CHAPTER 3: MATRICES
Definition: A MATRIX is an ordered rectangular arrangement of numbers or func�ons or
any consistent data or informa�on. More than one matrix is known as MATRICES.
For example: Consider the report card of a student in class X at the end of an academic session(shown below)
The matrix representa�on of the marks in report card is listed as:
An element
Row 1 of a matrix
32 65 35 68
⎡28 58 30 62⎤ Row 2
⎢ ⎥ Row 3
𝐴𝐴 = ⎢35 72 38 75⎥
⎢30 60 32 70⎥ Row 4
⎢29 63 31 66⎥ Row 5
⎣36 70 37 74⎦ Row 6
Column 4
Column 2
Column 1
Column 3
Each horizontal line of arrangement is known as a ROW
Each ver�cal line of arrangement is known as a COLUMN
Each entry in the arrangement is called an element
Eg: 32 is 1st row, 1st column element ⇒ 𝑎𝑎11 = 32 and 𝑎𝑎52 = 63
In general, 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 represents i th row and j th column element.
ORDER OF A MATRIX:
The dimension (size) of a matrix is known as ORDER of a matrix and is defined as Number of Rows × Number of Columns
Eg: The order of the above matrix = 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟒𝟒 (read as 6 by 4) and it has 24 elements
If a matrix 𝐴𝐴 has 𝒎𝒎 rows and 𝒏𝒏 columns, order of 𝐴𝐴 is 𝒎𝒎 × 𝒏𝒏 (read as m by n) and number of elements in 𝐴𝐴 = 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
The matrix 𝐴𝐴 is also denoted as 𝑨𝑨𝒎𝒎×𝒏𝒏
NOTE: if a matrix 𝐴𝐴 has 16 elements, possible orders of the matrix are 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟖𝟖 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝟒𝟒 × 𝟒𝟒 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝟖𝟖 × 𝟐𝟐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏
GENERAL REPRESENTATION OF A MATRIX
𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑎𝑎1𝑛𝑛
𝑏𝑏11 𝑏𝑏12 𝑏𝑏13 ⋯
𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑎𝑎13 𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝑎𝑎2𝑛𝑛
(i) 𝐴𝐴 = �𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎22 𝑎𝑎23 �2 × 3 (ii) 𝐵𝐵 = �𝑏𝑏21 𝑏𝑏22 𝑏𝑏23 � (iii) 𝐴𝐴 = � ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ �
21
𝑏𝑏31 𝑏𝑏32 𝑏𝑏33 3 × 3 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚1 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛
= �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � = �𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �
2×3 3×3 𝑚𝑚×𝑛𝑛
TYPES OF MATRICES
ROW MATRIX COLUMN MATRIX
A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix. A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix.
The order of a row matrix is 1 × n. The order of a column matrix is m × 1.
Thus A = [aij]mxn is a row matrix if m = 1. ⟹ A = [aij]1×n Thus, A = [aij]mxn is a column matrix if n = 1. ⟹ A = [aij]m×1
For example, For example,
A = [1 2 3 4] is a row matrix of order 1 x 4. 1
0
B = [ 0 0 0 ] is a row matrix of the order 1×3. A =� 2 � B= �0� C = [ 7 ]1 × 1 D = [ 0 ]1 × 1
C = [ 7 ] is a row matrix of the order 1×1. −3
0 3× 1
D= [ 0 ] is a row matrix of the order 1×1. 7 4× 1
NULL MATRIX / ZERO MATRIX EQUAL MATRICES
If all the elements in a matrix are zero then it is called a Two matrices A and B are said to be EQUAL if:
zero matrix and it is generally denoted by O. (i)both are of SAME ORDER and
Thus, A = [aij]mxn is a zero matrix if aij = 0 ∀ i, j. For example (ii) corresponding elements are EQUAL, 𝒂𝒂𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = 𝒃𝒃𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 ∀𝒊𝒊. 𝒋𝒋
0 0
0 0 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
A = [ 0 0 0 ]1×3 B =�0 0� C= [ 0 ]1x1 D=� � A = �𝒂𝒂
0 0 3×2
0 0 2x2 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � B = �𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
�
SQUARE MATRIX DIAGONAL MATRIX
A matrix having same number of rows and columns are A square matrix is said to be a DIAGONAL matrix if
called SQUARE matrix. Its order is n x n. all non- diagonal elements are ZERO.
A = [aij] n x n is a square matrix of order n A = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is a diagonal matrix if 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗
𝑛𝑛×𝑛𝑛
2 9 0 For example:
2 −1
A= 0 1×1 , B = 7 1×1 , C=�
[ ] [ ] � , D=�−1 5 6 � −1 0 0
3 9 2×2 1 0
3 1 −4 3×3 A =� 0 0 0� = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(−1, 0, 6), B=� � = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(1, 0)
The elements 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 , 𝒂𝒂𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 , … 𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 are said to be the 0 0
0 0 6
diagonal elements of a square matrix. 5 0 0
0 0
PRINCIPAL DIAGONAL: The diagonal containing the C =�0 1 0� = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(5, 1, 5), D=� � = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(0, 0)
0 0
diagonal elements are known as Principal/Main/Leading 0 0 5
diagonal of a square matrix.
2 9 0 NOTE: Every SQUARE ZERO MATRIX is a DIAGONAL matrix
2 −1
A= [0] , B =[7] , C=� �, D=�−1 5 6 �
3 9 0 0 8
3 1 −4
M=�0 1 0�is NOT a diagonal matrix
5 0 0
SCALAR MATRIX IDENTITY MATRIX / UNIT MATRIX
A diagonal matrix is said to be SCALAR if its DIAGONAL A square matrix is said to be an IDENTITY matrix is all
elements are EQUAL. diagonal elements are equal to 1 and all non-diagonal
A = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is scalar if (𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑘𝑘 ∀ 𝑖𝑖 elements are equal to zero, denoted by I
𝑛𝑛×𝑛𝑛
For example: 𝟏𝟏, 𝒊𝒊 = 𝒋𝒋
A = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is iden�ty if 𝒂𝒂𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = �
8 0 0 𝑛𝑛×𝑛𝑛 𝟎𝟎, 𝒊𝒊 ≠ 𝒋𝒋
6 0 0 0
A=[3], B=� �, C=� �, D=�0 8 0�
0 6 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 8 1 0 0
0 0 8 1 0 0 1 0 0�
I1 =[1], I2 =� �, I3 =�0 1 0�, I4 =�0
�0 8 0�is NOT a scalar matrix 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
8 0 0
UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX LOWER TRIANGULAR MATRIX
A square matrix is upper triangularif all elements below A square matrix is lower triangular if all elements above
the prinipal diagonal are ZERO. the prinipal diagonal are ZERO.
A = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is upper triangular if 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖𝑖 > 𝑗𝑗 A = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � is upper triangular if 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖𝑖 < 𝑗𝑗
𝑛𝑛×𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛×𝑛𝑛
2 0 7 2 0 0
For example: A= �0 1 3 � For example: A= �9 1 0 �
0 0 −2 0 4 −2
Important points to note:
(i) The diagonal elements of a matrix are denoted by 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , 𝑖𝑖 ∈ 𝑁𝑁 [a square matrix has only one diagonal(principal)].
(ii) Non-diagonal elements are denoted by 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 where 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗 and 𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗 ∈ 𝑁𝑁.
(iii) All diagonal matrices are square matrices.
(iv) All scalar matrices are diagonal matrices
(v) All iden�ty matrices are diagonal / scalar matrices
(vi) Every square zero matrix is a (a) diagonal matrix and (b) scalar matrix
OPERATIONS ON MATRICES
ADDITION OF MATRICES
The sum of two matrices A and B of the same order is a matrix A + B obtained by adding the corresponding elements.
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] are two matrices of the same order, say m × n. Then, the sum of the two matrices A and B is defined
as a matrix C = [cij]m × n, where cij = aij + bij, for all possible values of i and j.
𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Let A = �𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � B = �𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 �, then sum of A and B is given as
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
�𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � + �𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 �= � 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 �
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX
Scalar mul�plica�on of a matrix A = [aij]m × n is a matrix of same order, denoted as kA is a matrix which is obtained by
mul�plying each element of A by the scalar k.
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝒌𝒌𝑎𝑎 𝒌𝒌𝑏𝑏 𝒌𝒌𝑐𝑐
Let A=�𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓 � ⟹ 𝐤𝐤A = 𝐤𝐤 �𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓� = �𝒌𝒌𝑑𝑑 𝒌𝒌𝑒𝑒 𝒌𝒌𝑓𝑓 �
𝑔𝑔 ℎ 𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔 ℎ 𝑖𝑖 𝒌𝒌𝑔𝑔 𝒌𝒌ℎ 𝒌𝒌𝑖𝑖
NEGATIVE OF A MATRIX
The nega�ve of a matrix A is the matrix ( – A) = �−𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �
𝑚𝑚×𝑛𝑛
2 7 −2 −7
For example: Let A=�−1 2� ⟹ −𝐴𝐴 = � 1 −2�
5 1 −5 −1
SUBTRACTION OF TWO MATRICES
Subtrac�on of two matrices A and B denoted by A – B is A + (– B) is subtrac�ng corresponding elements of B from A
𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂 − 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
�𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � − �𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 �= � 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 �
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
MULTIPLICATION OF TWO MATRICES
The product of two matrices A and B, denoted by AB, is defined if
the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.
Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and B = [bjk] be an n × p matrix. Then the matrices AB is of order m × p.
i.e. 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 𝐵𝐵𝑛𝑛 × 𝑝𝑝 = (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)𝑚𝑚×𝑝𝑝
𝑏𝑏11 𝑏𝑏12 𝑏𝑏13
𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑎𝑎13
let A=�𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎22 𝑎𝑎23 � and 𝐁𝐁 = �𝑏𝑏 21 𝑏𝑏22 𝑏𝑏23 � ⟹ 𝐀𝐀𝟐𝟐×𝟑𝟑 𝐁𝐁𝟑𝟑×𝟑𝟑 = (𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀)𝟐𝟐×𝟑𝟑
21
𝑏𝑏31 𝑏𝑏32 𝑏𝑏33
𝑏𝑏11 𝑏𝑏12 𝑏𝑏13 𝑐𝑐𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑐𝑐𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑐𝑐𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝐁𝐁 = �𝑏𝑏21 𝑏𝑏22 𝑏𝑏23 � � �
𝑐𝑐𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑐𝑐𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝑐𝑐𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑏𝑏31 𝑏𝑏32 𝑏𝑏33
𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑎𝑎13 + + + + + +
A= � � = � �
𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝑎𝑎23 + + + + + +
𝑏𝑏11 𝑏𝑏12 𝑏𝑏13
𝐁𝐁 = �𝑏𝑏21 𝑏𝑏22 𝑏𝑏23 �
𝑏𝑏31 𝑏𝑏32 𝑏𝑏33
𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑎𝑎13 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
A= � � � �
𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝑎𝑎23 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPICATION
1. Two matrices can be added if and only if they are of the same order.
2. A + B = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � + �𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � = �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖+ 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �
𝑛𝑛×𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛×𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛×𝑚𝑚
( sum is obtained by adding corresponding elements)
3. A + B = B + A commuta�ve property
4. A + ( B + C) = ( A+ B) + C Associa�ve property
5. A + O = A = O + A Addi�ve iden�ty is Zero matrix O
6. A + (-A) = O = (-A) + A Addi�ve Inverse of A is - A
7. A - B = A + (-B)
8. k A = k �𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � = �𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �
𝑛𝑛×𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛×𝑚𝑚
(every element of A gets multiplied by k in scalar)
𝝀𝝀𝑎𝑎 𝝀𝝀𝑏𝑏 𝝀𝝀𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
9. � 𝝀𝝀𝑑𝑑 𝝀𝝀𝑒𝑒 𝝀𝝀𝑓𝑓� = 𝝀𝝀 � 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓�
𝝀𝝀𝑔𝑔 𝝀𝝀ℎ 𝝀𝝀 𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔 ℎ 𝑖𝑖
10. k( A + B) = k A + k B
11. (k + m) A = k A + m A
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
1. A(B C) = (A B) C ( matrix mul�plica�on is associa�ve)
2. AB ≠ BA (matrix mul�plica�on is non-commuta�ve)
3. A I = A = I A ( I is the mul�plica�ve iden�ty) ⟹ I2 = I
4. For any square matrix A, if there exist a square matrix B of same order such that A B = I = B A,
then B is called the inverse of A ( Also, A is the inverse of B) ⟹ 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐵𝐵 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵−1 = 𝐴𝐴
TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
Transpose of a matrix A of order m×n, denoted by 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 or A', is a matrix of order n ×m obtained by interchanging rows and columns of A.
NOTE: Order of a square matrix remains unchanged when transpose is taken
PROPERTIES OF TRANSPOSE:
1. ( A ± B )' = A' ± B'
2. (k A)' = k A'
3. (A')' = A
4. ( A B )' = B' A' ( Reversal law of transposes)
TYPE OF SYMMETRIC MATRIX: SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX:
MATRIX
DEFINITION A square matrix is said to be symmetric if 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 = A A square matrix is said to be skew- symmetric if
𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 = - A
MATHEMATICAL − 𝑎𝑎𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 , 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗
PROPERTY 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =𝑎𝑎𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ∀ i,j 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = �
0 , 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑗𝑗
CHARACTERISTIC ELEMENTS EQUIDISTANT FROM THE PRINCIPAL 1. ELEMENTS EQUIDISTANT FROM THE PRINCIPAL
DIAGONAL ARE EQUAL DIAGONAL ARE NEGATIVE OF THE OTHER.
2. ELEMENTS OF PRINCIPAL DIAGONAL ARE ZERO
EXAMPLE Symmetric 3 x3 matrix Skew – symmetric 3 x 3 matrix
2 𝟒𝟒 𝟕𝟕 0 −𝟒𝟒 𝟕𝟕
A = �𝟒𝟒 1 𝟔𝟔� A = � 𝟒𝟒 0 −𝟔𝟔�
𝟕𝟕 𝟔𝟔 6 −𝟕𝟕 𝟔𝟔 0
NOTE: A ZERO matrix is symmetric as well as skew-symmetric.
Theorem: Every Square matrix can be expressed as a sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices
Proof: Let 𝐴𝐴 be a square matrix.
1 1
𝐴𝐴 = (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴) = �(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ) + (𝐴𝐴 − 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 )�
2 2
1 1
= (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ) + (𝐴𝐴 − 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑄𝑄 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)
2 2
1 1 1
Now, 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 = (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇 )𝑇𝑇
= (𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 + 𝐴𝐴 ) = (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ) = 𝑃𝑃 ⟹ 𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2 2 2
1 1 1
𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇 = (𝐴𝐴 − 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 )𝑇𝑇 = (𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 − 𝐴𝐴 ) = − (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇 ) = −𝑄𝑄 ⟹ 𝑄𝑄 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2 2 2
Also P + Q = A
Examples of various types of Matrices
Row Matrix Column Matrix Square Matrix
𝟎𝟎
�−𝟕𝟕� 𝟏𝟏 𝟕𝟕
[𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟐 𝟖𝟖] � �
𝟏𝟏 𝟒𝟒 𝟔𝟔
Diagonal Matrix Scalar matrix Identity Matrix
𝟓𝟓 𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟓 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎
� � � � � �
𝟎𝟎 −𝟑𝟑 𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟓 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏
Zero or Null Matrix Upper Triangular Lower Triangular
Matrix Matrix
𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒂 𝒃𝒃 𝒄𝒄 𝒂𝒂 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎
� �
𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 �𝟎𝟎 𝒆𝒆 𝒇𝒇� �𝒅𝒅 𝒆𝒆 𝟎𝟎�
𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒊 𝒈𝒈 𝒉𝒉 𝒊𝒊
Singular Matrix
Symmetric Matrix Skew-Symmetric Matrix
( |A| = 0)
𝟏𝟏 𝟔𝟔 𝟎𝟎 −𝟔𝟔
� � � � 𝟐𝟐 𝟒𝟒
𝟔𝟔 𝟓𝟓 𝟔𝟔 𝟎𝟎 � �
𝟑𝟑 𝟔𝟔
Orthogonal Matrix
Non-Singular Matrix Equal Matrices
(𝑨𝑨𝑻𝑻 = 𝑨𝑨−𝟏𝟏 )
𝟐𝟐 −𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 −𝟐𝟐
� �=� �
𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑 𝟔𝟔 𝟑𝟑 𝟔𝟔
� � 𝟎𝟎 −𝟏𝟏
𝟑𝟑 𝟔𝟔 � �
𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎
Idempotent Matrix Nilpotent Matrix
Involutory Matrix
(𝑨𝑨 = 𝑨𝑨 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝑨𝑨−𝟏𝟏 = 𝐀𝐀 )
𝟐𝟐
((𝑨𝑨𝒌𝒌 = 𝟎𝟎, k ≤ 𝒏𝒏 )
(𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 = 𝐈𝐈 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝑨𝑨−𝟏𝟏 = 𝐀𝐀 )
(|A| = 0 or 1)
𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟑
� � 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏
−𝟏𝟏 −𝟐𝟐 � � � �
𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎