimulating experiences

But when the level or arousal is too high we seek to reduce level of arousal in less
stimulating environments.

v. Humanistic theory
Our motivation is affected by how we perceive the world, how we think about ourselves and
others and our beliefs on our abilities and skills.

People are motivated by the need to realize their maximum potential and to strive for a
positive self-concept

Motivation of hunger

Why do people eat – because we are hungry?

What makes people hungry?

- Most of us associate hunger with a rumbling stomach

Research has shown that there is an association between stomach contractions and the
experience of hunger

Psychologists have settled on the fact that stomach contractions often accompany hunger but
don’t cause it.

This is because research has shown that people continue to experience hunger even after their
stomach has been removed out of medical necessity.

- Some of us also associate yawning with hunger

However there are so many things that make us yawn e.g tiredness, sleep, yawning is also
infectious hence by just watching someone yawn a person may start yawning.

Biological factors in the regulation of hunger

i. Brain regulation

Research with animals has proven that the experiences of hunger are controlled in the brain
by the hypothalamus

Parts of the hypothalamus that regulate hunger include:-

Lateralhypothalamus - is involved in feeling hungry and beginning to eat

Ventromedial hypothalamus – is involved in feeling full and stopping to eat

 ii. Glucose and digestive regulation

Much of the food we eat is converted to glucose which is a source of energy

Manipulations that increase glucose level can decrease hunger while those that decrease
glucose level increase hunger.

This implies that hunger is regulated by the rise and fall of glucose level in the blood.

High glucose level in the blood decrease hunger since this means that there is food in the
body that is being converted to glucose.

Research has also shown that after eating, cells in the stomach can send signals to the brain
that inhibits further eating.

iii. Hormonal regulation

Two hormones are associated with hunger. Leptin and insulin

Insulin

- Hormone is secreted by the pancreas

- It must be present for cells to extract glucose from the blood
- Research has shown that the mere sight and smell of food leads to the secretion of
this hormone
- Secretion of insulin hormone is associated with hunger

Leptin

- Produced by fat cells and released in the blood stream

- High levels of fat generate high levels of leptin
- High levels of leptin decreases hunger

Environmental factors in the regulation of hunger

i. Food availability and related cues

Research has shown that the sight or smell of food makes us feel hungry

According to this perspective, the presence of tasty food leads people to eat even when they
are already full.
Exposure to pictures or video depictions of attractive food can also increase hunger.

Organisms are motivated to eat by the anticipated pleasure of eating.

When food looks delicious it increases our level of hunger

ii. Stress

People tend to eat more when stressed.

Research has shown that stress increases the amount of food people it in a substantial
group of people.

However psychologists differ on what aspect of stress that make people eat

- Some theorists believe that it is stress induced psychological arousal rather than
stress itself that stimulates eating.
- Others suggest that it is the negative emotions brought about by stress that promote
additional eating.

The next thing we shall look at is obesity. According to research more people are becoming
obese compared to the ancient days.

Obesity

It refers to the condition of being overweight

It is assessed in terms of body mass index (BMI) = weight (in kg) / height (in meters).

A BMI ranging from 25-29.9 is regarded as overweight while that above 30 is regarded as
obese.

Obesity is considered health issues since people who are obese are more vulnerable to

- Cardiovascular diseases
- Diabetes
- Hypertension
- Respiratory problems
- Stroke
 - Arthritis

Causes of obesity

i. Genetic predisposition

There are those of us who no matter how much we eat we can never gain weight but then
there are those who eat very little and still gain weight. Research suggests that these
differences have a genetic basis.

Research has shown that adults resemble their biological parents in their BMI

Research has also shown that identical twins are more similar in their BMI compared to
fraternal twins

We also inherit different numbers of fat cells that store body fat. – The more fat cells, the
more fats you store

We also inherit rates of metabolism – this rfersto how fast our bodies break down food into
energy and how quickly our bodies burn that energy.

An individual with a low metabolic rate burns less energy and excess energy that is not burnt
is stored as fat.

ii. Excess eating and inadequate exercise

Overweight people tend to eat too much in relation to their level of exercise.

Unlike the past, nowadays food is readily available even by the road side and at the same
time, people walk less due to vehicles and motor bikes.

iii. The concept of set point

According to this perspective we have a natural point of stability in body weight. This is
what is called a set point.

Set point theory proposes that the body monitors fat cell levels to keep them and weight
fairly stable.

That is why people who lose weight on a diet have a strong tendency to gain back all the
weight lost.

However there are those psychologists who doubt this theory and have come up with a
different theory which is referred to as the settling point theory which proposes that

Settling point theory states that weight tends to remain relatively stable as long as there
are no durable changes in the factors that influence it.

This theory is thought of as more encouraging to those who wish to lose weight.

iv. Dietary restraint

According to this theory, restrained eaters go hungry most of the time but are constantly
thinking of food when their cognitive control of their eating is disrupted they tend to eat
excess.

These are people who work overtime to control their eating and feel guilty when they fail.

It is thought to lead to overeating hence lead to obesity.

v. Culture

Obesity rates also vary based on cultures.

Standards of rating people as obese are not the same in all cultures e.g. a fat baby may be
considered healthy in some cultures.
Psychology of the classroom

ATTENTION
This is the ability to focus/ concentrate on something.

Psychologists began looking at attention as a problem of information transmition.

Information processing in the brain has 3 major categories; input, storage and output
process.

Attention is necessary for selecting those sensory inputs or communication channels that are
to be transmitted to latter stages of processing.

Ideas about attention

vii. We are constantly confronted with a lot of information/stimuli in our environment

which we can pay attention to.

viii. However, there are serious limitations on how much we can attend to at any
given time.

ix. We can respond to some information or perform some tasks with little or no
attention.

x. With sufficient practice, some tasks become less and less demanding of our
attention process.

TYPES OF ATTENTION

 Sustained Attention

Attention is continuous and maintained over time

 Selective Attention / Focused Attention

The ability to focus on a particular aspect of sensory input/ information while filtering out
others.

There are theoretical models that try to explain selective attention.

These theories are referred to as bottleneck theories of selective attention. They propose that,
latter stages of information processing cannot cope with all the sensory input generated by
the sensory organs.

A bottleneck occurs at a point where the input processes feed their information into the next
stage.

Theories of selective

xi. Early selection model (Broadbent 1953)

According to this theory, there is an attention filter at the sensory level. Information is
selected based on its physical characteristics such as its loudness for further processing.

xii. Treisman’s attenuation model of selective attention

It proposes that all information is processed beyond the sensory stage but differently.
Physical characteristics of information /sensory input is used to select one information for
full processing while other information are given partial processing / attenuated.

[Link] and Deutch late selection mode of selective attention

They propose that all sensory input/information are processed but only one message can
be responded to.

 Divided attention

This is the ability to focus on more than one task at the same time. The ability to perform
two tasks simultaneously depends on:

i) Task similarity - Tasks which center or demand for similar input modalities,
output modalities and compete for the same processing mechanisms cannot be
performed simultaneously without interference.

ii) Practice – practice reduces distraction levels as a result practice improves an

individual’s performance in more than one task.

iii) Task difficulty – if two tasks are difficult then attention is greatly divided
 between the two tasks.

 Automaticity

We have two types of attention under automaticity

i) Automatic processes

A performance is considered automatic if

ii) It occurs without intention on the performer.

iii) Does not give rise to conscious awareness

iv) Does not interfere with other mental activities.

v) Controlled / conscious processing

A performance is considered automatic if

vi) Occurs with deliberate decisions

vii)Processing is open to awareness.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ATTENTION

These factors which influence attention are divided into two types:

 Objective factors and

 Subjective factors,

Objective Factors:

These factors pertain to particular aspects of objects which are inherent in objects.

 Movement:

A moving object draws our attention more easily than a stationary object.

For example, flickering lights draw our attention than non-flickering lights. A moving vehicle
draws our attention more than a stationed vehicle.
  Intensity:

More intense light, sound or smell draws our attention more easily than less intense one.

For example, a high voltage bulb will be observed quicker than low voltage bulb, very bright
color than dim color, or a very loud sound than a normal sound.

 Novelty:

New kinds of objects or unusual objects draw our attention quickly than familiar ones.

For example, latest fashion dress, shoes, pen, unique dresses, styles, colors and fashion grasp
our attention. Striking quality of the objects definitely capture our attention

 Size:

A bigger or a smaller object draws the attention of people very easily than average level
size of any object,

For example, a 7′ taller man, a 2′ dwarf, a very fat man, a very huge multistoried building can
draw our attention quickly.

 Change:

A change in our environment draws our attention quickly.

For example, regular sound of a moving clock does not draw our attention, but the movement
it stops, our attention is diverted.

A show piece placed in a new place, a radio playing a song stops due to electricity failure
draws our attention.

 Emotional content:

Stimulus which carries emotional overtones is likely you attract more attention than
neutral ones.

 Suddenness of the stimulus:

An unexpected stimulus is more likely to attract attention than one that is expected

 Repetition/Duration

When a stimulus is presented repeatedly / for long periods it tends to attract our attention.

For example, repeated horn of a fire brigade or ambulance.

But there is a limit for repetition. Sometimes, we become fed up with repetition also.

 Clarity:

An object or sound which can be experienced clearly draws our attention than the stimuli
which are not clear.

For example, during night times stars and planets which are seen clearly draw our attention.

 Colors:

Colorful objects draw our attention more easily than black or white objects.

 Duration

If the duration of stimulation is longer, then it will catch our attention.

 Contrast:

An object that is strikingly different from its background draws our attention.

For example, a black spot on a white shirt

Subjective Factors:

The factors which are related to the individual who is paying the attention are called
subjective factors

These factors refer to individuals. These are inherent in people. There are many subjective
factors which determine our attention.

 Interest:

Objects of our interest draw our attention immediately.

For example, while moving on a road a sportsman is attracted towards the shop where sports
materials are placed. A person who is interested in a particular singer will immediately divert
his attention the moment he listens his voice.

 Motives:

Motives are powerful forces which make us to divert our attention. They can be of many
types. So motive is an important cause of attention. Hunger, thirst or power motive
determines our attention.
For example, a hotel will draw the attention of a hungry person because he has a drive for
food.

 Mental set/ readiness

Our set or readiness of mind is very important in attending to any stimulus. It acts like
expectation that prepares the individual to do some act.

For example, when a person is in fantasy he may not listen to any call. On the other hand, if he
is waiting for a phone call eagerly, he will listen to that immediately.

 Emotional state:

Attention is disturbed during emotional state. It also affects our perception.

For example, when a person is highly excited due to fear, he may not listen or understand
what others say.

 Curiosity

This is the natural desire to know about the environment. Curiosity motivates the
individual to do something. Curiosity is seen in all types of humans but differs in intensity.

 Habits:

Our attention is diverted automatically towards the things to which we are habituated.

For example, a smoker remembers smoking even if he is otherwise busy in some work. A
person habituated to take food at a particular time remembers food at correct time. Attention
of a nurse is automatically diverted towards a serious patient.

 Freshness

When individual is fresh, then he is more attentive rather than tired or sleepy. If subject is
not fresh, strongly stimulating objects fail to catch his attention.

 Mental and Physical Health

If the individual is healthy, mentally and physically, he will be more able to pay attention
than sick or ill. Emotion It becomes difficult for the individual to concentrate in emotional
state. Emotionally calm person can pay good attention.

 Attitude
Our positive or negative attitudes determine our attention.

Other factors that influence learners’ attention in the classroom

 Pathological conditions such as hunger and fatigue – when students are hungry /
tired they tend to be less attentive

 Mental state of the learner – students who are mentally unstable have a low
attention span

 Drug use and abuse – students who are under the influence of drugs tend to be less
attentive in class

 Weather conditions. Extreme weather conditions arrest learners attention

 Age: older learners have longer attention spans than younger ones

 Repetition of key concepts attracts learners’ attention

 Motivation - learners who are motivated in class tend to be more attentive

 Distractions arrest attention

 Cognitive abilities: learners with low cognitive abilities have low capacity for paying
attention.

How can a teacher attract learners’ attention in the classroom?

 Involve the learners in the learning process.

 Reinforce learners for work well done

 Remove any form of distractions in the classroom

 Teachers should display positive attitude towards students and the subjects being
taught.

 Provide an appropriate learning environment without crowding, with enough

 lighting e.t.c.

 Allow breaks during lessons to enhance attention.

 Repetition of key concepts.

 Avoid sudden adjustments in the time table.

 Stimulus should be intense enough to be sensed by learners e.g. the teacher should
be audible.

 Make us of realia

 Allow learners to stretch or have breaks when tired

 Makes use of resource persons

INTEREST

This is a tendency towards something.

Psychological disposition to engage or reengage with objects, events or ideas over time.

- It contains both affective and cognitive components as separate but interacting

components
The affective component of emotions describes positive emotions accompanying
engagement
Cognitive component refers to perceptual activities related to activities
- Both affective and cognitive components have biological roots.
Psychologist argue that being interested in something is an evolutionary and
genetically embedded emotional brain system.
- Interest is the outcome of the interaction between a person and a particular
Potential for interest is in the person but the environment defines the direction of
interest.

Interest has an influence on

Levels of learning – we easily learn and remember what we consider since interesting
things attract our attention
Goals – our goals are developed based on what we consider interesting to us

Attention – we tend to pay attention to things that interest us.

Types of interest

 Situational interest

Refers to focused attention and affective reaction that is triggered in the moment by
environmental stimulus.

Situational interest positively influence:

- Cognitive performance – this involves actively participating at that moment in that

situation
- Focused attention/selective attention
- Enables integration of information with prior knowledge
- Enhances levels of learning. – when our attention is focused then we tend o learn
more

 Individual or personal interest

A person’s relatively enduring predisposition to re engage particular content over time as

well as to immediate psychological state when this predisposition has been activated.

Has positive impact on

- Attention
- Recognition
- Recall
- Persistence
- Effort – when something interests us then we put in more effort
- Academic achievement
- Motivation
- Levels of learning.

Development of interest
Interest development occurs in four phases. According to this model, situational interest
provides a basis for the development of individual interest

1. Triggered situational interest - Interest development is triggered by situational

interest

Refers to psychological state of interest that result from short term changes in affective and
cognitive processing

- Can be influenced by environmental or context features e.g. humor

- Externally supported
- Learning conditions such as group work

2. Maintained situational interest - Sustainment of situational interest

Psychological state of interest that is subsequent to a triggered state.

- Involves focused attention and persistence over time

- Maintained through personal involvement
- Relies on external support to some extent
- The learning environment provides meaningful and personally involving activities
such as projects and discussions

3. Emerging individual interest - Emergence of individual interest

Psychological state of interest as well as . it is the beginning phase of a relatively

enduring predisposition to seek repeated reengagement with particular content over
time.

- Based on previous engagement and is characterized by positive feelings, stored

knowledge and stored value.
- Typically but not entirely self generated – it may also benefit from external support
such as peers and models.
- It may or may not lead to well developed interest

4. Well developed individual interest

It is a psychological state of interest. It is a relatively enduring predisposition to seek

repeated reengagement with particular content over time.

- Characterized by more positive feeling, more stored knowledge and values for
particular content
 - Typically but not exclusively self generated
- Learning environment provides opportunities that lead to knowledge building such
as challenges
-

Note: for interest to be maintained over time then it has to be supported and if this
does not happen then inerest may disappear

How can teachers arouse interest in learners.

- Motivation
- Encouraging learners active participation
- Using a variety of teaching methos
- Use models and encourage imitation by learners.

FRUSTRATION

This is the feeling we experience when not able to satisfy a motive. It occurs when the
pursuit of some goal is blocked.

e.g. when writing then a students pen suddenly stops writing, the become frustrated.

Fortunately for us, most of our frustrations are brief and insignificant and can be easily
resolved. When frustrations are serious they often lead to stress.

Typically, the more important the goal, the greater the frustration

Causes of frustrations

Internal causes

Internal sources of frustration usually involve the disappointment that get when we cannot
have what we want as a result of personal real or imagined deficiencies

- Personal limitations such as the inability to speak another language.

-
External causes

External causes that involve conditions outside the person such as physical roadblocks we
encounter in life including other people and things that get in the way of our goals.

One of the biggest sources of frustration in today's world is the frustration caused by the
perception of wasting time.

- Social limitations – has to do with the people we interact with e.g. a teacher giving
too much assignments hence preventing you from doing other things
- Environmental limitation such as heavy rains.
- Situational limitations e.g. traffic jam and long cues

Responses to frustration

- Anger which often leads to aggression

Direct anger is expressed toward the object perceived as the cause of the frustration.

e.g If someone steps on you could verbally threaten them or push them aside.

If the source of the frustration is too powerful or threatening for direct aggression,
displaced aggression is often used.

The aggression is redirected toward a less threatening and more available object.

An angry person often acts without thinking.

Anger can be a healthy response if it motivates us to positive action but all too often
the actions we engage in when angry are destructive.

- Giving up the pursuit of some goal.

When repeatedly frustrated we tend to give up.

This is good if the goal is out of reach.

- Loss of confidence in one’s self

We stop trusting in our own abilities

- Stress
Extreme, or prolonged frustration cause stress which strains us and generates distress
signals. Our body experiences distress signals in a variety of ways, often in the form of:
irritability, anger, fatigue, anxiety, headaches, depression, stomachaches,
hypertension, migraines, ulcers, heart attacks, or colitis

- Alcohol abuse
- Eating disorders
- Can also motivate good behaviors or change.

Dealing with frustrations

- Accept reality especially if your ability cannot allow you to continue with the pursuit
of some goals
- Shift focus and get involved in other activities
- Share with people around you about your frustrations
- Write about your frustrations and imagine worse case scenarios
- Look for solutions to problems instead of ignoring them
- Take a break especially when not understanding a concept

AGGRESSION

Aggression refers to any form of behavior that in meant/intended to harm one’s self or
other people or objects in the environment.

Aggression is considered as the most destructive force in our social relations. Let’s look at the
causes of aggression.

Forms of aggression

 Physical

 Verbal

 Emotional

Purpose of aggression

- Express anger
 - Assert dominance – to show that you are in control

- To intimidate or threaten

- To achieve a goal

- To express possession

- It’s a response to fear

- A reaction to pain –

- Compete with others

Types of aggression

 Hostile/impulsive/affective aggression

Characterized by strong emotions, usually anger

It is not planned hence occurs in the heat of the moment

e.g. when you are on a queue and someone cuts the line and you end up yelling at the
person

 Instrumental / predatory aggression

Marked by intended behavior to achieve a larger goal

It is often carefully planned

e.g when students strike because they are not satisfied with the services they are
receiving

Causes of aggression

1. Frustration – when we are blocked from achieving our goals we get angry and this
leads to aggression.

This may result from pain or discomfort as a result of high temperatures, loud noise
and unpleasant odors
2. Exposure to violence through mass media – the media leads to aggression by
 providing numerous aggressive models including many that are reinforced. This is
likely to increase viewers’ aggression. For example, children who watch wrestling
tend to agrees than those who don’t. They try to be like some of the wrestlers whom
they adore.

3. Aggressive cues – this are objects that prime aggression related concepts in memory
e.g. when someone annoys you and there is an object nearby which you can use to hit
the person then there are very high chances that you will behave aggressively.

4. Hormones - Higher levels of testosterone hormones contribute to greater social

aggression . however this is weak in humans.

5. Aggression can also be learnt by observing others and through operant

conditioning – whereby children become increasingly aggressive when aggression
produces positive outcomes for them such as rewards.

6. Direct provocation from another person through verbal or physical actions. May
make a person respond in an aggressive manner

7. Relative deprivation theory – when a person believes that they deserve more than
what they are getting. For example in a class situation when a student believes that
they should have gotten more marks than what the teacher has given them.

8. De- individualization – when people are in a large group they tend to loose a sense
of their individual identity and take on the activity of the group. This may make
them commit acts of aggression which they may not commit individually.

9. Personal beliefs (efficacy) – those who believe that they can successfully carry out
an aggressive act that will produce desired outcomes are more likely to express
aggressive behavior.

10. Attitude – positive attitude towards violence prepare people for aggression.
Especially positive attitude about violence towards a specific group of people e.g. if
you have been robbed before you may have a positive attitude on violence on thieves
hence if a thief is being beaten then you may join the group.

11. When we believe that someone’s negative behavior towards us is intentional we

tend to retaliate. For example when someone steps on your feet what are you most
likely to do?

[Link] Freud believed that impulses from aggressive instincts build up over time
and they have to be relived and then they build up again in a never ending cycle.

13. Traits - certain traits predispose people to aggression e.g. those with high self
 esteem are prone to anger when their self image is threatened.

14. Desperation

15. Greed

16. Envy

17. Low blood sugar

18. Certain brain disorders such as epilepsy

Controlling aggression

What do you do to your children or students when they display acts of aggression?

Most of us punish our students when they aggress however; scientists have suggested that the
use of punishment is not quite effective.

1. Punishment can only be effective in reducing aggression only under certain

conditions:

- If the punishment is predictable. The punishment should be consistent. For example

if you are used to canning your students when they display acts of aggression then this
should be consistent.

- It must follow aggression closely so that the punishment is associated with the
behavior. So that the student can know why they are being punished.

- It must be legitimized by the existing social norms.

- Those who administer the punishment must be seen as non aggressive models.

2. The threat of punishment is less certain in reducing aggression if:

- The person threatening is not angry

- The punishment threatened is quite severe.

- The aggressor sees it to be very likely that the threat will be carried out. For
example a student may say atanichapa tu halafu itaisha.

- The aggressor has not much to gain by his / her aggression.

Which are the better ways of controlling aggression? Divide yourselves in groups of two and
come up with one better solution to aggression which is not punishment. (5 minutes)
Better ways of controlling aggression

3. Discouragement of aggression – reduce retaliation in response to attack by

explaining that the attack was beyond the aggressor’s control. This is used a lot in
our everyday life, you’ve heard people say I dint mean to hurt you after being
aggressive towards someone else.
4. Catharsis – release of pent up aggressive energy through other forms of behavior
such as sports. You remember Sigmund Freud believed that impulses from aggressive
instincts build up over time and they have to be relived. This is a better way of
relieving this energy so we should engage our students in extracurricular activities in
order for them to release this energy on something else that is useful.
5. Reducing aversive stimuli such as hunger by providing adequate food.
6. Strengthen social norms against aggression by rewarding non-aggressive responses.
7. Reduce overall exposure to aggressive models.
8. Minimize competition and enhance cooperation in the classroom
9. Provide constant supervision to aggressive students
10. Limit access to aggressive toys
11. Provide adequate resources to prevent frustration
12. Seek professional help

13. Medication

14. Give aggressive children responsibility

15. Giving students the marks they deserve

16. Avoid drug use and abuse

17. Encourage students to talk about their problems

CONFLICT

Conflict is an opposition or a tug-of-war between contradictory impulses.

We have 3 types of conflicts

- Intrapersonal conflict

- Interpersonal conflict
 - Unconscious conflict

 Intrapersonal conflicts

A feeling we experience when we must choose between two incompatible choices or goals.

No matter what option you choose, you must give up something else.

Types of intrapersonal conflict

1. Approach- approach conflict

In this type of conflict, a choice must be made between two attractive goals. This is the least
stressful type of conflict.

For example, a student having to choose between two subjects which he likes such as
geography and history. The student likes both subjects yet he/she has to choose one.

2. Avoidance –avoidance conflict

A choice must be made between 2 unattractive goals. It is the most unpleasant and highly
stressful.

For example, choosing between two forms of punishment. Give me other examples

3. Approach-avoidance conflict
A choice must be made whether to pursue a singly goal that has both attractive and
unattractive aspects.

For example a subject you like very much but which you are failing in. More examples

4. Double approach-avoidance conflict

A choice must be made between two goals that have attractive and unattractive aspects

For example having to choose between going to a boarding school and a day school

Intrapersonal conflict resolution

Intrapersonal conflict resolution depends on the type of conflict

i. The approach - approach conflict may be easily resolved by satisfying first one goal
which is more important than the other;
Alternatively, this conflict is resolved by giving up one of the goals.

ii. The avoidance - avoidance conflict is more complex.

 Since the individual does not want either of the goals, total avoidance by some
means is the goal of the individual.

iii. In approach-avoidance conflict, since there is only one goal object, it is very difficult
to decide.

Here, compromise with the situation is the only alternative solution to overcome
stress resulting from conflict.

iv. In double approach-avoidance conflict the individual has to take a decision

depending upon the sum total of positive or negative qualities of the choices.

Though these are the coping strategies at individual level, people facing conflicts may
help themselves by

- examining the causes of conflicts clearly,

- trying to choose the best alternative,
- Early decision making, etc.

The individual should:-

- Make use of their creative thinking,

- Divergent reasoning and
- Taking advice from parents, elders, teachers and counsellors will be of great help to
cope with and to resolve conflicts,

 Interpersonal conflict

It can also be defined as the disagreement between two or more parties.

It mostly occurs due to difference in needs, expectations and beliefs btwn the parties.
Sometimes it is an exaggerated response to a perceived threat

Dealing with conflicts

1. Avoidance – individuals who find dealing with conflicts unpleasant hope that by
ignoring the conflict it will go away.

The conflict usually gets worse and has to be dealt with eventually
2. Accommodation – this involves giving in to make disagreements end. Unfortunately
this does not solve the problem
 3. Domination – this individual goes to any length to win even if it means being
aggressive and manipulative.

This often leads to hostility

4. Compromise – these individuals recognize that needs differ and try to resolve
conflicts through compromise

5. Integration – These individuals try to solve conflicts by finding solutions to deal

with both patties.

Causes of conflicts between teachers and students

6. Ineffective channels of communication. Students are not sure to whom they

should air their grievances.

7. Ineffective task performance by both teachers and students.

8. Lack of clear rules and regulations

9. When students are not involved in the decision making process.

10. Favorism and biasness.

11. Setting high expectations for students both academically and behaviorically

12. Teachers having negative preconceived feelings about students

13. When students learning style does not match teachers teaching style. This may
result into poor performance

14. Cultural differences.

15. Generation gap differences in ways of thinking between teachers and students

16. In appropriate ways of punishment

Ways through which conflicts between teachers and students can be minimized.

17. Role definition by teachers. Students as well as teachers roles should be well
defined to reduce conflicts arising from poor role definition.

18. Effective channels of communication should be put in place to enhance clarity.

19. Both teachers and students should perform their tasks effectively.
 20. Allow students to participate in important decision making tasks such as electing
their leaders.

21. Both students and teachers should adhere to school and classroom rules and
regulations.

22. The administration should make use of suggestion boxes that will enable
students to air their grievances.

23. Avoid biasness and favorism.

24. Understand your students’ background, ability, personality e.t.c.

25. Teachers must first respect students in order to gain respect from students

26. Teachers should have compressive knowledge and expertise with high moral
character.

 Unconscious Conflict:

This is mental conflict below the level of conscious awareness.

The conflicts in conscious level, when repressed, shifts to unconscious.

Here the desires which cannot be satisfied at conscious level are repressed to
unconscious level as a mechanism of escaping.

Many of our wants raised by Id may not be socially acceptable. Such wants are objected
by the Ego and the Super ego. Hence these are repressed to unconscious.

They may appear in the form of dreams, slip of tongue, slip of pen, motivated
forgetting, etc. Sometimes they may appear in the form of peculiar behavior and
mannerisms.
 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

 Measurement and evaluation are things that occur in our daily lives. For example,
when you want to know your height then measurement has to be done, when you want
to know your weight, shoe size e.t.c.98
 We teach students with the broad goal of imparting knowledge and skills which result
in behavior change.
 For us to know if learning or behavior change has occurred, we need measurement
and evaluation.
 Note that, we can also not measure what we have not tested

The main aim of this topic is to expose you to the uses of tests and measurements in
educational

 I believe a number of you will venture into the teaching proffesion, once we have
taught you should be able to test students to see if they have mastered the skills and
knowledge that we have imparted in them and if they have undergone some behavior
change.
 Without evaluation, we may not know if we are making any progress in our teaching
or if education is a success.

INTRODUCTION

We shall start by defining the key concepts in this course which are
 a) tests
b) measurement and
c) evaluation

TEST (set of tasks or standardized questions meant to obtain a sample of an individual’s

behavior or attribute)

A test refers to a standard set of questions to be answered in order to obtain a sample of an

individual’s behavior or attributes.

Tests can also involve a series of tasks to be performed.

 For us to be able to measure students’ performance without biasness then we require the use
of tests that are standardized.

- A useful test measures accurately some property or behavior.

Classification of tests

Tests can be classified by

i. how they are administered (individually or in groups)

ii. how they are scored (objectively or subjectively)
iii. what sort of response they emphasize (power or speed)
iv. what type of response students must make (performance or pencil and paper)
v. the nature of the group being compared (teacher made or standardized)

Let’s look at each of these classifications

  individual and group tests
Individual tests are those administered to one individual at a time. Most of individual tests are
given orally and require examiners constant attention. This is because the examiner in not only
interested in the verbal response but also the non-verbal response.

Those administered to large groups are sometimes referred to as group tests.

 Objective and subjective tests

The two differ in terms of their scoring.

Objective tests have standard scoring key. This implies that no matter who marks the test, the score
will be the same. Examples are multiple choice tests and true and false tests.

Subjective tests have no scoring key for example the essay questions.

 Power and speed tests

Power tests have generous time limits. This implies that students can attempt to the entire item
within the given time. Items in power tests however are difficult or may vary in difficulty.

It is meant to test how much knowledge a student has.

Speed tests have severe time limits. This implies that it is not easy to complete all the items. Items
on speed tests are quiet easy and so few errors are likely to be made.

It is meant to test the speed of students in answering questions within a given time limit.

 Performance and paper and pencil test

Performance tests require students to perform tasks rather than answer questions. This are
normally administered individually
In paper and pencil tests students are asked to write down their answers. Often given in large group
situations

 Teacher made and standardized tests

Teacher made tests are constructed by teachers to be used within their own classrooms.

Their effectiveness depends on the skills of the teacher and the knowledge of test construction
he/she posses. An example is the exam given here at the university

Standardized tests are constructed by test specialists working curriculum experts and teachers.
They are standardized in that results from different classes and schools may be compared. An
example is the KCSE exams

Comparison between teacher made and standardized

Teacher made Standardized

Specificity of objectives Objectives are specified to the Objectives are general to the
needs of students in a given needs and students in most
classroom classrooms

content Content may come from any Only the most common areas
area of the curriculum of the curriculum are tested.
however items can be added, Items are fixed and not
modified or eliminated as modifiable
desired.
 Rules for administration and Determined by the teacher Determined by test publishers
scoring and can be adapted to the who follow a test manual that
particular needs of the is provided to them
students.

norms The norms may be developed Norms are provided by the

by the teacher publishers to compare class
performance

Evaluation Test quality is assed by the Quality of examination is

teacher provided by the publisher.

MEASUREMENT (assigning of numerals to represent some property of an individual or

object)

Measurement refers to the assigning of numerals to individuals or objects in a systematic way as a

means of representing properties of the individual or objects.

- Numbers are assigned to the individual or objects according to a carefully prescribed

repeatable procedure.
- Numbers are also assigned to the individuals in a systematic way so that the differences
between scores represent differences in the property of characteristic being measured.
The main goal of measurement is to describe, explain and predict the performance of a person,
process or system in a precise manner.

EVALUATION (judging the worth of something)

This is the process of judging the worth of something. This is often done in terms of its cost,
adequacy and effectiveness.

- Evaluation is a form of measurement used to determine the value or worth of something.

Types of student evaluation

There are two types of student evaluation

i) Formative
Formative evaluation aims at ensuring the acquisition and the development of knowledge and skills
by students.

- It is used to identify students’ needs in order to guide them towards desired goals. That is it
tries to find out whether students are able to do what they could not do after learning.
- It also attempts to identify the knowledge and skills which have not been mastered

ii) Summative
Concerned with the outcomes of the teaching learning process. It attempts to determine to what
extent the broad objectives of a programme have been achieved.

It is based on the assumption that

- the programmes objectives are achievable

- there is uniformity in classroom conditions for all learners
- That the teaching techniques and learning materials are adequate.
- That the teaching learning process has been conducted effectively.

Question

 Suppose you give a student an exam, then a student scores 64 and then you grade the
performance as very good.
 Which is the test, the measurement and the evaluation?
PURPOSE OF TESTS

Generally in the school set up, tests are given to determine how much students
have learnt. How ever this is not the only purpose of tests.

 Instructional decisions
- tests given at the beginning of a programme provide knowledge concerning the students
entry behavior
E.g. tests given when joining a new school sometimes referred to as interviews

- Tests help the teacher in defining and clarifying realistic goals for each student
This normally based on their performance. Tests helps in knowing what your student
already knows and what they still need to learn and how much they have learnt. This helps
in setting goals.

- Tests help in evaluating the degree to which the objectives have been achieved.
Before any learning should occur, there has to be objectives to be met at the end of the
course and it is only through tests that a teacher can find out if the objectives have been
achieved.

- Helps the teacher in determining and refining instructional techniques.

Depending on students’ performance on tests, a teacher is able to come up with teaching
instruction that best helps in achieving the objectives.

Tests are not only important to teachers but to students as well

- Helps in determining how much the student has learnt.

 Through tests a student is able to determine what they have already mastered and focus on
what they haven’t learnt well.

- Increases students’ motivation.

Although this may not always be the case, depending on a student’s performance and the
rewards they get, they may be motivated to work harder and perform better.

- Encourages good study habits and

- Provides feedback that identifies that identifies students strengths and weaknesses

 Guidance decisions
Depending on students performance

- Tests help in guiding students on their vocational choices, educational programmes and in
their personal problems.
- Tests provide students with data about significant characteristics which can help students
understand themselves better.
By knowing their strengths and weaknesses.

 Administrative decisions
Tests help in selection, classification and placement decisions.

e.g.

- One decides whether to accept or reject a person for a particular programme.

- Or deciding on the programme one is suitable for.

 Research decisions
Information gathered through tests is the basis upon which research decisions are made.
Remember that when carrying out research then there are certain decisions to be answered.
Remember that the questions to answer are the ones that form the test.

Note that:

A test is only valid if it determines how much the students have learnt

The question is how can we determine if an achievement test is valid?

- Questions should be set from all parts of the syllabus

- The number of questions set from each section should reflect the relative importance of
these sections.

FUNCTIONS OF MEASUREMENT

 Selection
Tests and other measurement devices may be used to decide who will be accepted or rejected by an
institution. This is based on the ability of the student. Those who are succeful are admitted and vise
versa

 Placement
Once individuals have been selected they need to be placed in programmes where they are likely to
be most successful e.g. when it comes to choosing subjects.

 Classification
Measurement may help the teacher in classifying students based on their ability so that each group
is taught according to their needs. E.g. high and low achievers, slow students e.t.c.

 Comparison
No two individuals are alike.

The use of appropriate measurement will help in determining how different students are in their
ability
  Motivation and guidance in leaning
Most students normally fear exams. For this reason it makes them anxious.

Some see exams as a threat depending on the consequences of their performance. Instead of
punishing students, the teacher should use the outcome to guide students accordingly

 Research
Measurement is also useful in research especially when finding out the effect of one variable on
another while other variables are controlled.

 Improving classroom instruction

Remember I said that all students are different. As a result one method of instruction may not be
beneficial to all the students. By measuring the outcome of instruction the teacher is able to identify
those students whoa re benefiting from the mode of instruction and modify the mode of instruction
if need be.

 Diagnosis and remedies

A test can be used to determine a student’s strengths and weakness and provide the students with
necessary assistance.

 Provide feedback
Measurement is also used to provide feedback on students

- Skills and knowledge acquisition

- behavior change and
- on comparison with other students who have done a similar test or on the
This feedback can be used for programme and curriculum improvement

 theory development
The understanding of human growth and development has been increased as a result of testing
various aspects of development such as cognitive development. This can only be possible by
developing the instruments that measure these concepts.

Problems of measurement
Measurement is an important concept in education however it has certain problems

i. Indirectness of measure – most educational and psychological measurements are in

direct because the variables to be measured cannot be observed. E.g. we cannot see or
touch a persons intelligence

We have to use some form of test that will help in determining a person’s intelligence
which may not be 100% representative of intelligence.

ii. Incompleteness of measure – we cannot construct a test that measures all aspects of a
person’s behavior but rather we can only measure a sample of a persons attribute or
behavior
iii. Errors in measurement – there are certain factors that affect measurement. For
example, if we are to measure a student’s knowledge acquisition in a certain subject
then, there are certain factors that are not considered e. health of the student, there
might have been notice, hunger all of which may affect the students’ performance.

In educational institutions, evaluations are carried out from time.

There are various reasons for carrying out this evaluation

Reasons for carrying out educational evaluation

- to make reliable decisions about education planning

e.g. if we take a class set up then based on performance, teachers are able to make decisions on
what topics require more time during instruction.

- To ascertain the worth of time, energy and resources invested in a programme.

Based on performance, the administration is able to ascertain with evidence whether
resources invested in a programme are worth it.

- To determine the relative effectiveness of the programme in terms of students behavioral

outputs.
 Based on performance, one is able to judge the effectiveness of a programme based on
behavioral change.

- To predict the general trend in the development of the teaching learning process.
- To ensure economical and efficient management of scarce resources.
- To identify students growth or lack of growth in acquiring desirable knowledge, skills,
attitude and social values.
- To help teachers determine the effectiveness of their teaching techniques and learning
materials.
If the teaching techniques being employed are not bringing about desired change then a
teacher can change their method of delivery.

- To acquaint parents and guardians with their children’s performance.

Tests are one of the mechanisms through which parents can get feedback on their children’s
performance.

- To identify problems that might hinder the achieving of set goals.

Remember that at the beginning of a programme there are set goals. If for example students
are not performing well then it means that the goals are not also being met. Once evaluation
has been done then now you get the opportunity to find out why this is happening and come up
with a solution.

- To encourage students to develop a sense of discipline and systematic study habits.

CRITICISM OF TESTING

As much as tests are helpful in the education setting, they have been criticized.

 Invasion of privacy
When students are not informed about how tests are going to be used then this is considered an
invasion of privacy. Once students have been tested in the school there are certain implications for
teachers

- Teachers should not post students grades on the notice board because it invades their
privacy.
- Teachers should not use students’ answers or work as an example of good or bad practice.
 - Teachers should not permit other students to grade or correct other students’ papers.
- Teachers should not ask students to raise their hands depending on how they responded to
questions. This can create embarrassment
- Teachers should not distribute marked papers in any manner that permits other students to
look at other students grades.

In your opinion, do you think this applies to all subjects?

 Tests create anxiety and interfere with learning

This may not always be the case because some students actually believe that tests are helpful

Based on a research, the following conclusions have been made concerning the relationship
between tests, anxiety and learning

- Mild degrees of anxiety usually facilitate learning whereas higher levels of anxiety hinder
learning
- The less able students incur higher levels of test anxiety that the more capable
- Being familiar with the type of test to be administered reduce anxiety
- Highly anxious students do better on tests that require recall and do worse on those that
require flexibility
- Test anxiety increases with grade level.
There are certain suggestions that have been made to motivate students to take exams without
creating too much anxiety

- Emphasize the importance of test rather than punishment for those who fail
- Avoid unannounced exams
- Avoid comparing students in terms of performance in tests
- Treat each students grade and record with confidence
 Tests permanently categorize students
Some teachers use tests to categorize students. For example a teacher may categorize students who
fail as unteachable when maybe the student doesn’t only see the importance of the test at that
particular time. But when students know the importance of tests then they tend to perform better
My mom used to tell us that when she was in high school, the first time they wrote a composition;
they did not understand English well and so they failed but with time they started improving but
this teacher still gave them low marks. So one time they decide to copy another students
composition one for word, the teacher still gave them the same low marks and gave the other
student high marks.

 tests penalize bright and creative students

Some psychologists argue that tests deny the creative person the opportunity to demonstrate his
creativity and favor the candidate who has no creativity because of the manner in which tests are
constructed especially those that require fixed answers.

 Tests discriminate minority students

Students from low economic backgrounds lack basic necessities and are not motivated by the
promise of future benefits by performing well they prefer immediate gratification for their
performance an if this is not available then they are not motivated to do well.

At the same time there are those with low grades but can perform better when employed but
employers only focus on the grades.

 Tests only measure only limited and superficial aspects of behavior

It is argued that the most important human traits such as love and creativity are not measured but
rather tests only measure superficial aspects of behavior.

ETHICAL AND UNETHICAL TESTING PRACTICES

Principles of ethics in testing

 Confidentiality
Teachers should maintain confidentiality when it comes to results obtained from tests.
Confidentiality can only be breached/violated under certain conditions:
 - If the student will benefit by talking to other professionals
- If the student gives permission
 Security
All standardized tests should be secured.

 Interpretation
Test scores should be interpreted to students and parents clearly. Test scores should only be made
available to individuals who are qualified to use them.

 Test publications
Standardized tests should provide a manual how and by whom the test can be used effectively.

Ethical testing practices

There are certain ethical practices to be practiced by teachers

i. Students should be told in advance that they are about to tae a test.
Explain to the students about the nature of test e.g. essays, multiple choice e.t.c.

Inform them about the advantages of taking the test

ii. Teachers are expected to explain to students about how they are expected to answer
questions but not give the actual exam.
iii. It is in oder to motivate students to do well in the exam
iv. Tests should be securely kept before, during and after examination. They should not be
left around for students to look at.
v. In an exam room, the ratio of examinee to examiner should be 30:1. This is to ensure
that exam rules and regulations are followed.

Unethical testing practices

i. Teaching students on specific subject matter of an expected exam. E.g. teaching students
specific questions in the exam
ii. Teachers should not teach based on the contents of the exam e.g. not teaching what you
haven’t set
 iii. It is improper for teachers to try to improve students’ performance by giving them a test
with items similar to those in a standardized test before they sit for the standardized
test.
iv. It is unethical to prevent some students from participating in standardized tests simply
because the teacher expects them to perform poorly
v. It is unethical to alter the timing, and scoring procedures of any standardized tests. It is
unethical to create rivalry and anxiety bout standardized tests among students and

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Both instructional and evaluation programmes start with a clear definition of what learning
outcomes are expected from classroom instruction.

For education to be effective then frequent assessments must be made on the extent to which
desired behavioral changes have been produced. This evaluation is based on clearly defined
objectives.

Definition

Educational objective refers to the statement o performance to be demonstrated by each student in

class. It should be stated in measurable and observable terms.

Examples of objectives

By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:-

- define an evaluation programme

- list the properties of an ideal evaluation programme
- Explain why tests are used in schools.
Objectives can be both important to the learner and the teacher

- they help learners to plan for their studies and for examinations
- They guide teachers in planning for instruction and developing tests.

Useful instructional objectives must be:-

- student oriented – they should focus on the student

- descriptive of a learning outcome
- clear and understandable
- observable

Types of objectives

Educational objectives are classified into three domains

i) Cognitive domain – concerned with mental capacity such attainment, retention and
development of knowledge
ii) affective domain – concerned with change in attitudes, feelings and values
iii) psychomotor domain – concerned with muscular or motor behaviors e.g. running,
writing
NB: these three domains depend on each other and so non can function independently

E.g. when you in an exam, you use psychomotor skills to write but you also have to use your mental
ability to remember.

Cognitive domain

Cognitive objectives have been divided into 6 categories also known as bloom’s taxonomy of
objectives.

These divisions where done by a man known as Benjamin bloom and his associates.

This taxonomy is important to teachers when developing tests becoz

 - it provides a description of goals to be considered before a test is constructed
- provides a variety of alternatives when constructing tests

 knowledge
This is the simplest level of bloom taxonomy.

Requires students to answer questions simply by recall or simple memory

Requires little thinking on the students part

Gives an impression that the main purpose of education is memorizing facts

Examples: define, list, outline, recite, state

 comprehension
Requires students to translate a problem in their own words, to give an example of a principle or
concept, to qualify statements and to point out implications or consequences

Examples: translate, list the implications, and predict the outcome

 application
Students apply principles or concepts in new situations.

Examples solve, apply

 Analysis
Requires students to break down information into its constituent parts, distinguish facts from
opinion, discovering causal relationship e.t.c anything that requires analysis.

Example: distinguish,

 Synthesis
Students are expected to produce something unique e.g. theory, composition, plan e.t.c.

Examples: compose, propose, develop, and derive

 Evaluation
This is the most complex level of bloom taxonomy.
Involves placing value judgment on data in order to make a decision. Judgment is made in terms of
evidence or some criteria.

It’s difficult to develop tests of this level because they are difficult to measure.

Examples: make oral judgment.

Knowledge level – involves recall of information. The verbs used under this level include arrange,
define, name, order, repeat, label, list, match e.t.c.

Comprehension level – involves the interpretation of information in one’s own words the verbs
used under this level include classify, identify, describe, explain e.t.c

Application level – involves the application of knowledge to a new situation. The verbs used under
this level include apply, demonstrate, illustrate, prepare, sketch e.t.c.

Analysis level – involves the breaking down of knowledge into parts and showing the relationship
between parts. The verbs used under this level include analyze, calculate, compare, contrast,
categorize, criticize e.t.c.

Synthesis level – involves bringing parts of knowledge to form a pattern or structure this level
include assemble, compose, construct, create, propose, design formulate, organize, plan e.t.c.

Evaluation level – involves making judgment on the basis of given criteria. The verbs used under
this level include asses, estimate, evaluate, judge, predict, rate, value, score e.t.c.
TEST SPECIFICATION
Refers to the determination of the total sum of the qualities and characteristics that a test should
posses prior to its construction.

The purpose of test specification is to:-

- define the scope of the test

- emphasis of the test
- To relate objectives to the test.

Based on test specification, other test constructors should be able to produce comparable and
interchangeable tests differing only in the sampling of questions include

TABLE OF SPECIFICATION

Also referred to as a test blue print.

This is a guide used by teachers to write test items.

Purpose

- Ensures that emphasis is given to all elements of a course of study

- Ensures content validity

TOS is in the form of a two way chart which describes the topic to be covered in a test and the number
of items which will be associated with each topic.

Example of a TOS

Topic No. of Knowledg Comprehensio Applicatio Analysis Synthesis Evaluatio Total

hours e n n n

3
 4

Total

Note:-

- The test items should be aligned with the objectives

- It is recommended that a teacher should write test items immediately after
teaching each topic because the content is still fresh in your mind.

Qualities of TOS

A good TOS should give:-

- The total number of class sessions or hours

- Total number of desired items
- Number of items per topic
- The type of question to be tested or asked.

Relevance of TOS in educational testing

i. Teachers are able to determine what topics to stress on

- It helps in the preparation of tests that reflect what the students have learnt
- It also limits the amount of time spent on each unit.

Imagine a scenario in which a teacher teaches you a section of the course for about 2 minutes and
then gives you a question on that section worth 20 marks, how would you feel?

Or you discuss a specific topic to a great extent and then a teacher sets a question on that section
worth 20marks, how would you fee?
 ii. Ensures that no objective or content will be omitted
iii. Ensures the construction of valid tests
iv. Ensures that each objective receives a proportional emphasis on the test in
relation to the emphasis placed on the objectives hby the teacher

CLASSIFICATION OF TESTS

- Human behavior is quite complex and as a result it can not be measured by only one method
nor can it be summarized in a single score.
- The nature of measurement methods used to evaluate students performance will influence
the kind of learning that goes on in the classroom.
- Wide range of measurement methods will lead to varied learning in the course. For example
if a teacher is always evaluating students using the paper and pencil tests then students will
study for these kinds of tests only.
- Every teacher must have knowledge on various measurement methods and be able to use
this knowledge to prepare a sound evaluation programme.

Tests are classified into three groups

1. paper and pencil tests

2. performance tests
3. oral tests

Paper and pencil tests.

In this type of tests, the students record their responses to a question on a paper leaving a
permanent record of the test proceedings. This category includes objective and essay tests.
Typically they are used to asses students cognitive ability but in some cases have also been used to .
 - All the students answer the same questions.
- Students are tested under uniform conditions hence time can be controlled.
- The tests consists of a series of questions which may cover the whole syllabus
- Provides an opportunity to obtain detailed feedback for both the students and the teacher.

Disadvantages

- It attaches undue importance to a very small sample of students’ behavior.

- Students’ results may be affected by extraneous factors such as the death of a loved one.

Paper and pencil tests can either be:-

i) Structured such as true false items, multiple choice items and matching items. In this
case the students have no freedom to formulate an answer but rather select the correct
answer from the options provided.
ii) Unstructured such as thesis dissertation, term paper, essay, and short answer questions.
In this case, the student is free to supply an answer. When designing a marking scheme
for this type of tests, the examiner should be very flexible in their marking.

Performance tests

Performance tests are concerned with assessing students’ abilities in using various skills and
procedures in various academic courses. Such as in science, music, home economics and fine art.

The students are given a task to perform while being observed.

Advantages

- provides an opportunity to test in a realistic setting

 - Allows the examiner to observe individual performance.
- Provides opportunity to test students’ ability to test students’ ability to bring together a
number of different skills which may not be able to put down on paper.
- Provides opportunity to observe and test attitudes to the total situation.

Disadvantages

- May impose pressure on some of the equipments being used especially those that are used
by many students at the same time e.g. when baking a cake in the oven and students put in
their cakes at different times.
- Where equipment is not sufficient it may result in unequal examination conditions thus
making comparison of results invalid.
- Only a small portion of the syllabus can be tested.
- Not suitable for large groups.

Oral tests

Oral tests require a one to one situation. It tends to be short and loosely structured. It can also
be tailored to fit a particular candidate.

Advantages

- provides direct contact with the candidate

- Provides the examiner with an opportunity to clarify the question when the student has not
grasped the meaning.
- Provides an opportunity to question the candidate how he/she arrived at the answer.
- More than one examiner can examine the candidate simultaneously.
Disadvantages

- Lacks standardization hence results cannot be compared across candidates.

- Results can not be reproduced.
- Lacks a precise definition of the criteria for award of satisfactory grade.
- Depends mainly on the experiences of the examiners.
 - Requires many examiners for large groups.

Note that, to ensure consistency in marking, the proceedings can be taped and marked later by the
examiners.

Characteristics of a good test

i. the test should be valid – the test should provide the desired information
ii. Should be reliable – the test should be able to generate similar results when the same
test is administered to the same group on two different occasions. If the two results are
consistent then the test is highly reliable. The reliability of a test depends on
a) Conditions under which the tests are administered. The students may be aware or
not aware of the test
b) the nature of the attribute being measured
c) characteristics of the students being assessed
d) The way in which tests are scored.

No test is completely valid for example if we were to take the

measurement of a person’s height more than twice then the results
may differ depending on their posture however our goal is to obtain the
most reliable measure.

iii. ease in construction and scoring

iv. it should not take a long time to administer

In our next topic, we are going to talk about types of test and it is under these tests that we shall
learn about the procedures for their constructions.
PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION

We are going to learn how to construct various types of tests

Types of tests

TRUE - FALSE TESTS

This type of test consists of a statement to be marked as either true or false.

Sometimes teachers’ use the terms agree and disagree or yes and no

This type of test involves only two choices

There are three variations of the true false items:-

i) True false - the student is presented with a declarative statement that is true or false e.g.
Jomo Kenyatta was the first president of Kenya.
ii) Cluster – there is one incomplete statement with several suggested answers. Each of the
suggested answers is to be judged as either true or false e.g. the standard deviation is
- a measure of dispersion
- a measure of central tendency

Advantages

- Since answers in true in this type of test are short, a teacher examines more material
in a short period of time. The teacher can also cover a wide area of the syllabus
- It is easy to construct. This is because some teachers take statements directly from
the text and modify them slightly to make some false.
- Easy to score. It is quiet easy to score and the scoring is quite objective since there is
a standardized scoring key. The teachers should discourage students from writing a
 letter to reflect their answer e.g. T or F since some students handwriting can be
confusing. Encourage them to circle the word.

Disadvantages

- Emphasizes in rote memorization. Emphasizes more on memorization than

understanding and application
- Depends on absolute judgment - most facts are not entirely true or false but require
justification. Sometimes we also have intermediate values

E.g. 2/3 = 7 is that the correct answer. It depends on how accurate the teacher wants the response

- It allows a high degree of guessing. Since we have only two alternatives it is easy to
guess and get the answer correctly. There is a 50% chance that a student will guess
correctly.

Suggestions for constructing true false items

i. construct items that measure important objectives

They should stress the students’ ability to justify conclusions drawn from data. E.g. if the statement
is true, why do you think so.

ii. Avoid the use of specific determiners

These are unintentional clues to the correct answer. Research has shown that statements with
sweeping generalizations are likely to be answered as false e.g. all, never and always.

Specific determiners make it possible for the unprepared candidate to respond correctly

iii. Approximately half the statements should be false

True statements are often easy to construct since teachers tend to lift statements from text they
usually dominate the test. Students who are not sure of the answer will tend to mark statements
true.

Ensure that half the statements are true and half are false.

iv. State each item positively if possible.

Negative statements tend to confuse students and make them difficult to understand.

v. Each statement should be unequivocally true or false

Statements should be stated clearly and appropriate clarification made so that I is entirely either
true or false

E.g. the country was colonized by the British. Clarify which country.

Guessing is a major problem in true-false items.

Let’s look at ways to avoid guessing by students

How to prevent guessing

- Encourage students to guess. Encouraging students to guess when in doubt has

been found to be effective in preventing guessing.
- Increase the number of options and items in the test. If you increase the number of
options maybe to 4 then the chances that a guess will be correct is 25%.
- Ask students to revise all the items they marked false to make them true. If the
statement if false then write the true statement
X2(x3) =x6 …………………………………………. X5
- Students should indicate how certain they are that a response is correct then weigh
their confidence.
Very certain 2, certain 1, uncertain ½

CONSTRUCTING MULTIPLE CHOICE tests

This type of tests consists of two parts

i. Question also known as stem

ii. Options or alternatives
The question is meant to be answered by one correct alternative while the other alternatives act as
distracters.

Advantages

- Can be used to measure both memorization, understanding e.g. in math and

application geography or history
- Can be used to test a wide area of the syllabus in a short time
- Scoring is objective since we have a standardized scoring key
- They reduce the effects of guessing since they have more than two options
- It is easy to detect areas of student weakness

Disadvantages

- Time consuming to construct

- Sometimes students complain that there is no one defensible correct answer.

Suggestions for constructing multiple choice items

 The stem should introduce what is expected of the students

o Should be written as a complete statement or question

o e.g. suppose we have two questions

o i. uhuru ii. Uhuru is the ………………… president of Kenya
o a)
o b)
o c)
o d)

 avoid specific determiners

o the stem should not contain a clue to the answer
o e.g. the longest option is frequently the right one
 o a word in the stem also appearing in one of the options
o if the stem ends with an and only one option starts with a vowel

 use vocabulary suited to the level of the learners

 stems and options should be stated positively whenever possible
o this is sometimes confusing and may be overlooked by the students.
o If a negative word such as not is used, ensure its bolded and underlined
 options should be plausible (believable/likely)
o don’t give options that are so out of place that no student will choose.
o All options should be convincing so that they distract the student
 items should have one defensible and correct answer
o you should be able to justify why other options are wrong and only one is
correct
 avoid items measuring opinion
o an item measuring opinion can neither be right or wrong
o e.g. who is the best president Kenya has ever had.
 vary the placement of the correct option
many examiners often place the correct option at the center so students who are
uncertain will always pick the option at the center
vary the placement of the correct response
 avoid overlapping alternatives (have common characteristics)
e.g. options containing boy, lad, son, and girl.
Girl is the odd one out so it’s probably the answer
 use none of the above in the options when you have one absolutely right answer

 avoid using all the above as an option

this is because all options can never be correct.

 The stem should be clear, grammatically correct and contain elements common to
each option as much as possible.
CONSTRUCTING THE MATCHING TEST

This is similar to the multiple choice test. It has two columns.

An item in one column has a correct choice in the other column

Advantages

- Easy to construct
- Easy to score
- Reduces the effects of guessing especially if we have many items and options
e.g. if we had 10 items the chance for guessing will be 10%

Disadvantages

- They emphasize memorization

Suggestions for constructing matching tests

- Use homogeneous options and items

Don’t include options for names, dates, places in one question. Let each category fall
in a specific question. This will give them a better challenge.
- Have more options than items. This will help in preventing guess work
 - Arrange options and items alphabetically or numerically. This is applicable for many
options so that a student who knows the answer doesn’t waste time searching for it
- Limit the number f items in one question. The max number of items should be 5
- place the longer options in one column and shortest options in another column
- Give students direction on how they are expected to respond e.g. if one option can
be used more than once.
- Place all options in the same page. This will save the students time so that they don’t
have to continuously flip pages

COMPLETION TESTS AND SHORT ANSWER TESTS

Completion test
This is type of a test in which the student is asked incomplete a sentence with word or
short phrase.
E.g. the fist president of Kenya was. ?....................

Short answer test

Question is asked which can answered using a word or a short phrase
E.g. Who was the first president of Kenya?

There are three common varieties of short answer items

- question variety – the item is presented as a direct question e.g. what is the square root
of 25.
- Completion variety – an incomplete statement is used e.g. _______________ was the first
president of Kenya.
- Association variety – e.g. write the name of the province in which the following towns
are located Nakuru, Mombasa and Kisumu.

Advantages
- construction is easy - this is because they require a low level of complexity
- guessing is eliminated - since the student has no option, he has to come up with the
right answer hence guess work is eliminated
 - items can be sampled from a wide area of the syllabus - this is because they take less
time to read an answer

Disadvantages
- difficult to score - since the students are required to complete the statement,
aide variety of American be expected e.g. the first president of Kenya was. ?.........
A man, Kenyatta, kikuyu
- It is difficult to construct one with only one correct answer hence the difficulty in
scoring
- emphasize on rote amortization of facts

Suggestions for writing completion and short answer items

- write items that clearly emphasize the type of response desired - what you expect
should be clear to the learner e.g. the name of the first president of Kenya was......
- use only one blank per item - this often confuses students
- to facilitate scoring have students place answers in a single column - depending on
students handwriting, finding the answer approve to be difficult
- avoid taking statements directly from text as this encourages amortization rather
than understanding

ESSAY TESTS
Essays require students to supply answers but allow great freedom in responding and
require more writing.

Most teachers normally prefer this kind of tests because they are easy to construct

Essay tests provide a good measure of a person’s understating of knowledge. These tests should be
used:-

- the group to be tested is small and the test will not be reused.
- time available for test preparation is shorter than time available for scoring.
Essay questions are classified into two types
 i) extended response – in this type of essay question, no bounds are placed on the
students as to the points to be discussed or the type of organization to use in the
discussion.
ii) Restricted response – the student is limited in form and scope of his/her answers by
being told the context that the answer is to take.

Advantages
- they give students freedom to respond within limits. Students are given the chance
to express their ideas
- guessing eliminated
- are practical for testing small number students
- require less time to construct. This is because one question is awarded a lot of
marks
- measure diversity in thinking because they allow great freedom in responding

Disadvantages
- difficult score objectively due to freedom of expression
- they measure only limited aspects students knowledge - can not cover a wide content
area
- time consuming for both students and teachers - in answering and scoring they are
subject to stuffing - a student may attempt an essay question and write so much when
they are out of context or don't know the response
- a lot of time is spent in writing that thinking.

Situations which essay questions are sufficient

- if the objectives specify that the student is to write, recall or supply
- the number of students to examined is small
- if the teacher does not plan on refusing the test since it is easy to construct

Suggestions for writing essay questions

Some teachers may construct essay questions without knowing exactly what they want and so they
do not specify what they want the students to do. Sometimes they do know what they want from
the students

Let’s look at suggestions for writing essay questions

 Specify limitations

- Specify how long the essay should be

- The weight in terms of scoring for each question

If possible,

- tell them roughly how much time they should spend on each question
- The number of words for each answer
- The maximum number of marks for each item

 Structure the task

Give students clear instructions of what they are expected to do.

For example, terms such as discuss, compare and evaluate should be well defined. Tell the students
exactly what they are supposed to discuss, compare or evaluate.

e.g. discuss the advantages of oral tests

discuss oral tests

which one is well structured?

  Make each item relatively short and increase the number of items

e.g. asking students to discuss everything they know about oral tests is vague and difficult to score.

Construct a larger number of specific items so that you are able to sample from a large area of the
content or syllabus

 Give all the students the same essay questions if the content is relevant

Sometimes we give students many questions and ask them to choose which one to answer but then
this is only effective if

- You want to measure writing skills rather than subject matter

Let students answer the same essay question as much as possible.

 Ask questions in a direct manner

There are many ways of killing a rat. In some subjects there may be more than one way to go about
answering a question. Specify exactly what you want instead of penalizing a student for getting the
answer using a method you think is not good.

e.g. math

Suggestions for rating or scoring essay questions

i. Remove names from papers before scoring

As teachers we often have certain impressions about our students and this tends to influence how
we score our students especially in essay questions where marking tends not to be very objective.

This will reduce the probability that your expectation of a student will influence your scoring or
grading

ii. Read and evaluate each students answer on the same question before moving to
the next question.
 - It easier to remember the criteria for evaluating one item at a time.

Most of the times teachers score a student on all questions before moving to the next student but
this have consequences

- If the student does well on the first question, the teacher assumes competence in the
next question and vice versa
- If the student does well in the entire test, the teacher is likely to rate the next
student lower and vice versa.
iii. Keep scores of previously read items out of sight when evaluating the next item.

This is to avoid being influenced by the previous score

iv. If possible re read papers before returning them to students or give other
teachers to go through them

- Gives a teacher an idea of how accurately they were able to score

- Guards against unjustifiable scoring procedures
- An average of two ratings is better than one

v. Put comments on students papers

This will help them know why they received that score. This facilitates learning