A MAJOR PROJECT

on

Investigation of Heat Treatment Effects

on Mechanical and Damping Properties of
3D Printed PLA and PLACF Materials
Submitted to
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, HYDERABAD

In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree

of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CAD/CAM
By

MANGALI HIMAGIRI NAI 237Y1D04

03

Under the Guidance of

Dr. S.P. JANI, Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

i
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Date: 24-October-
CERTIFICATE 2025

This is to certify that the project work entitled “Investigation of Heat Treatment Effects
on Mechanical and Damping Properties of 3D Printed PLA and PLACF Materials”
work done by MANGALI HIMAGIRI NAI (23Y71D0403) student of Department of
Mechanical Engineering, is a record of bonafide work carried out by the member during a period
from October, 2023 to October, 2025 under the supervision of Dr. S. P. JANI. This project is done
as a fulfilment of obtaining Master of Technology Degree to be awarded by Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University Hyderabad, Hyderabad.

The matter embodied in this project report has not been submitted by me to any
other university for the award of any other degree.

Dr. S.P. JANI Dr. R. MURALI PRASAD Dr. U. SUDHAKAR

Associate Professor Principal Associate Professor
Supervisor HOD

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of
my knowledge.

The Viva-Voce Examination of above student, has been held on……………

Head of the Department Principal/Director

Internal Examiner External Examiner

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my guide Dr. S.P. JANI, Associate
Professor, Mechanical Engineering, for his/her excellent guidance and invaluable support,
which helped me accomplish the [Link] (CAD/CAM) degree and prepared me to achieve
more life goals in the future. His total support of my dissertation and countless contributions to
my technical and professional development made for a truly enjoyable and fruitful experience.
Special thanks are dedicated for the discussions we had on almost every working day during
my project period and for reviewing my dissertation.

I am very much grateful to my Project Coordinator, Dr. S.P. JANI, Associate

Professor, Mechanical Engineering, MLRITM, Dundigal, Hyderabad, who has not only
shown utmost patience, but was fertile in suggestions, vigilant in directions of error and has
been infinitely helpful.

I am extremely grateful to Dr. U. SUDHAKAR & Associate Professor, MLRITM,

Dundigal, Hyderabad, for the moral support and encouragement given in completing my
project work.

I wish to express deepest gratitude and thanks to Dr. P. Sridhar, Director and Dr. R.
Murali Prasad, Principal, for their constant support and encouragement in providing all the
facilities in the college to do the project work.

I would also like to thank all our faculties, administrative staff and management of
MLRITM, who helped me to completing the mini project.

On a more personal note, I thank my beloved parents and friends for their moral
support during the course of our project.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
Certificate ii
Acknowledgements iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Figures vi
List of Tables viii
Abstract ix
Chapter 1: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 1

1.1 What Is Additive Manufacturing 2

1.1.1 Importance of additive manufacturing 2
1.1.2 Advantages of additive manufacturing 5
1.1.3 Disadvantages of additive manufacturing 8
1.2 Classification Of Additive Manufaturing 9
1.2.1 VAT Photopolymerisation 10
1.2.2 Material jetting 11
1.2.3 Binder jetting 12
1.2.4 Material extrusion 14
1.2.5 Powder bed fusion 15
1.2.6 Sheet Lamination 17
1.2.7 Directed Energy Deposition 19
1.3 Introduction To Fdm 21
1.3.1 How Does Fused deposing modeling(FDM) works 21
1.3.2 Defination 23
1.3.3 Principle 24
1.3.4 Process 25
1.3.5 Fused Deposition Modeling 26
1.4 Types Of Material Used In Fdm 26
1.5 Process Parameter 28
1.5.1 Factors Effecting the FDM Printing 28
1.5.2 Nozzle Temperature 29
1.5.3 Layer Thickness 30
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iv
 1.5.4 Nozzle Diameter 31
1.5.5 Stand Of Distance 32
1.5.6 Nozzle Speed 33
1.5.7 Material Feed Rate 34
1.5.8 Orientation 35
1.6 Type Of File Formates 36
Chapter 2: Literature Review 37

2.1 Literature review on PLA +(Polylatic acid) 40

Chapter 3: Experimental methods 41

3.1 Experimental Establishment Process 41

3.2 Filament Materials 41

3.3 Process Paramaters 41
3.4 Specimen Fabrication 42
3.5 Tensile Test 44
3.6 Hardness Test 45
3.7 SEM 46
3.8 EDAX Analysis 46
3.9 Damping Analysis 47
48
Chapter 4: Result And Discussions

4.0 Mechanical Testing 48

4.1 Tensile Test 48
4.2. Hardness Test 51
4.3 SEM 53
4.4 EDAX Analysis 54
4.5 Damping Analysis 56
Chapter 5: Conclusion 58

References 59

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Name of the Figure Page

No. No.
1 3D printed Objects 2

1.1 3D Objects and digital model 2

1.2 3
3D objects and digital model
1.3 Fused deposition model 4

1.4 Advantages of additive manufacturin 5

1.5 Photopolymerisation 10

1.6 Photopolymerisation - step by step 11

1.7 Material jetting object 11
1.8 Material jetting object - step by step 12
1.9 13
Binder jetting
1.10 14
Binder jetting - step by step
1.11 15
Material extrusion - step by step

1.12 15
Powder bed fusion

1.13 Powder bed fusion - step by step 16

1.14 17
Sheet lamination
1.15 17
Sheet lamination - step by step
1.16 19
Directed energy deposition

1.17 20
Directed energy deposition - step by step

2 23
FDM Based 3D Printing technology

2.1 Layer by layer deposition 24

2.2 26
Sequence of operations

iii.
vi
 Figure No. Name of the Figure Page No.
2.3 26
Fused deposition model

2.4 27
Objects of different materials

2.5 28
Factors affecting the FDM Printing

2.6 29
Affect of nozzle temperature

2.7 30
Bed temperate affecting

2.8 Layer thickness affected 31

2.9 32
Affect of nozzle dia

2.10 33
Affect of stand of distance

2.11 33
Affect of nozzle speed

2.12 34
Affect of material feed rate

2.13 35
Affect of orientation

3 49
Tensile strength

3.1 52
hardness

3.2 53
Impact strength

3.3 55
Flexural strength

iii.
vii
 Table No. Name of the Tables Page No.
1 Process parameter 42
2 Tensile strength analysis 50
3 Young's modulus analysis 50
4 52
Hardness analysis

iv.
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 ABSTRACT

This project discusses aspects of AM standardization in the field of testing the

mechanical properties of materials for 3D printing using FDM. As an illustration of the
standard application, specimens were prepared for testing the mechanical properties of
PETG.

The mechanical properties of these parts have to be known for the purpose to
determine load carrying capacity essential for their functionality. Mechanical properties
are being tested using appropriate methods, specimens, and equipment. To obtain
comparable and evaluable test results, the test procedures and means should be
standardized. One of the main drawbacks of 3D printing is the weaker mechanical
properties of products when compared with the products manufactured by conventional
manufacturing methods. Since 3D printing has gained a new demand in the
manufacturing industry, there is a requirement of increasing the strength and durability
of 3D printed products to an optimum level.

This study, it was tried to examine the effect of infill shapes and rates of 3D
printed specimens under mechanical loading. Similarly, it was tried to study the effect
of printing direction on the strength of 3D printed components under mechanical
loading conditions. Obtained test results through this study would be utilized for the
further development of the 3D printing process and products. This study intends to
optimize the printing parameters nozzle temperature, printing speed, layer height and
filling to maximize the mechanical properties of printed PETG+CF .It was possible to
conclude that the best properties for PETG+CF were obtained for extrusion
temperatures of 230°C, 235 °C, 240°C , printing speeds of 70, 80 and 90 mm/s,
layer heights of 0.16, 0.20 and 0.24 mm and an infill density of 100% respectively

Key words: Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), PETG + Carbon Fiber

Composites, Mechanical properties, process parameter optimization.

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Emerging technologies, such as Internet of Things, big data, artificial intelligence etc.,
have already transformed major segments of the economy. Rapid transformation has also
been witnessed in next generation manufacturing. Improvements in productivity, automation
have already been achieved using digital technologies in conventional manufacturing. The
rapid transformation is now being noticed in manufacturing process. Next generation
manufacturing has shifted the priorities to sustainability, speed-to-market, agility for mass
products and supply chain resiliency.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) (or 3D printing), produces objects layer by layer and has the
potential to transform next generation manufacturing through expanding design freedom,
reducing time to market, bringing production closer to demand and improving industrial
sustainability.

Additive Manufacturing is ushering the world into an Industrial Revolution 4.0, offering
immense potential that could revolutionize India’s manufacturing and industrial production
landscape through digital processes, communication, imaging, architecture and engineering
that provide digital flexibility and efficiency. Valued above US$ 7 billion1 in 2017, the
industry is growing rapidly, and is expected to beat USD35.6 billion by2023.

As countries and companies choose to diversify and recalibrate their supply chains, thus
restructuring the global manufacturing order, India is also facing generational opportunity to
strengthen its value proposition and realign its global positioning. A strategic effort is,
therefore, required to develop indigenous technological capabilities, as also, fully tap and
leverage the potential opportunities of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Collective focus on
Additive Manufacturing can immensely augment India’s efforts to position itself as
Manufacturing Hub of the world. Globally, Governments are closely evaluating the impact of
AM technologies on their economies, skills and capability development; and thus developing
their National Manufacturing Strategies. In this backdrop, National Strategy on Additive
Manufacturing is extremely pertinent to aspire for India’s Manufacturing Value Add to l
Trillion USD per annum.

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 Figure 1: 1 3D Printed objects

This strategy document has been formulated to promote all sub-sectors, such as,
machines, materials, software and design within the Additive Manufacturing. It will further
accelerate the adoption of untapped potential business opportunities, and strengthen
execution of recommendations laid in the National Electronics Policy, 2019.

1.1 What is additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing ,also known as 3D printing, is a process used to create a physical (or
3D) object by layering materials one by one based on a digital [Link] subtractive
manufacturing that creates it final product by cutting away from a block of materials,additive
manufacture adds parts to form its final product .

Figure 1.1: 3D objects and digital model

1.1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
Additive manufacturing simply describes a method of building objects layer by layer.
You design a 3D model, generally in a CAD program, and send the data to a machine

2
(sometimes called a 3D printer) that then creates a physical object. (Check out this post for a
more in-depth definition of additive manufacturing.

Figure 1.2: 3D objects and digital model

Figure 1.3: Fused deposition model

It can use a range of materials and techniques. For example, it can involve simple extrusion
(imagine plastic layers applied like glue from a hot gun), material jetting (like an inkjet
printer), or fine powders melted with lasers.

In fact, AM is so flexible, you can find it used today for both nanotechnology as well as for
building houses. Here’s why everybody is so excited about it:

1. Cost of Entry is Becoming More Affordable

The first obstacle most companies face when contemplating additive manufacturing is the
cost of equipment. Machinery for additive manufacturing has historically been too expensive

3
for smaller manufacturers to accommodate. However, new technologies have made the cost
of entry much more affordable, cutting equipment costs as low as $3,500.00 for a reliable
industrial quality machine.

Because additive manufacturing has the capability to reduce the amount of capital that is
needed to scale up production without making major changes, manufacturers may be able to
increase the speed and profitability of their business model.

2. It Is Easy to Change or Revise Versions of a Product

Additive manufacturing is about more than just creating a physical product, it is about
bringing design and innovation to the forefront. In fact, having creative freedom without
worrying about cost or time penalties is one of the primary advantages of additive
manufacturing.

In traditional manufacturing, modifying a design during production can lead to significant

cost increases or time delays as tooling on a production line is changed out. Additive
manufacturing solves this problem by moving away from static designs and enabling
engineers to produce multiple versions of a single design in a cost-effective manner.

3. Training Programs Are Becoming Readily Available at All Levels

You might think that training your staff to design for additive manufacturing will be a
challenge that will interrupt business operations. This is not necessarily the case as there are a
wide variety of training programs available for designers and manufacturers at all levels of
understanding.

For example, fundamental training is available for those who have experience with the tools
or technology; technical training is available to educate decision makers on how to utilize
additive manufacturing; and advanced training is available for education on material handling
and post-production processes.

4. It Reduces Waste Production

Additive manufacturing generates significantly less waste than traditional manufacturing

methods. For example, a milling machine works by removing material from a block that is
bigger than the product itself will be. The removed material is usually in the form of kindling
or shavings that cannot be reused and therefore end up as waste.

4
Additive manufacturing, on the other hand, works differently. Instead of removing material, it
“adds” material layer by layer so that only what is required gets used. In this way, additive
manufacturing can reduce material costs and waste by as much as 90 percent.

5. It Saves on Energy Costs

When compared with traditional manufacturing processes, additive manufacturing can

significantly reduce energy usage by using less material and eliminating steps in the
production process. Take this example cited in a recent report by the Department of Energy:

“LEAP jet engine from GE and Snecma incorporates fuel nozzles printed with laser
sintering. Conventional manufacturing process welds 20 parts to produce the fuel nozzle,
while AM produces a single piece that is 25% lighter, five times more durable, and reduces
fuel burn by 15%”

Furthermore, re-manufacturing parts through additive manufacturing processes can return

end-of-life products to “like new” condition using only 2 to 25 percent of the energy that
would be required to build a whole new part.

1.1.3 ADVANTAGES OF ADDITIVE MANAFACTURING

Figure 1.4:Adavantage of additive manafacturing

1. Lower start-up costs

Manufacturing start-up costs can be high. The need to create custom tooling for any new item
you wish to manufacture, can limit the scope of what is economically viable to produce.

5
Industrial AM machinery costs as little as a few thousand pounds, with home or enthusiast
solutions as little as a few hundred. Even better, when the time comes to change your design,
simply tell the 3D printer what the new design should look like! There’s no need to throw
away the investment you have made in AM equipment.

2. Easy to learn (and use)

There is a learning curve with all new technologies and machinery. The good news is that
there is a wealth of easy to access training on how to use AM and 3D printers. Whether you
are on the CAD design side, or responsible for running the AM equipment, there will be
appropriate training available.

3. Reduced raw material wastage

Many traditional forms of manufacture start with a larger block of metal or piece of wood,
and then reduce it. The fragments of material that have been milled away are often of no
economic use. These reductive manufacturing methods waste a lot of raw material. Additive
Manufacturing starts with nothing and then adds what is needed, reducing raw material
wastage by up to ninety percent.

4. Customization to the individual

Because each 3D printed item being manufactured is based on a digital blueprint, it is easy to
make each item unique, without the need for retooling. This ability is a particular strength for
the medical and healthcare sectors, where custom made splints and supports can be tailored to
an individual. Research on using Additive Manufacturing techniques to construct
replacement human parts, such as bone, is well under way too!

5. Digital design integration

Computer Aided Design (CAD) saw the move away from the 2D drawing board to a world of
3D virtual design. Additive Manufacturing takes this a step further and allows those virtual
3D designs to be rendered in the physical world, at the touch of a button. Many design
packages now support 3D printing ability, helping to automate required design steps, such as
the inclusion of interior honeycombed strengthening or exterior scaffolding. Additive
Manufacturing means it has never been easier, faster or cheaper to render a 3D design into a
physical object.

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6. Speed of first prototype

Rapid Prototyping has been used as a phrase to describe additive manufacturing, and for good
reason. With the low cost and fast speed to produce a single item, it makes it easy to create a
first prototype and see how it performs in the intended environment. CAD can then be used to
make any changes or adjustments needed and the process repeated. Lower cost materials,
such as Poly-lactic Acid (PLA), are often used for initial prototypes, with later prototypes
introducing the materials likely to be used for the final design.

7. Speed from prototype to production

Traditional forms of manufacture require tooling to be made, to produce the final items. This
introduces delay in time and an increase in cost. With AM, once the final prototype has been
approved, the same equipment can be used for production.

8. Lower energy and environmental costs

By reducing the time taken to manufacture an item, as well as waste materials, Additive
Manufacturing can be better for the environment! General Electric recently celebrated its
30,000th 3D-printed fuel nozzle tip for the LEAP engine. “Under the additive manufacturing
method, the number of parts in a single fuel nozzle tip was reduced from about 20 pieces
previously welded together to one whole piece. The nozzle tip’s weight was cut by about
25 percent.” AM is good for the bottom line and the planet!

9. Low volume production runs

Additive Manufacturing is brilliant for low volume production runs. More traditional
methods of manufacture require tooling costs, which can make low volume production
economically unavailable AM means that even single items can be manufactured in a
profitable manner.

10. Distributed manufacturing

Another advantage of Additive Manufacturing is that production no longer needs to be done

centrally. Simply place a 3D printer wherever you need the item to be manufactured! This is
one of the many reasons that 3D printing will be used extensively where traditional
distribution methods might be a problem. As an extreme example of this, NASA launched the

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“3D-Printed Habitat Challenge” a competition to build a 3D-printed habitat for deep space
exploration, including the agency’s journey to the Moon, Mars or beyond.

1.1.4 DISADVANTAGES

1. Cost of entry

With additive manufacturing, the cost of entry is still prohibitive to many organizations and,
in particular, smaller businesses. The capital costs to purchase necessary equipment can be
substantial and many manufacturers have already invested significant capital into the plant
and equipment for their traditional operations. Making the switch is not necessarily an easy
proposition and certainly not an inexpensive one.

2. Production costs

Production costs are high. Materials for AM are frequently required in the form of
exceptionally fine or small particles that can considerably increase the raw material cost of a
project. Additionally, the inferior surface quality often associated with AM means there is an
added cost to undertake any surface finishes and the post-processing required to meet quality
specifications and standards.

3. Additional materials

Currently there is a limit to the types of materials that can be processed within AM
specifications and these are typically pre-alloy materials in a base powder. The mechanical
properties of a finished product are entirely dependent upon the characteristics of the powder
used in the process. All the materials and traits required in an AM component have to be
included early in the mix. It is, therefore, impossible to successfully introduce additional
materials and properties later in the process.

4. It’s slow

As mentioned, additive manufacturing technology has been around since the eighties, yet
even in 2021, AM is still considered a niche process. That is largely because AM still has
slow build rates and doesn’t provide an efficient way to scale operations to produce a high
volume of parts. Depending on the final product sought, additive manufacturing may take up
to 3 hours to produce a shape that a traditional process could create in seconds. It is virtually
impossible to realize economies of scale.

8
5. Post-processing

6. A certain level of post-processing is required in additive manufacturing because surface

finishes and dimensional accuracy can be of a lower quality compared to other manufacturing
methods. The layering and multiple interfaces of additive manufacturing can cause defects in
the product, whereby post-processing is needed to rectify any quality issue.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

 Stereolithography (SLA) Prototyping

 Carbon digital light synthesis (DLS) Printing

 Laminated object manufacturing(LOM)

 Fused deposition modeling(FDM)

 Selective laser sintering (SLS)

 Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)

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1.2.1 VAT Photopolymerisation

Vat polymerisation uses a vat of liquid photopolymer resin, out of which the model is
constructed layer by layer. An ultraviolet (UV) light is used to cure or harden the resin
where required, whilst a platform moves the object being made downwards after each new
layer is cured.

As the process uses liquid to form objects, there is no structural support from the material
during the build phase., unlike powder based methods, where support is given from the
unbound material. In this case, support structures will often need to be added. Resins are
cured using a process of photo polymerisation (Gibson et al., 2010) or UV light, where the
light is directed across the surface of the resin with the use of motor controlled mirrors
(Grenda, 2009). Where the resin comes in contact with the light, it cures or hardens.

Figure 1.5:Photopolymerisation

Photopolymerisation – Step by Step

1. The build platform is lowered from the top of the resin vat downwards by the layer
thickness.
2. A UV light cures the resin layer by layer. The platform continues to move downwards
and additional layers are built on top of the previous.

10
3. Some machines use a blade which moves between layers in order to provide a smooth
resin base to build the next layer on.
4. After completion, the vat is drained of resin and the object removed.

Figure 1.6: Photopolymerisation – Step by Step

1.2.2 Material Jetting

Figure 1.7:Material jetting object

Material jetting creates objects in a similar method to a two dimensional ink jet printer.
Material is jetted onto a build platform using either a continuous or Drop on Demand (DOD)
[Link] is jetted onto the build surface or platform, where it solidifies and the
model is built layer by layer. Material is deposited from a nozzle which moves horizontally

11
across the build platform. Machines vary in complexity and in their methods of controlling
the deposition of material. The material layers are then cured or hardened using ultraviolet
(UV) light.

As material must be deposited in drops, the number of materials available to use is limited.
Polymers and waxes are suitable and commonly used materials, due to their viscous nature
and ability to form drops.

Material Jetting – Step by Step

Figure 1.8: Material Jetting – Step by Step

1. The print head is positioned above build platform.

2. Droplets of material are deposited from the print head onto surface where required,
using either thermal or piezoelectric method.
3. Droplets of material solidify and make up the first layer.
4. Further layers are built up as before on top of the previous.
1.2.3
5. Binder
Layers Jetting
are allowed to cool and harden or are cured by UV light. Post processing
The includes removal
binder jetting of support
process uses material.
two materials; a powder based material and a binder. The
binder acts as an adhesive between powder layers. The binder is usually in liquid form and
the build material in powder form.

12
 Figure 1.9:Binder jetting

A print head moves horizontally along the x and y axes of the machine and deposits
alternating layers of the build material and the binding material. After each layer, the object
being printed is lowered on its build platform.

Due to the method of binding, the material characteristics are not always suitable for
structural parts and despite the relative speed of printing, additional post processing (see
below) can add significant time to the overall process.

As with other powder based manufacturing methods, the object being printed is self-
supported within the powder bed and is removed from the unbound powder once completed.
The technology is often referred to as 3DP technology and is copyrighted under this name.

Binder Jetting – Step by Step

Powder material is spread over the build platform using a roller.

1. Powder material is spread over the build platform using a roller.

2. The print head deposits the binder adhesive on top of the powder where required.
3. The build platform is lowered by the model’s layer thickness.
4. Another layer of powder is spread over the previous layer. The object is formed where
the powder is bound to the liquid.
5. Unbound powder remains in position surrounding the object.
6. The process is repeated until the entire object has been made.

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 Figure 1.10: Binder Jetting – Step by Step

1.2.4 Material Extrusion

Fuse deposition modelling (FDM) is a common material extrusion process and is

trademarked by the company Stratasys. Material is drawn through a nozzle, where it is
heated and is then deposited layer by layer. The nozzle can move horizontally and a platform
moves up and down vertically after each new layer is deposited. It is a commonly used
technique used on many inexpensive, domestic and hobby 3D printers.

The process has many factors that influence the final model quality but has great potential
and viability when these factors are controlled successfully. Whilst FDM is similar to all
other 3D printing processes, as it builds layer by layer, it varies in the fact that material is
added through a nozzle under constant pressure and in a continuous stream. This pressure
must be kept steady and at a constant speed to enable accurate results (Gibson et al., 2010).
Material layers can be bonded by temperature control or through the use of chemical agents.
Material is often added to the machine in spool form as shown in the diagram.

Material Extrusion – Step by Step

1. First layer is built as nozzle deposits material where required onto the cross sectional
area of first object slice.
2. The following layers are added on top of previous layers.

3. Layers are fused together upon deposition as the material is in a melted state
14
15
 Figure 1.11:Material extrusion – Step by Step

1.2.5 Powder Bed Fusion

Figure 1.12: Powder Bed Fusion

The Powder Bed Fusion process includes the following commonly used printing
techniques: Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), Electron beam melting (EBM),
Selective heat sintering (SHS), Selective laser melting (SLM) and Selective laser
sintering (SLS).

Powder bed fusion (PBF) methods use either a laser or electron beam to melt and fuse
material powder together. Electron beam melting (EBM), methods require a vacuum but
can be used with metals and alloys in the creation of functional parts. All PBF processes
involve the spreading of the powder material over previous layers. There are different

16
mechanisms to enable this, including a roller or a blade. A hopper or a reservoir below of
aside the bed provides fresh material supply. Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is the
same as SLS, but with the use of metals and not plastics. The process sinters the powder,
layer by layer. Selective Heat Sintering differs from other processes by way of using a
heated thermal print head to fuse powder material together. As before, layers are added
with a roller in between fusion of layers. A platform lowers the model accordingly.

Powder Bed Fusion – Step by Step

Figure1.13:Powder Bed Fusion – Step by Step

1. A layer, typically 0.1mm thick of material is spread over the build platform.
2. A laser fuses the first layer or first cross section of the model.
3. A new layer of powder is spread across the previous layer using a roller
4. Further layers or cross sections are fused and added.
5. The process repeats until the entire model is created. Loose, unfused powder is remains
in position but is removed during post processing.
1.2.6 Sheet Lamination
Sheet lamination processes include ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) and laminated
object manufacturing (LOM). The Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing process uses sheets or
ribbons of metal, which are bound together using ultrasonic welding. The process does require
additional cnc machining and removal of the unbound metal, often during the welding process.
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) uses a similar layer by layer approach but uses paper
as material and adhesive instead of welding.

17
 Figure1.14:Sheet Lamination

The LOM process uses a cross hatching method during the printing process to allow for easy
removal post build. Laminated objects are often used for aesthetic and visual models and are
not suitable for structural use. UAM uses metals and includes aluminium, copper, stainless
steel and titanium (Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing Overview, 2014). The process is low
temperature and allows for internal geometries to be created. The process can bond different
materials and requires relatively little energy, as the metal is not melted.

Sheet Lamination – Step by Step

Figure1.15:Sheet Lamination – Step by Step

1. The material is positioned in place on the cutting bed.

2. The material is bonded in place, over the previous layer, using the adhesive
3. The required shape is then cut from the layer, by laser or knife.

18
4. The next layer is added.
5. Steps two and three can be reversed and alternatively, the material can be cut before
being positioned and bonded.

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1.2.7 Directed Energy Deposition

Figure1.16:Directed Energy Deposition

Directed Energy Deposition (DED) covers a range of terminology: ‘Laser engineered net
shaping, directed light fabrication, direct metal deposition, 3D laser cladding’ It is a more
complex printing process commonly used to repair or add additional material to existing
components (Gibson et al., 2010).

A typical DED machine consists of a nozzle mounted on a multi axis arm, which deposits
melted material onto the specified surface, where it solidifies. The process is similar in
principle to material extrusion, but the nozzle can move in multiple directions and is not fixed
to a specific axis. The material, which can be deposited from any angle due to 4 and 5 axis
machines, is melted upon deposition with a laser or electron beam. The process can be used
with polymers, ceramics but is typically used with metals, in the form of either powder or
wire.

Typical applications include repairing and maintaining structural parts.

20
 Direct Energy Deposition – Step by Step

Figure1.17:Direct Energy Deposition – Step by Step

1. A4 or 5 axis arm with nozzle moves around a fixed object
2. Material is deposited from the nozzle onto existing surfaces of the object.
3. Material is either provided in wire or powder form.
4. Material is melted using a laser, electron beam or plasma arc upon deposition.
5. Further material is added layer by layer and solidifies, creating or repairing new
material features on the existing object.
The design is generated by a guided UV laser beam, which causes the resin to harden according
to the given design and build each printed layer is attached to the previous layer by the same
fusing process. In the laminated object manufacturing (LOM) method, sheets are cut using laser
or mechanical cutters according to the required shape, then they are laminated together, or the
sheets can be laminated together first and then cut into the required shape. The machining and
material cost is lower compared to the other processes and can obtain a better surface finish in
the final part. In the solvent cast direct writing (SC-DW) method, a dissolvable polymer is
combined with a rapid solvent evaporation process to print complex structures at room
temperature.
In the laminated object manufacturing (LOM) method, sheets are cut using laser or mechanical
cutters according to the required shape, then they are laminated together, or the sheets can be
laminated together first and then cut into the required shape. The machining and material cost is
lower compared to the other processes and can obtain a better surface finish in the final part. In
the solvent cast direct writing (SC-DW) method, a dissolvable polymer is combined with a rapid
21
solvent evaporation process to print complex structures at room temperature.

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO FDM

Fused deposition modelling (FDM) uses a heated nozzle to convert the thermoplastic
filament into a semi-molten form, which is extruded to build the structure through layer-by-layer
deposition. This method is further explained in Section 2, and it is the main 3D printing method
we are focusing on in this paper. Compared to other AM methods, as the FDM method offers
many advantages including cost effectiveness, now, many researchers are moving towards FDM
to study this process thoroughly. Figure 2.3 indicates the number of research publications
relevant to the FDM process from 2009 to [Link] demonstrates the growing interest towards the
fiber- reinforced composites printed with this FDM technology. As FDM becomes a
revolutionary manufacturing technology, the requirements from various industries start to
escalate, and the demands of those industries are fulfilled. Printer manufacturing companies such
as Stratasys, Ultimaker, Markforged, XYZ printing, Zortex, German RepRap and Dagoma are
constantly engaging in improving the printers, while software companies such as Autodesk,
Siemens PLM software and Dassault systems are developing new CAD software to be
compatible with the new printers.
Hence, this paper will focus on reviewing, characterizing and classifying defects and exploring
different technical methods to reduce or eliminate them, in order to achieve better properties in
3Dprinted polymers and composites via FDM. The second section of this paper discusses the
FDM process and thermoplastic polymer printing. The thermoplastic polymers that are discussed
in this review are used as the matrix material in developing fiber -reinforced
consumption and material waste
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is an extrusion-based 3D printing technology. The build materials
used in FDM are thermoplastic polymers and come in a filament form. In FDM, a part is manufactured
by selectively depositing melted material layer by layer in a path defined by the CAD model. Due to its
high accuracy, low cost and large material selection, FDM is one of the most widely used 3D printing
technologies across the world.

FDM technology uses the build input material in the form of thermoplastic filaments.
1.3.1 How does fused deposing Modeling (FDM) work ?

An FDM printer consists of two spools: one for the build material and the other for the
support material respectively. The Fused deposition modeling 3D printing process follows
these main steps:

22
Step 1 – After the CAD data is input, the already loaded solid build material filament is
liquified with the help of heat in the liquefier head

Step 2 – This molten liquid plastic is fed onto the foam build platform as a layer through
the extrusion nozzle that moves in all directions as defined in the CAD data. This
process of adding the liquid/semi-solid layers one above the other is repeated. If the
design consists of over-hangs or structures that might potentially warp or bend, support
structures are used. The support material can be the same as the build material or any
other material according to the choice.
Step 3 – In case support structures were used, they are later removed once the build is
complete.
Fused deposition modeling is an additive manufacturing technology that creates 3D
components using a continuous thermoplastic or composite material thread in filament
form. An extruder feeds the plastic filament through an extruding nozzle, which is melted
and then selectively deposited layer by layer onto the build platform in a predetermined
automated path.
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a 3D printing technology that uses a thermoplastic filament, which
is heated and extruded through a nozzle to create a te a three-dimensional object layer by layer.
In FDM printing, the 3D model is first sliced into layers using software, and then the printer follows the
instructions to extrude the filament layer by layer, gradually building up the object. The melted filament
is deposited onto a build platform or previous layers of the print, where it solidifies and fuses to the
previous layers.
FDM is a popular and widely used 3D printing technology because it is relatively inexpensive and easy to
use. It is commonly used for rapid prototyping, small-scale manufacturing, and hobbyist projects. The
technology is also capable of producing high-quality prints with good mechanical properties, although the
level of detail and precision may not be as high as with other 3D printing technologies, such as
stereolithography (SLA) or digital light processing (DLP).
In FDM printing, the 3D model is first sliced into layers using software, and then the printer follows the
instructions to extrude the filament layer by layer, gradually building up the object. The melted filament
is deposited onto a build platform or previous layers of the print, where it solidifies and fuses to the
previous layers.

23
 Figure 2: Fdm- Based 3D Printing technology

1.3.2 DEFINITION :

 FDM is a 3D printing technology which is mostly used for modelling, prototyping, and
production applications.

 desiners and engineers in aerospace, medical, electrical, consumers goods, and other
industries

3D printing with FDM technology is clean, simple to use, and office friendly. Thanks to
production grade materials that are mechanically and environmentally stable. They include
many of the same tried-and-tested thermoplastics used in traditional manufacturing processes
like injection molding.

With Stratasys FDM technology, making complex geometries and parts with internal cavities
becomes possible. For applications that demand precise tolerances, durability, and stability in
different environments, FDM thermoplastics deliver the required properties.

24
 Figure 2.1: Layer by layer deposition

1.3.3 PRINCIPLE

FDM works on an "additive" principle by laying down material in layers. A plasticfilament

or metal wire is unwound from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle which
can turn the flow on and off
The Technology:
The Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) process constructs three-dimensional objects
directly from 3D CAD data. A temperature-controlled head extrudes thermoplastic material
layer by layer.
The FDM process starts with importing an STL file of a model into a pre-processing
softwareThis model is oriented and mathematically sliced into horizontal layers varying
from +/-
0.127 - 0.254 mm thickness. A support structure is created where needed, based on the part's
position and geometry. After reviewing the path data and generating the toolpaths, the data is
downloaded to the FDM machine.
The system operates in X, Y and Z axes, drawing the model one layer at a time. This process is
similar to how a hot glue gun extrudes melted beads of glue. The temperature-controlled

25
extrusion head is fed with thermoplastic modelling material that is heated to a semi-liquid
state. The head extrudes and directs the material with precision in ultrathin layers onto a
fixtureless base. The result of the solidified material laminating to the preceding layer is a
plastic 3D model built up one strand at a time.
Once the part is completed the support columns are removed and the surface is finished.

1.3.4 Process:

FDM begins with a software process, developed byStratasys, which processes an STL file
(stereolithography file format) in minutes, mathematically slicing and orienting the model for
the build process. If required, support structures are automatically generated. The machine
dispenses two materials – one for the model and one for a disposable support structure.
The thermoplastics are liquefied and deposited by an extrusion head, which follows a tool-
path defined by the CAD file. The materials are deposited in layers as fine as 0.04 mm
(0.0016") thick, and the part is built from the bottom up – one layer at a [Link] works on
an "additive" principle by laying down material in layers. A plastic filament or metal wire is
unwound from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle which can turn the flow on
and off. The nozzle is heated to melt the material and can be moved in both horizontal and
vertical directions by a numerically controlled mechanism, directly controlled by a computer-
aided manufacturing(CAM) software package. The model or part is produced by extruding
small beads of thermoplastic material to form layers as the material hardens immediately
after extrusion from the nozzle. Stepper motors orservo motor are typically employed to move
the extrusion head.
Several materials are available with different trade-offs between strength and temperature
properties. acrylonitrile. (ABS) polymer, polycarbonates, polycaprolactone,
polyphenylsulfones and waxes. A "water- soluble" material can be used for making temporary
supports while manufacturing is in progress, this soluble support material is quickly dissolved
with specialized mechanical agitation equipment utilizing a precisely heated sodium hydroxide
solution.
The term fused deposition modeling>and its abbreviation to FDM are trademarked by
Stratasys Inc. The exactly equivalent term, fused filament fabrication (FFF), was coined by
the members of the RepRap project to give a phrase that would be legally unconstrained in
its use. It is a new model.

26
 Figure 2.2: sequence of operations

1.3.5 FUSED DEPOSITION MODEL

Figure 2.3: Fused deposition model

1.4 Types of Materials used in FDM:

The most commonly used polymers in the FDM technique include:

[Link] (PLA)

[Link] terephthalate glycol (PET-G)

27
[Link]-butadiene-styrene polymer (ABS)

4. Polyamide 12 (PA12)

5. PLA PLUS

[Link](PS)

[Link] (PE)

1. Polylactide (PLA)
The manufacturing method of PLA is the ring-opening polymerization of the
dimeric cyclic ester of lactic acid, lactide. For the stereo complex PLA, we
developed the four unit processes, fermentation, separation, lactide conversion, and
polymerization.

2. Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PET-G)

PETG is produced using a two-step, melt-phase polycondensation process.
This relatively simple process joins two different monomers together, accompanied
with the release of a small molecule such as water. PETG can be injection moulded,
sheet extruded or extruded as a filament for 3D printing.

3. Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene polymer (ABS)

In the emulsion process, ABS is prepared by polymerizing butadiene in aqueous
emulsion using radical initiators, emulsifiers, followed by a grafting step of emulsion
polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile onto the polybutadiene latex elastomer
substrate.

4. Polyamide 12 (PA12)
Polyamides are typically made by combining two monomers namely, adipic
acid with 1,6-diaminohexane. Once these two monomers have reacted to gether they
form water as a by-product of each polymer chain linkage. This linking of the two
monomers is known as poly merisation.

28
 a. Polystyrene (PS)
Polystyrene is easily manufactured by the free radical polymerization of
styrene using free-radical initiators (Figure 6.31). Styrene with or without diluents
is mixed with a free radical initiator like dibenzoyl peroxide and heated to a
temperature of 120°C.
b. Polyethylene (PE)
Production of polyethylene consist of gas phase, solution, slurry and
improved LDPE process. The slurry method is divided into a stirred tank slurry
process and a loop reactor slurry method. The LDPE process is the modified version
of LDPE equipment production.

1.5 Process Parameter

1.5.1 Factors affecting the FDM printing

There are a great number of factors influencing the quality of objects produced
using FDM 3D printing technique such as printing material properties, the height of
deposited layers, type and percentage of infill, number of shells, extruding temperature,
printing speed, print orientation, raster angle etc

Figure 2.5: Factors affecting the FDM printing

29
1.5.2 Nozzle temperature

Users started to see printing issues with PLA at temperatures below 59°F (15°C). The main
thing you have to control is temperature fluctuations because large changes in temperature
can definitely mess a print up. Warping occurs because print layers are cooling down too
quickly, meaning they contract too [Link] high a temperature can result in overly melted
extruded layers which then sag and cause part deformation, in addition to other problems
like material accidentally oozing from the nozzle.

Figure 2.6: Affect of Nozzle temperature

You must be careful to not set the temperature too low. Very low temperatures could make
the filament not melt enough, which could create issues with extrusion. An ideal
temperature depends on the printing material and other printing settings.

FDM-based 3D printing, the temperature settings for the bed and the inside observation of
the effects of bed temperatures on the shape.

The base layer on which the build happens, also known as bed, contributes to how the first
few layers are laid out.
If the bed temperature is too low, then it might result in the first few layers not sticking well,
even if the nozzle temperature is optimal, leading to a domino effect on the subsequent
layers, eventually failing the build.

30
 Figure 2.7: Bed Temperature Affecting

If bed temperature is too high, it might lead to formation of blobs, even if the nozzle
temperature is perfectly fine, which will lead to the build sticking almost too well, and that
might lead to damaging the end product during the removal process.
This problem can be solved by preparing the bed as a part of the calibration process of the
printing.
1.5.3 Layer thickness

3D Printers that use FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) technology often have the option of
printing at different layer thicknesses. The impact of those layer thicknesses is most easily seen
when looking at print time and surface finish. Thinner layers will result in good surface
finish, but longer print time. Thicker layers will result in poor surface finish, but faster print
time.
With FDM, the thinnest layers achievable with standard equipment are typically .005” thick.
Other options include .007”, .010” and .013” layer thicknesses. In order to print at different
thicknesses, typically the machine needs to be outfitted with different tips (or nozzles) that
are intended to be used with each layer thickness.

Along with improved surface finish, some of the other benefits of thinner layers are sharper
corners and the ability to accurately print smaller features in your products. This is due to the
fact that the tip used to create the thinnest layers will also extrude a more narrow bead of

31
filament. The narrow filament extrusion also helps to better fill gaps between the exterior
surfaces of your part.

Figure 2.8: Layer thickness affected

The downside of printing with thin layers is the time required to print. Not only are there more
layers to be printed, but the rate at which material can be extruded through the tip is lower.
With the FDM machine that Creative Mechanisms uses, as a rule of thumb, print time tends to
double as you move from one tip size down to another. For example, if a part takes 4 hours to
print at the .005” layer thickness, it will take around 2 hours to print at the .007” layer
thickness, and 1 hour to print at the .010” layer thickness.

1.5.4 Nozzle diameter

Nozzle hole diameter of 3D printer (3DP) can be varied to obtain required product quality as
well as to reduce manufacturing times. The use of larger diameter may accelerate
manufacturing times of products, yet the product quality, including the mechanical properties,
still needs to be investigated profoundly. The purpose of this work is to investigate
experimentally the effect of nozzle hole diameter of 3DP to the surface quality, accuracy, and
the strength of the product. The specimens were manufactured by fused deposition modelling
(FDM) 3D printing using polylactic acid (PLA) as the filaments. Bed temperature, extruder

32
temperature and printing speed were set to be 60∘C, 200∘C and 80 mm/s respectively. The
thickness of each layer was set at the ratio of 20% to the nozzle hole diameter.

Figure 2.9: Affect of Nozzle dia.

Infill pattern was determined by using line type of 100%. Nozzle hole diameter of 0.3, 0.4, 0.5
and 0.6mmwas compared in this work. The results show that bigger nozzle hole diameter
enhanced the density and tensile strength of the products thought it was not linearly
correlation.

1.5.5 Stand Of Distance (SOD)

The extrusion force generated by insufficient extrusion pressure may not overcome the
resistance of flow in the nozzle and can lead to the un extrudable case. Increasing the extrusion
pressure leads to a higher flow rate and thicker filament but also increases the filament kinetic
energy, which might cause jetting of less viscous bio inks due to Rayleigh- plateau instability
as well as cell [Link] them, the path height or standoff distance, or the distance
between the nozzle rim and print bed, can affect the filament fidelity at corners because
a higher path height is unlikely to generate sharp corners because of the lag in filament
response when the nozzle changes travel directions.

33
 Figure 2.10: Affect of Stand of distance
It has been illustrated that the path height may have a positive negative or non-significant
(50) impact on filament width, perhaps due to different bio ink properties and the crosslinking
strategies adopted to solidify the bio ink. The path height determines the time the bio ink needs
to travel from the nozzle exit to the print bed, and during this time period the bio ink gravity,
surface tension, and the crosslinking mechanism act simultaneously on the bio ink to the
filament landed on the printing bed.
1.5.6 Nozzle speed: -

Figure 2.11: Affect of Nozzle speed

34
Travel speed adjusts how fast the printer's printhead moves when it's not extruding
filament. Increasing travel speed can save significant amounts of print time, but increasing it
too much may lead to ringing or ghosting artifacts or even layer shifting (and thus print
failure).

1.5.7 Material feed rate

Even if the process appears to be simple, there are a number of subtle issues that can
significantly affect print quality.

Figure 2.12: Affect of Material Feed Rate

The effect of filament feed rate on printing quality was experimentally investigated for FDM
(Fused Deposition Modeling) 3D printer. Filling behavior of TPU (Thermoplastic Poly
Urethane) resin was evaluated from in-situ observation under various feed rates and head
temperatures of FDM 3D printer. It was shown that the filling ratio of TPU filament decreased
with feed rate of FDM 3D printer. There fore the maximum filament filling ratio achieved only
93% because sliding between filament and drive wheel caused the mismatch of filament feed
amount

35
 1.5.8 Orientation:

To understand how part orientation affects the accuracy of 3D-printed parts, consider the
humble cylinder. Let’s say you’re using FDM to print a cylinder with a hole (10 mm outer
diameter, 6 mm inner diameter, 30 mm length) with its center axis vertical. The 3D printer will
construct this part as a series of concentric circles layered on top of one another, producing a
final cylinder with a relatively smooth outer surface.

Figure 2.13: Affect of Orientation

Suppose the same cylinder is reorientated with its center axis horizontally. The part will be
built as a series of rectangles (with slightly different widths) layered on top of each other.
Also, the surface of the cylinder that touches the build platform will be flat.
Suppose the same cylinder is reorientated with its center axis horizontally. The part will be
built as a series of rectangles (with slightly different width.
The 3D printer will construct this part as a series of concentric circles layered on top of one
another, producing a final cylinder with a relatively smooth outer surface.

36
1.6 TYPES OF FILE FORMATS

File formats are like the blueprints for printing three-dimensional objects. A 3D printer file
is known to be the carrier of information from CAD model to 3D printer.

1.6.1. STL
Standard triangle language is the first file format developed for 3D printing. Its
corresponding file extension is. stl. STL is a standard file format that can interface between
most CAD software and 3D printers .STL files contain only a single colour and they are a
triangular representation of dimensional object. STL files save 3D models as surface of
geometrical shapes and turn it into a triangular mesh. But it cannot display information
about the model ‘s colour or texture.

1.6.2 .OBJ

OBJ (wave front object) is a 3D printer file format that was originally used by graphics
designers as a neutral interchange format for 3D graphics. It was first developed by Wave
front Technologies for its animation package. This file format has the extension..

Unlike STL, OBJ can encode colour and texture information, it also supports both
approximate and precise encoding of surface geometry. This means that it doesn’t restricts
its surface mesh to triangular facets. The designer can also use polygons such as
quadrilaterals. However, OBJ doesn’t support any kind of animation. OBJ is often used
when the 3D object requires more than one colour.

1.6.3 CODE

gcode, otherwise known as .g or gco, is the file extension for files containing G- code data.
A .gcode file is created by a slicing program, which turns a CAD drawing into a string of
code that a 3D printer can understand. You will come across this post-slicing file type a lot
during your 3D printing efforts because it contains instructions for your 3D printer.

G-code contains instructions for your 3D printer. It‘s a numerically controlled

programming language generated by a slicing program.

37
 CHAPTER – 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

3D printing is a continuously evolving additive manufacturing (AM) technology that enables

printing of lightweight and complex structures, which are hardly achievable by other
manufacturing methods. The distribution of AM throughout 2015 to 2019 in prototype
manufacturing, production, the research sector and mechanical part manufacturing is graphically
shown in Figure 2.1 It is clearly visible that 3D printing has been mainly used in prototype
manufacturing throughout all these years, and the growth of this technology in actual production
is still at a lower level.
Figure 2.1 The percentage distribution of additive manufacturing (AM) from 2015 to 2019 in
prototype manufacturing,

The percentage distribution of additive manufacturing (AM) from 2015 to 2019 in prototype
manufacturing, production, the research and education industry and mechanical part
manufacturing.
With the invention of different types of AM technologies, this method has spread to the medical,
aerospace, automotive, food and engineering industries due to many advantages such as the
production feasibility of complex designs, cost effectiveness, short lead times and repeatability.
The medical industry has started to experiment with developing tissues, organs and cellular
structures using 3Dprinting. By adopting 3D printing in the automotive industry, the time
required for tooling is reduced, as well as the cost of manufacturing prototypes. It has made it

38
possible to develop unique parts for high end-low volume manufacturing. The aerospace
industry has become one of the most benefitted industries by 3D printing as conventional
structures can be replaced by lightweight, flexible and improved geometrical structures to reduce
fuel.
According to statistical data of 2018, it is predicted that the compound annual growth rate
(CAGR)of 3D printing in the medical, automobile, aerospace and food industries will be 18.2%,
29.07%, 22.17%and 32.05% by the beginning of 2026, and this is graphically represented in
Figure 2.2 Polymers 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 43.

Figure 2.2

Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3D printing in the food, medical, aerospace and
automobile industrial from 2018-2026
The materials used in AM include polymers, metals, ceramics and composites that could be in
the forms of a semi-liquid, a liquid or a powder depending on the type of 3D printing process
Since the 1980s, a wide range of 3D printing methods has been invented due to the high demand
by manufacturing industries, and those can be categorized as stereolithography (SLA), selective
laser sintering (SLS), laminated object manufacturing (LOM), solvent cast direct writing (SC-
DW) and fused deposition modelling (FDM). The popularity of 3D printing is continuously
enhancing due to its commercial and sustainable advantages such as the reduction of material
input and repairability, the ease of the make-to-order process, energy savings and extended
product life cycle
Stereolithography (SLA) was the first 3D printing method to be developed, and the structure is
39
built by using ultraviolet (UV) light-curable resins.

The design is generated by a guided UV laser beam, which causes the resin to harden according
to the given design and build each printed layer is attached to the previous layer by the same
fusing process. In the laminated object manufacturing (LOM) method, sheets are cut using laser
or mechanical cutters according to the required shape, then they are laminated together, or the
sheets can be laminated together first and then cut into the required shape. The machining and
material cost is lower compared to the other processes and can obtain a better surface finish in
the final part. In the solvent cast direct writing (SC-DW) method, a dissolvable polymer is
combined with a rapid solvent evaporation process to print complex structures at room
temperature.
Fused deposition modelling (FDM) uses a heated nozzle to convert the thermoplastic filament
into a semi-molten form, which is extruded to build the structure through layer-by-layer
deposition. This method is further explained in Section 2, and it is the main 3D printing method
we are focusing on in this paper. Compared to other AM methods, as the FDM method offers
many advantages including cost effectiveness, now, many researchers are moving towards FDM
to study this process thoroughly. Figure 2.3 indicates the number of research publications
relevant to the FDM process from 2009 to [Link] demonstrates the growing interest towards the
fiber- reinforced composites printed with this FDM technology. As FDM becomes a
revolutionary manufacturing technology, the requirements from various industries start to
escalate, and the demands of those industries are fulfilled. Printer manufacturing companies such
as Stratasys, Ultimaker, Markforged, XYZ printing, Zortex, German RepRap and Dagoma are
constantly engaging in improving the printers, while software companies such as Autodesk,
Siemens PLM software and Dassault systems are developing new CAD software to be
compatible with the new printers.
Hence, this paper will focus on reviewing, characterizing and classifying defects and exploring
different technical methods to reduce or eliminate them, in order to achieve better properties in
3Dprinted polymers and composites via FDM. The second section of this paper discusses the
FDM process and thermoplastic polymer printing. The thermoplastic polymers that are discussed
in this review are used as the matrix material in developing fiber -reinforced
consumption and material waste filament. Figure 4 exhibits the combination of matrix and fiber
materials developed by various filament manufacturers. The middle column shows the filament
manufacturer, while the other two columns show the fiber and matrix combination.
filament. Figure 4 exhibits the combination of matrix and fiber materials developed by various
40
filament manufacturers. The middle column shows the filament manufacturer, while the other
two columns show the fiber and matrix combination.

Figure : 2.3
2.1 Literature review on PLA +(Polylatic acid)

PLA Plus is a popular 3D printing filament that is known for its improved durability and
strength compared to traditional PLA (polylactic acid) filament. PLA Plus is made by adding
additional additives such as polymers or nanoparticles to the base PLA material, which can
improve its performance characteristics
Several studies have been conducted to evaluate the mechanical properties and printability of
PLA Plus filament. In a study published in the journal Materials Today Communications in
2021, researchers investigated the effect of adding carbon fiber to PLA Plus filament. The study
found that the addition of carbon fiber improved the mechanical properties of the filament,
including its tensile strength and modulus of elasticity.
Another study published in the journal Polymers in 2020 evaluated the impact resistance of PLA
Plus filament. The researchers found that PLA Plus had better impact resistance compared to
traditional PLA, especially at lower temperatures. The study also found that the addition of
nanoparticles, such as graphene, to the PLA Plus filament further improved its impact resistance.

41
 Chapter 3
Experimental methods

3.1 Experimental Establishment Process

The manufacturing process of 3D items through computer-driven machines operates by

following 3D computer model data to assemble parts in successive layers. Through digital

assembly manufacturers avoid traditional molding requirements because it transforms design

files into complex 3D models instantly with reduced material waste during production.

Academic research and industrial production have received major benefits from 3D printing
[12]
technology through its ability to make items quickly after receiving a demand . More than

fifty different 3D printing techniques based on various concepts exist to fulfill numerous

accuracy and speed and material specifications. The technological expansion of 3D printing

technology into a multifaceted production system for advanced manufacturing became possible

because of its diverse printing methods and materials.

3.2 Filament materials

Manufacturers prefer PLA as their primary thermoplastic choice for FDM printing because it

excels over alternative thermoplastic materials used for 3D printing. Fundamental research of its

mechanical characteristics determines how well this material can replace conventional materials.

A number of studies worked to evaluate short-term effects of mechanical properties on PLA

materials. The majority of research conducted tensile strength tests on plastics using tensile

methods that matched ASTM D638-14 Standard Test Method for Determining Tensile
[13]
Properties of Plastics . The research employs PLC (Polylactic Acid) material as its filament

substance. The experimental research studies this material while varying its layer dimensions

between 0.1mm, 0.2mm and 0.3mm.

3.3 Process parameters

42
The selected printer settings for PLA material strike an equilibrium between print quality and

component strength together with operational efficiency. The established print speed of 50 mm/s

enables smooth extrusion while a bed temperature of 70°C provides necessary adhesion to

prevent warping. At a nozzle temperature of 210°C the layers bond effectively which results in

reliable print output along with superior quality results. Complete solidity emerges from a 100%

infill density which means the printed item attains maximum strength along with durability. A

flat print orientation was selected to achieve stability then a (0/90) raster orientation was used

because it offers superior structural integrity by alternating layer patterns. A layer thickness of

0.1 mm produces detailed results which combine with a 1 mm shell wall thickness to create a
[14]
sturdy structure that can withstand external force .

TABLE 1: Process Parameter

Sl. No Property Magnitude

1 Print speed 50m/s

2 Bed temperature 70°c

3 Nozzle temperature 210°c

4 Infill density 100%

5 Print orientation FLAT

6 Raster orientation (0/90)

7 Layer thickness 0.1mm

8 Shell wall thickness 1mm

3.4 Specimen fabrication

Figure 1 depicts the 3D isometric view, sectional view, and wireframe design of the 3D printed

sample. Sample printing followed the specifications of American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM). The FDM technology produces durable parts as well as durable prototypes

due to its material selection. Polylactic acid (PLA) stands as the primary material which FDM
43
machines use. The dog bone-shaped tensile specimens comply with ASTM D638 - Standard Test
[15]
Methods for Tensile Properties of Plastics . This testing standard is frequently used for

testing purposes. As the test specimen consists of stiff plastic material, researchers selected type

V testing. The investigation required a total of five samples with varying parameter and

thickness values using PLA material to study mechanical properties' connection with these

factors. Figure 2 depicts the three various layer thickness of the samples.

Fig 1: a) Dog Bone Structure (Type V), b) Dog Bone Structure – Cross Section

c) Dog Bone Structure – wire frame

44
Fig 2: a) Layer Thickness 0.1 mm, b) Layer Thickness 0.2 mm, and c) Layer Thickness 0.3 mm

3.5 Tensile test

PLA functions as a popular environmental biodegradable thermoplastic which serves as a

45
well-suited material for 3D printing while providing user-friendly operation. The

applicability of PLA for different applications depends heavily on its mechanical features

which include tensile strength and Young's modulus. Testing PLA filaments through tensile

methods helps determine their strength characteristics together with ultimate strength and

yield strength and elongation at break and Young's modulus. Tensile testing of PLA

filaments adheres to the ASTM D638 standard. Testing of the specimens follows the
[16]
geometry requirements established by Type V under ASTM D638 .

First step in PLA filament testing requires placing the specimen exactly in universal testing

machine (UTM) grips to achieve alignment while avoiding specimen slippage throughout the

procedure. The testing procedure involves applying a constant strain rate tensile force

between 1 to 5 mm/min once the sample is properly positioned between the testing machine
[17]
grips . The machine records force and displacement data during the increase of testing

load to measure the important mechanical characteristics until specimen failure occurs. The

inspection system utilizes the collected data to establish fundamental tensile properties for

ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation at break and Young's modulus.

3.6 Hardness test

It is imperative to perform hardness tests on PLA (Polylactic Acid) filaments because these

tests determine their ability to resist indentation as well as scratching and wear. The

mechanical analysis of PLA establishes its appropriateness for 3D printing and mechanic

components usage. For the polymer known as PLA the three primary hardness tests that exist

consist of Shore Hardness (Durometer Hardness) – ASTM D2240 and Rockwell Hardness –

ASTM D785 but Vickers or Brinell Hardness excludes usage with flexible plastics such as

PLA.

This evaluation adopts the Shore D hardness testing method on PLA filaments in compliance

with ASTM D2240 to begin with an adequate specimen preparation. The 3D printing of PLA

46
specimens requires a flat surface where the sample should have at least 6 mm thickness for

obtaining precise measurement outputs. The testing procedure needs the operator to utilize a

Shore D durometer under standardized conditions to press against the specimen. The indenter

on the durometer lets users measure material hardness by monitoring the depth made through

pressurized contact. The measurement process takes place 15 seconds after the procedure
[18]
begins to ensure that the material achieves stability under the applied force .

3.7 SEM

Using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) technicians can effectively study Polylactic

Acid (PLA) filaments by inspecting their microstructure together with their surface

morphology and fracture characteristics. Scanning Electron Microscopy gives precise

visualization of filament excellence while showing how layers unite in assembled

components and how components fail under mechanical loads. SEM analysis of PLA

filaments requires evaluation of surface texture along with defect detection as the main goal

and assessment of interlayer adhesion in addition to fracture surface examination after tensile

or impact tests. This method seeks to investigate cracks and structural imperfections that
[19]
affect mechanical properties .

3.8 EDAX analysis

EDAX serves as a robust analytical method for determining the elemental characteristics

within PLA filaments by revealing their impurities as well as any added compounds or

reinforcement materials. The analytical method involves subjecting a small piece of PLA to

electron beam scanning inside an SEM-EDS system for characteristic X-ray detection based

on elemental composition. The main compositional elements of carbon and oxygen show that

PLA stems from natural origins whereas small amounts of calcium, titanium and silicon, or

metal signatures can originate from compounds or pollutants. The analysis through EDAX

serves a crucial purpose for quality testing which enables the verification of both components

47
and reinforcement substances in composite PLA filaments containing carbon fiber swaths

and metallic nanoparticles. The measurement methods enabled by this technique analyze

PLA's chemical composition changes due to processing conditions, degradation and

[20]
environmental factors thus serving developers and researchers in material evaluation .

3.9 Damping analysis

The energy-dispersing performance of PLA filaments used in 3D printing and engineering

applications gets evaluated through damping analysis. Plastic materials demonstrate the vital

property of damping which determines their ability to take on vibrations and minimize

oscillations and thus affects their dynamic mechanical properties. The purpose of this

research uses his analysis to investigate how temperature and frequency affect material

damping properties. Under Forced Vibration Testing we evaluate the reaction amplitude of
[21]
PLA components when they undergo harmonic excitations .

48
 CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Tensile test

Experimental measurement data show how the tensile strength together with Young's

modulus of PLA filaments changes when layer thickness varies between 0.1 mm through 0.2

mm to 0.3 mm depicted in figure 3. The research evaluated the PLA filament tensile strength

through experiments conducted on multiple layer thickness variations to determine their

[22]
effect on structural material properties .

The measurement results reveal that layer thickness growth from 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm leads to

a corresponding reduction in tensile strength from 64.58 ± 1.22 MPa to 60.54 ± 1.12 MPa.

Research findings support these outcomes because thin layer dimensions lead to better

interlayer joint strength and lower material defects which improve printed product strength.

When layer thickness elevates the tensile strength decreases because interlayer bonding
[23]
weakens simultaneously with the increased probability of material porosity formation .

49
 Fig 3: Stress vs Strain plot

Fig 4: Tensile Strength Analysis

50
 Table 2 Tensile Strength Analysis

Sl. No. Layer Thickness(mm) Tensile Stress (MPa)

1 PLA/0.1mm 64.58 ± 1.22 MPa

2 PLA/0.2mm 63.29 ± 0.85 MPa

3 PLA/0.3mm 60.54 ± 1.12 MPa

Fig 5: Young's Modulus Analysis

The Young's modulus, which measures the stiffness of the material, was also evaluated:

Table:3 Young's Modulus Analysis

Sl. No Layer Thickness(mm) Young's Modulus (Gpa)

1 PLA/0.1 mm 29.55 ± 0.59 GPa

2 PLA/0.2 mm 27.88 ± 1.11 GPa

51
 3 PLA/0.3 mm 24.39 ± 1.42 GPa

When layer thickness increases from 0.1mm to 0.3mm, Young's modulus tends to lower itself

from 29.55 ± 0.59 GPa to 24.39 ± 1.42 GPa. Thinner layers (0.1mm) exhibit higher stiffness,

likely due to better molecular alignment and fewer imperfections. The increased layer thickness

of 0.3mm leads to void formation while weakening interlayer bonds thus reducing the stiffness

of the printed part.

The stress-strain curve reveals that PLA PLUS 0.1 has the maximum stress among the tested

filaments while PLA PLUS 0.2 has intermediate stress values and PLA PLUS 0.3 shows the

lowest stress levels. The observation suggests that better mechanical capability arises from using
[24,25]
thinner layer arrangements .

4.2 Hardness test

The assessment of 3D-printed material surface durability and hardness requires measurement of

Shore D hardness as a critical parameter. An analysis of PLA filament Shore D hardness occurs

here by evaluating three-layer thickness values (0.1mm, 0.2mm, and 0.3mm) through

experimental data collection.

52
 Fig 6: Hardness Analysis

The hardness values for PLA filaments with different layer thicknesses are as follows:

Table:4 Hardness Analysis

Sl. No Layer Thickness(mm) Hardness

1 PLA/0.1 mm 82.7 ± 1.59

2 PLA/0.2 mm 79.8 ± 1.25

3 PLA/0.3 mm 76.1 ± 1.36

The data demonstrates that an increase in layer thickness leads to decreased material Shore D

hardness because both factors maintain an opposite relationship. The 0.1 mm layer thickness

stands as the top among all measurements for Shore D hardness at 82.7 ± 1.59. The material

develops denser and more uniform surface structures when layers remain thin since this
[26]
improves its overall hardness . The structure of material changes in terms of voids and the

emergence of inconsistencies when its layer thickness reaches 0.3 mm. The occurrence of these
[27]
defects weakens the material structure and lowers its surface hardness .

53
4.3 SEM

This document examines SEM photos of PLA strands with distinct coat thickness settings (all

single, double and multi-layered) to research structure mechanics and product faults based on

layer magnitude.

54
 Fig 7: SEM image

The SEM single-layer PLA filament image displays a mostly homogeneous PLA material

structure. The printing process probably induced some cracks due to stress concentrations

together with cooling effects. The appearance of cracks within the printed object can harm
[28]
mechanical strength while reducing its tensile properties and hardness .

Micro voids exist in the internal structure of double-layer PLA filament. The insufficient heat

combined with faulty layer joining leads to these voids forming in the structure. The mechanical

strength of materials deteriorates when micro voids form because they establish weak structural

points throughout the material.

Similar to the double-layer sample the three-layer PLA filament contains micro voids in its

structure. The multiple layers likely worsen the incomplete fusion problem which results in more
[29]
extensive void formation . More degradation of mechanical properties occurs through this

process which reduces the material's performance for applications requiring strength and

durability. A SEM microscopy method reveals that raising PLA filament layer count produces
[30]
defects such as cracks together with micro voids within the material structure .

The provided report will serve as the foundation for optimizing printer parameters particularly

temperature and print speed to lower void formation and strengthen layer bonding. The fusion

between layers will improve through post-processing techniques such as annealing which

minimizes defects.

4.4 EDAX analysis

Scientists conducted elemental analysis of the PLA filament through EDAX spectra that were

supplied for inspection. The results from EDAX testing show that PLA filament has carbon and

oxygen elements as its primary constituents since these substances comprise polylactic acid

(PLA). Elemental analyses of Spectra 1 and 3 match the chemical components which normally

exist in PLA materials. The carbon content analysis in Spectrum 2 measures 100% which

55
suggests that a certain localized zone contains dissimilar chemical composition [31].

Fig 8: EDAX analysis

Authenticating PLA filament chemicals through EDAX analyses shows that the substance

contains mainly carbon and oxygen which match the respected compounds for PLA. The

concentration variations identified in Spectrum 2 need additional analysis to examine localized

irregularities present in the substance.

56
4.5 Damping analysis

The damping capacity examination of PLA filaments took place at various frequencies for layers

of three different thicknesses (0.1mm, 0.2mm, and 0.3mm) utilizing the acquired measurement

data. The data shows the damping capacity includes layer thickness as a changing factor. The

damping capacity of materials becomes stronger when filaments reach a layer thickness of

0.1mm compared to thicker layers measuring 0.3mm. The better interlayer adhesion along with
[32]
reduced layers defects found in thin layers enables high-energy dissipation effectiveness .

The damping capacity decreases with thicker layer dimensions because such constructions
[33]
include more voids and weaker interlayer bonds .

Fig 9: Damping Analysis

The research demonstrates that the thickness of layers strongly affects the damping performance

of PLA filaments. Lower layer dimensions of 0.1mm enhance damping characteristics because
[34]
they create stronger interpolate bonding and lower numbers of imperfections . Such materials

57
serve applications needing effective energy dissipation because of their improved performance in

vibration damping components.

58
 5. CONCLUSIONS

The evaluation prove that the quantitative value of layers demonstrates fundamental influence

over PLA filament mechanical properties. The research shows that increasing layer thickness

from 0.1mm to 0.3mm leads to reduced tensile strength similar to previous findings about

superior layer adhesion and reduced defects in thin layers. The stiffness of PLA filaments

decreases when fabricators increase the layer thickness because the molecular alignment

becomes better and voids become fewer in thinner layer constructions. Stress-strain evaluation

reveals that PLA PLUS 0.1mm exhibits maximum stress results which surpass those of PLA

PLUS 0.2mm and 0.3mm.

The Shore D hardness exhibits a reduction as the layers become thicker since 0.1mm layers

demonstrate the peak hardness because their dense regular surface helps achieve this outcome.

The study shows that the amount of energy used for damping becomes stronger when layer

thickness decreases to 0.1mm because interlayer bonding gets better at that thickness. When it

comes to applications that need high resistance together with stiffness and hardness and damping

efficiency the mechanical features of thin layers (0.1mm) become the best option. The selection

of layer thickness needs careful evaluation according to application needs since it determines

between mechanical performance and printer efficiency levels.

59
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