MODULE 1
1. Explain the plant and animal cell structure with its functions
Ans- A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes. Cells are capable of performing all the metabolic functions of the body, hence they are
called the functional units of life. An organelle is a subcellular structure that has one or more
specific jobs to perform in the cell.
The cell structure comprises individual components such as cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm,
nucleus and cell organelles. The cell membrane supports and protects the cell and controls the
movement of substances in and out of the cell. It is a porous membrane which permits selective
movement of substances.
The cell wall is present only in plant cells and is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
It provides shape, support and protection to the cell. The cytoplasm is a thick, jelly-like
substance present inside the cell membrane and most of the chemical reactions take place in it.
The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA, and controls the activities of
the cell. It is surrounded by a nuclear membrane. The cell also contains various organelles such
as mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, chloroplasts and
vacuoles, each performing specific functions like energy production, protein synthesis, transport
and storage.
Plant and animal cells differ in structure. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplast and a large
vacuole, whereas animal cells do not have a cell wall and chloroplast and are generally irregular
in shape.
[Link] out the difference between Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic Cells
Ans- Prokaryotic cells are cells that do not have a true nucleus. Instead, the genetic material is
freely suspended in a region called the nucleoid. They are single-celled microorganisms such as
bacteria, archaea and cyanobacteria. Prokaryotic cells generally reproduce by binary fission,
which is a form of asexual reproduction. Their cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
Eukaryotic cells are characterized by the presence of a true nucleus. They include organisms
such as plants, animals, fungi and protozoans. The plasma membrane controls the movement of
nutrients and electrolytes in and out of the cell and also helps in cell-to-cell communication.
Eukaryotic cells reproduce both sexually and asexually and are larger in size, ranging from 10 to
100 µm in diameter.
Thus, the main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells include the presence of a
true nucleus, size, type of organisms, and mode of reproduction.
If digram is asked-
3. What are stem cells? Mention its types and applications.
Ans- Stem cells are cells that have the ability to repair damaged cells and can evolve into any
type of cell. These cells have strong healing power. Research on stem cells is going on, and it is
believed that stem cell therapies can cure diseases like paralysis and Alzheimer’s.
Stem cells are of different types such as embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells, induced
pluripotent stem cells and mesenchymal stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are derived from early
embryos and can differentiate into any type of cell. Adult stem cells are obtained from developed
tissues and help in repair and replacement of damaged tissues. Induced pluripotent stem cells are
formed by converting tissue-specific cells into embryonic-like cells in the laboratory.
Mesenchymal stem cells are found in connective tissues and can develop into bones, fat cells and
cartilage.
Stem cells have many applications. They are mainly used in tissue regeneration, where they help
in growing new tissues and organs. They are also used in the treatment of cardiovascular
diseases, brain diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s, and blood diseases like cancer and
sickle cell anaemia.
4. Define Biomoleclues Classify the different types?
Ans-Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules present in living organisms and are
necessary for the structure, function and regulation of the body. These molecules play a crucial
role in maintaining life and are involved in various biological processes. Biomolecules are
mainly composed of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They form the
basic building blocks of cells and are responsible for carrying out different metabolic activities in
living organisms.
Biomolecules are classified into four major types based on their structure and function, namely
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Each of these biomolecules performs specific
functions that are essential for the survival of living organisms.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, generally
following the formula Cn(H2O)n. They are the primary source of energy for living organisms
and are important for maintaining body functions. They also play a role in cellular processes
such as cell signaling and recognition.
Proteins are complex biomolecules made up of amino acids and are responsible for growth,
repair and maintenance of body tissues. They also act as enzymes, hormones and antibodies,
thereby playing an important role in various metabolic and regulatory functions in the body.
Lipids are a group of biomolecules that are mainly involved in energy storage and are an
important component of cell membranes. They include fats, oils and waxes and help in insulation
and protection of internal organs. Lipids also play a role in maintaining the structure of cells and
in various biological functions.
Nucleic acids are biomolecules that are responsible for storing and transferring genetic
information in living organisms. They include DNA and RNA. DNA carries genetic information
required for the growth, development and reproduction of organisms, while RNA helps in
protein synthesis by transferring genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.
Thus, biomolecules are essential components of living cells and each type of biomolecule plays a
specific and important role in maintaining the structure and functioning of the body.
5. What are carbohydrates? Give its classification and explain.
Ans-Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that are composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen and serve as an important source of energy for living organisms. The general formula of
carbohydrates is Cn(H2O)n. They play a crucial role in biological systems by providing energy
required for various metabolic activities and also participate in cellular processes such as
signaling and recognition.
Carbohydrates are classified into three main types based on their structure, namely
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and consist of a single sugar unit.
Examples include glucose and fructose. They are easily soluble in water and serve as the primary
source of energy for the body. These molecules are directly absorbed into the bloodstream and
used in cellular respiration to produce energy.
Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units. Common examples
include sucrose, lactose and maltose. These carbohydrates are commonly found in food
substances like sugar and milk. During digestion, disaccharides are broken down into
monosaccharides before being absorbed by the body.
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharide units
linked together. They serve as storage forms of energy as well as structural components.
Examples include starch and glycogen, which store energy in plants and animals respectively,
and cellulose, which provides structural support in plant cell walls.
In addition to their role as energy sources, carbohydrates also play important roles in biological
processes such as gene expression, cellular communication and structural support. Thus,
carbohydrates are essential biomolecules required for the proper functioning and survival of
living organisms.
6. What are Nucleic acids? Write the difference between RNA and DNA.
Ans- Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a crucial role in the storage and transfer of genetic
information in all living organisms. They are essential biomolecules responsible for controlling
the structure and functioning of cells. Nucleic acids are made up of smaller units called
nucleotides, each consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.
There are two main types of nucleic acids, namely Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material that carries the instructions for the
development, functioning and reproduction of all living organisms. It has a double-stranded
helical structure and contains the sugar deoxyribose along with nitrogenous bases adenine,
guanine, cytosine and thymine.
RNA is involved in the expression of genetic information. It carries the message from DNA to
ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. RNA is single-stranded and contains the sugar ribose
and nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil.
The main differences between DNA and RNA are based on their structure, sugar type,
nitrogenous bases and function. DNA is double-stranded whereas RNA is single-stranded. DNA
contains deoxyribose sugar while RNA contains ribose sugar. In DNA, the nitrogenous base
thymine is present, whereas in RNA it is replaced by uracil. Functionally, DNA stores genetic
information, while RNA helps in protein synthesis by transferring genetic information from
DNA to ribosomes.
Thus, nucleic acids are essential for heredity and protein synthesis, and both DNA and RNA play
important roles in maintaining life processes.
7. Briefly explain about Nucleic acids.
Ans- Nucleic acids are important biomolecules that play a vital role in the storage and
transmission of genetic information in living organisms. They are biopolymers made up of
repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three components, namely a sugar,
a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.
There are two main types of nucleic acids, which are Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material present in living organisms and contains
the instructions required for growth, development, functioning and reproduction. It has a double-
stranded helical structure and is composed of nucleotides containing deoxyribose sugar and
nitrogenous bases such as adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
RNA, on the other hand, is a single-stranded molecule that plays an important role in protein
synthesis. It carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are
formed. RNA contains ribose sugar and nitrogenous bases such as adenine, guanine, cytosine and
uracil.
Nucleic acids are involved in important biological processes such as replication, transcription
and translation. These processes help in the transfer of genetic information and the synthesis of
proteins, which are essential for the proper functioning of cells. Both DNA and RNA interact
with other molecules in the cell to regulate various cellular activities.
Thus, nucleic acids are essential for heredity and play a key role in maintaining the structure and
function of living organisms.
8. What are Proteins? Mention their types.
Ans-Proteins are complex biomolecules made up of amino acids and are essential for the
structure and functioning of living organisms. They are one of the major components of cells and
are involved in various biological activities such as growth, repair and maintenance of body
tissues. Proteins are formed by the linkage of amino acids through peptide bonds, forming long
chains known as polypeptides.
Proteins perform a wide range of functions in the body. They act as enzymes, hormones and
antibodies and are involved in metabolic activities. They also play a role in transport, structural
support and regulation of various biological processes.
The structure of proteins is classified into four levels based on their organization and complexity.
These are primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary structure.
The primary structure of a protein is the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
The arrangement of amino acids is very important because even a slight change in the sequence
can result in a different protein.
The secondary structure is formed due to hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide chain. These
bonds cause the chain to fold into specific shapes such as alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheet. The
alpha-helix is a spiral structure, while the beta-pleated sheet is formed between adjacent chains.
The tertiary structure is the three-dimensional shape of the protein formed due to interactions
between the side chains (R-groups) of amino acids. These interactions include attractive and
repulsive forces, which help in maintaining the shape of the protein. This structure is essential
for proper protein function.
The quaternary structure is present in proteins that consist of more than one polypeptide chain.
These multiple chains combine to form a larger functional protein complex, and each chain is
called a subunit.
Thus, proteins are important biomolecules and their structure at different levels determines their
function in living organisms.
9. Briefly explain about Protein functions in our body.
Ans- Proteins are essential biomolecules that perform a wide range of functions in the human
body. They are made up of amino acids and are necessary for the growth, repair and maintenance
of body tissues. Proteins are involved in almost all biological activities and are required for
proper functioning of cells and organs.
One of the main functions of proteins is structural support. Proteins such as collagen and
keratin provide strength and support to tissues like skin, hair and nails. They help in maintaining
the shape and integrity of cells and tissues.
Proteins also act as enzymes, which are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in
the body. These reactions are necessary for processes like digestion, metabolism and energy
production. Without enzymes, these reactions would occur very slowly.
Another important function of proteins is their role as hormones. Some proteins act as chemical
messengers that regulate various physiological processes such as growth, metabolism and
reproduction. They help in maintaining balance within the body.
Proteins are also involved in transport functions. They help in transporting substances such as
oxygen, nutrients and other molecules throughout the body. For example, hemoglobin is a
protein that carries oxygen in the blood.
In addition, proteins play a role in defense mechanisms. Antibodies are proteins that help the
body to fight against infections and harmful microorganisms. They protect the body by
recognizing and neutralizing foreign substances.
Proteins also help in movement and contraction of muscles. They are involved in muscle
contraction and coordination of body movements. Furthermore, proteins can be used as an
energy source when required, especially when carbohydrates and fats are not available.
Thus, proteins perform various essential functions in the body and are necessary for maintaining
life and overall health.
10. What are lipids? Mention their types.
Ans- Lipids are a group of biomolecules that are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen and are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They are important
components of living cells and play a vital role in energy storage, cell structure and various
biological functions. Lipids include fats, oils and waxes and are essential for maintaining the
normal functioning of the body.
Lipids perform several important functions in living organisms. They act as a major source of
stored energy and provide insulation to the body. They also help in protecting internal organs and
are an important component of cell membranes. Lipids play a role in maintaining the structure
and integrity of cells and are involved in various metabolic processes.
Lipids are classified into different types based on their structure and function. The main types of
lipids include simple lipids, compound lipids and derived lipids.
Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids with alcohol and include fats and oils. These are mainly
used for energy storage in the body. Compound lipids contain additional functional groups along
with fatty acids and alcohol. Examples include phospholipids, which are important components
of cell membranes. Derived lipids are obtained from the hydrolysis of simple and compound
lipids and include substances such as fatty acids and steroids.
Thus, lipids are essential biomolecules that play a crucial role in energy storage, protection and
structural functions in living organisms.
11. Explain the classification of enzymes.
Ans- Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms
without being consumed in the process. They are mostly proteins and are essential for various
metabolic activities such as digestion, respiration and synthesis of biomolecules.
Enzymes are classified based on the type of reactions they catalyze. The main classes of enzymes
are as follows:
Oxidoreductases are enzymes that catalyze oxidation and reduction reactions. They are involved
in the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another and play an important role in cellular
respiration and energy production.
Transferases are enzymes that transfer functional groups such as methyl, amino or phosphate
groups from one molecule to another. These enzymes are important in various metabolic
pathways.
Hydrolases are enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis reactions, where bonds are broken by the
addition of water. These enzymes are commonly involved in digestion, such as breaking down
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
Lyases are enzymes that break chemical bonds without the use of water or ATP. They are
involved in the removal of groups from substrates, often forming double bonds.
Isomerases are enzymes that catalyze the rearrangement of atoms within a molecule to form
isomers. They help in converting one form of a molecule into another form.
Ligases are enzymes that join two molecules together with the help of energy, usually from
ATP. They are important in processes such as DNA replication and repair.
Thus, enzymes are classified into different types based on their functions, and each class plays a
specific role in maintaining metabolic processes in living organisms.
12. Write a short note on Vitamins.
Ans- Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts for the proper
functioning of the body. They play a crucial role in maintaining health, supporting growth and
regulating various metabolic activities. Vitamins are essential nutrients that must be obtained
from the diet, as the body cannot synthesize most of them in sufficient quantities.
Vitamins are classified into two main types based on their solubility, namely fat-soluble vitamins
and water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K. These vitamins
are stored in the body’s fatty tissues and liver and are not required to be consumed daily. They
play important roles such as maintaining vision, bone health, blood clotting and protecting cells
from damage.
Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins. These vitamins are not
stored in the body in large amounts and must be consumed regularly through diet. They are
involved in energy production, formation of red blood cells, maintenance of the nervous system
and strengthening the immune system.
Vitamins perform various functions in the body. They act as coenzymes that assist enzymes in
carrying out metabolic reactions. They help in maintaining healthy skin, bones, teeth and eyes.
Vitamins also play a role in improving immunity and protecting the body against diseases.
Deficiency of vitamins can lead to various diseases and disorders. For example, deficiency of
vitamin A can cause night blindness, vitamin D deficiency can lead to rickets, vitamin C
deficiency causes scurvy and deficiency of B vitamins can lead to anemia and nervous disorders.
Thus, vitamins are essential micronutrients required for maintaining overall health and proper
functioning of the body.
13. Explains the functions of vitamins different and its deficiency.
Ans-
Vitamins are essential nutrients required in small amounts for the proper
functioning of the body. Each vitamin performs specific functions, and their
deficiency can lead to various diseases and disorders.
Vitamin A is important for maintaining good vision, especially in low light
conditions, and also helps in maintaining healthy skin and immune function.
Deficiency of vitamin A leads to night blindness and other eye-related
problems.
Vitamin B complex plays an important role in energy production, metabolism
and proper functioning of the nervous system. It also helps in the formation
of red blood cells. Deficiency of vitamin B can cause anemia, weakness and
nervous disorders.
Vitamin C is essential for the growth and repair of tissues. It helps in wound
healing and improves immunity. Deficiency of vitamin C leads to scurvy,
which causes bleeding gums and weakness.
Vitamin D is important for the absorption of calcium and maintaining healthy
bones and teeth. Its deficiency leads to rickets in children and weak bones in
adults.
Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant and protects cells from damage. It helps in
maintaining healthy skin and tissues. Deficiency of vitamin E may lead to
muscle weakness and other health problems.
Vitamin K plays a vital role in blood clotting. It helps in preventing excessive
bleeding. Deficiency of vitamin K can result in delayed blood clotting and
excessive bleeding.
Thus, different vitamins perform important functions in the body, and their
deficiency can lead to various diseases. Therefore, a balanced diet is
necessary to maintain adequate levels of vitamins in the body.
14. Write a short note on Hormone.
Ans- Hormones are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands in the body that regulate
various physiological activities. They are secreted in small amounts and are transported through
the bloodstream to target organs or tissues where they exert their effects. Hormones play an
important role in maintaining coordination and balance in the body.
Hormones are responsible for controlling and regulating several body functions such as growth,
metabolism, reproduction and development. They help in maintaining homeostasis by regulating
internal conditions of the body. Different endocrine glands such as the pituitary gland, thyroid
gland, adrenal gland and pancreas secrete different hormones that perform specific functions.
Hormones act on specific target cells that have receptors for them. When a hormone reaches its
target cell, it binds to these receptors and brings about changes in the cell’s activity. This may
include activating or inhibiting certain biochemical reactions within the cell.
Some common examples of hormones include insulin, which regulates blood sugar levels;
thyroxine, which controls metabolism; and growth hormone, which is responsible for growth and
development. Any imbalance in hormone levels can lead to various disorders and diseases.
Thus, hormones are essential for the proper functioning of the body as they regulate and
coordinate different biological processes.
15. Why are Hormones called Chemical Messengers?.
Ans- Hormones are called chemical messengers because they are chemical substances that
transmit information from one part of the body to another. They are produced by endocrine
glands and released into the bloodstream, through which they travel to specific target organs or
tissues to regulate their activities.
Hormones act as messengers by carrying signals from the glands where they are produced to
distant parts of the body. When a hormone reaches its target cell, it binds to specific receptors
present on or inside the cell. This binding triggers a response in the target cell, leading to
changes in its function or activity.
These chemical messengers help in coordinating various physiological processes such as growth,
metabolism, reproduction and maintenance of internal balance (homeostasis). For example,
insulin regulates blood glucose levels, while growth hormone controls body growth and
development.
Unlike the nervous system, which uses electrical signals for rapid communication, hormones act
more slowly but their effects are long-lasting. This makes them suitable for regulating long-term
processes in the body.
Thus, hormones are called chemical messengers because they carry information in chemical
form from one part of the body to another and regulate various functions necessary for
maintaining life
X-------END-------X