INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

(University of Sierra Leone)

LECTURE ONE

INTRODUCTION TO ICT

MRS. FINDA F. MBRIWA MR. VICTOR SMITH

+232 31 178336 / +232 77 624224 +232 77 763444

mbriwafinda1@[Link] vmsipam@[Link]

MR. MUSA JALLOH MR. ALHAJIE BANGURA

+232 76 674746 +232 78 243725

musajalloh86@[Link] mamamayakie@[Link]

MR. JAMES BERNARD TURAY MR. MOHAMED PATEH BAH

+232 76 342693 +232 31 076095 / +232 76 254715 / +232 77 953046

tjamesbernard01@[Link] bahpateh@[Link]
 INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
(University of Sierra Leone)

LECTURE 1

INTRODUCTION TO ICT AND ITS ROLE IN ORGANISATIONS

ICT is an acronym for Information and Communication Technology and is define, as a “diverse
set of technological tools and resources used to create, process, store, protect, transmit and retrieve
information from anywhere, anytime.” These technological tools include computers, the Internet,
broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony.

ICT has become an integral part of everyday life and as such has an impact on nearly every aspect
of our lives – from working to socializing, learning to playing. It increases its importance in
people’s lives and it is expected that this trend will continue, to the extent that ICT literacy will
become a functional requirement for people’s work, social, and personal lives. This digital age has
transformed the way people communicate, network, seek help, access information and learn.

As ICT is an ever changing and complex field of science, a lot of people find it confusing.
Therefore, one always need to be at the top with the latest happenings in the field in order to stay
relevant. Today, in order to be considered successful anywhere, be it academics, employment, or
even just to be a responsible citizen, having at least some basic knowledge of ICT and how to
make use of it to be more productive, is essential, and determines how capable we will be as part
of the modern society which relies upon ICT for almost everything. This is why digital literacy is
extremely important in today’s world. Hence, in this 21st century, an ability to work with
information and communication technologies is becoming as essential to education, life and
workplace success as reading, writing and arithmetic. Hence, as society today is greatly impacted
by ICT, it is important to understand how it works, and how it should be used ethically and safely.

ICT is an umbrella term which contains both Information Technology (IT) as well as
Communications Technology under its fold. Information technology encompasses all of the
technology that we use to collect, process, protect and store information. In short, it can be seen as
the hardware and software organizations use to achieve their objectives. It refers to hardware,
software (computer programs), computer networks and data management. It is a subset of
Information Systems (IS) which is an organized combination of people, hardware, software,
communication networks, data resources, policies and procedures that stores, retrieves, transforms

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and disseminate information. Hence, it is made up of interrelated components that manage

information in an organization.
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another and it has
improved and evolved to facilitate our daily activities. In the 21st century, everything related to
communication utilizes technology to ‘send out’ or disseminate information either to an individual
or to a wider audience. Information can be ‘sent out’ in many ways. Technologies such as the
television, radio, cellular phones, tablets and other electronic devices are important in enhancing
communication. Examples of how such is done can be Mobile Technology and Online Chat (Text,
Audio and Video based, Conferencing), Satellite (Television channel, Video Conferencing),
Discussion Forums, Blogs, e-Groups, Wikipedia (Knowledge base), search (Google), Mobile
SMS, MMS and Podcasting.
Role of ICT in Organizations
Information and communication technologies (ICT) play a crucial role in the operations,
management, and decision-making of modern businesses. Nowadays, it is not easy to find an
organization that does not use a computer (to keep logs or compute their sales, etc.) or a mobile
phone (to communicate). Hence, ICT is now an integral part of the functions and activities of
organizations.
Some of its role in organizations are as follows:
Ensure and Enhance Communication
ICT can be used to facilitate communication and collaboration among employees, as well as with
business partners such as customers, suppliers, etc., regardless of their location. Hence, it enables
employees to access, share and collaborate on their work irrespective of their location. E-mail,
conferencing software, intranets, extranets, as well as social media are some of the platforms used
to facilitate such communication.

Improve Efficiency of Business Operations

In business operations, ICT is used to automate and streamline processes, improve efficiency, and
reduce errors. For example, a company might use ICT to automate its accounting system, track
inventory levels, or schedule employee shifts. Hence, organizations can complete their operations
or tasks faster and cheaper. This can be achieved through technologies such as enterprise software,
centralized database, automated systems, etc.

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Improves Customer and Supplier Experience

With technologies such as Customer Relationship Management (CRM) software and Supply Chain
Management (SCM) software, ICT makes it easier for organizations to provide good customer and
supplier experience. For instance, customers and suppliers can reach organizations outside
business hours through extranets and even social media.

Aids in Decision-Making
In decision-making, ICT is used to collect, analyze, and present data that can be used to make
informed business decisions. For example, a company might use ICT to gather customer feedback,
track sales data, or monitor financial performance. By analyzing this data, businesses can make
informed decisions about how to allocate resources, develop new products or services, or expand
into new markets. Software such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software and Decision
Support Systems (DSS) are used by organizations to enable make these decisions.

Security
Systems such as entry systems and cameras, enhance the protection of confidential information
and mitigate risk of theft of organizations assets.
Other roles include:
• ICT enables organizations to reduce paper wastage and enhance backups by providing
cloud-based databases.
• With multi-language websites, organizations can reach customers world wide
• Organizations can also use online recruitment
• With ICT, telecommuting is made possible
• Organizations can easily get information about their competitors.

As a result of the role that ICT plays in organizations, it enables them to:

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(University of Sierra Leone)

• Achieve Operational Excellence: improvement in efficiency, leads to improvement in

productivity and hence, higher profits. For instance, Walmart is one of the most efficient
stores in the world due to its digital links between suppliers and the stores.
• Create New Products, Services, and Business Models: with ICT, organizations are able
to create and develop new products or render services in a new way or develop new ways
of producing, delivering and selling its products and services. For instance, Apple’s iTunes
transformed the old model of music distribution.
• Achieve Customer and Supplier Intimacy: customers who are well served become loyal
customers. Hence, they purchase more and recommend the organization to others. Also,
when there is a tight relationship with suppliers, there is a possibility of lower costs.
• Improved Decision Making: relying on ICT for informed decision making rather than
guessing or relying on luck, etc. enable managers not to misallocate employees, services,
inventory, etc.
• Gain Competitive Advantage: with ICT, organizations are able to charge less for superior
products, produce products or render services with better performance, be intimate with
customers and suppliers. All of these and more will lead to gaining a competitive
advantage. For instance, Apple, Walmart, Google, etc. are industry leaders.
Overall, the role of ICT in business operations and decision-making is to provide organizations
with the information and tools they need to operate more efficiently and effectively and to make
better decisions that support their strategic goals.

For us to get information, we need data. This data consists of raw facts. When these facts are
arranged in a meaningful manner, they become information. The process of converting the data
into the required output (information) is called data processing or simply processing. Information
technology; preferably the computer is used to process data into information.
THE COMPUTER
The word computer is derived from the word compute, which means to calculate. Hence, it was
originally defined as a super-fast calculator. It had the capacity to solve complex arithmetic and
scientific problems at very high speed. Computers nowadays in addition to handling complex
arithmetic computations, perform many other tasks like accepting, sorting, selecting, moving,

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comparing various types of information as well as performing arithmetic and logical operations on
alphabetic, numeric and other types of information.

By definition a computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions that
can accept data (input), manipulate the data (process), produce information (output) from the
processing, and store the results for future use or reference. Figure 1.2 is an example of a computer.

Figure 1. 1: A Typical Computer

Basic Functions of a Computer

Computers are made in all shapes and sizes, from the common personal computer, to embedded
computers that work inside appliances, to the huge, room-sized mainframes. Despite the
differences in size and use, all of these computers mainly perform the following four basic
functions:

1. Receive input – accept data/information from outside through various input devices like
keyboard, mouse etc.
2. Process information – perform arithmetic or logical operations on the data.
3. Produce output – communicate information to the outside through output devices like
monitor, printer etc.
4. Store information – store the information in storage devices like hard disk, compact
disc etc.

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Characteristics of Computers
Speed: the speed here means the duration that the computer requires in fulfilling a task or
completing an activity and is measured in terms of the number of instructions that it can perform
or execute in a second. The speeds of computers are measured in milliseconds (10-3 sec), micro-
seconds (10-6 sec), and nano-seconds (10-9sec). Computers are superfast machines and can process
millions of instructions per second. Smaller computers can execute thousands of instructions per
second, while the more complex machines can execute millions of instructions per second.
Accuracy: Computers are very accurate. The accuracy here means the level of precision with
which calculations are made and tasks are performed. Computers are capable of executing
hundreds of instructions without any errors. In most cases, a large part of mistakes caused by
computers occurs due to bad programming, erroneous data and deviation from basic rules. They
do not make mistakes in their computations. They perform each and every calculation with the
same accuracy.
Efficiency: The efficiency of computers does not decrease with age. The computers can perform
repeated tasks with the same efficiency any number of times without exhaustion. Even if they are
instructed to execute millions of instructions, they are capable of executing them all with the same
speed and efficiency without exhaustion.
Storage Capability: Computers are capable of storing large amounts of data in their storage
devices. These dev ices occupy very less space and can store millions of characters in condensed
forms. These storage devices typically include hard disks, compact discs, flash drives etc. The data
stored on these devices can be retrieved and reused whenever it is required in future.
Versatility: Computers are very versatile, meaning that computers can perform more than one
function. They are capable not only of performing complex mathematical tasks of science and
engineering, but also other non-numerical operations fielding air-line reservation, electricity bills,
data base management etc.
Limitations of Computers
Although the computers of today are highly intelligent and sophisticated, they have their own
limitations.
✓ The computer cannot think on its own. It can only do what is has been programmed to do.
It can execute only those jobs that can be expressed as a finite set of instructions to achieve
a specific goal. Each of the steps has to be clearly defined.

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✓ Computers do not learn from previous experience nor can they arrive at a conclusion
without going through all the intermediate steps.
✓ Computers cannot generate information on their own. While it is true that a computer has
the capacity to put together information from many sources, it can only do this if it has
been programmed to do so.
✓ Computers cannot correct wrong instruction. If a computer is fed with incorrect instructions
or data, whether intentionally or unintentionally, it does not have the capability to detect
mistakes and correct them. In computer language, this is known as GIGO (garbage in
garbage out). This means that a computer that has been fed with a wrong set of instructions
or data will similarly produce wrong information and hence, wrong decisions will be made.
Therefore, any corrections must be done by the programmer.

Assignment 1
1. Importance of ICT to Your Field of Study (Why study ICT) *
*For instance, the importance of ICT to Accounting, Procurement, Human Resource,
Business Administration, Public Sector, Finance, Banking, Entrepreneurship, Project
Management, Sustainable Development, Marketing, Auditing, Economics

The essence of this assignment is for students to research about ICT and its relevance to
their course of study.

2. Write short notes on

i. Brief History of Computers (emphasizing on computer generations)
ii. Classification of Computers

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INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
(University of Sierra Leone)

LECTURE TWO

COMPUTER HARDWARE AND

SOFTWARE

MRS. FINDA F. MBRIWA MR. VICTOR SMITH

+232 31 178336 / +232 77 624224 +232 77 763444

mbriwafinda1@[Link] vmsipam@[Link]

MR. MUSA JALLOH MR. ALHAJIE BANGURA

+232 76 674746 +232 78 243725

musajalloh86@[Link] mamamayakie@[Link]

MR. JAMES BERNARD TURAY MR. MOHAMED PATEH BAH

+232 76 342693 +232 31 076095 / +232 76 254715 / +232 77 953046

tjamesbernard01@[Link] bahpateh@[Link]
 INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND
MANAGEMENT
(University of Sierra Leone)

LECTURE TWO
COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
HARDWARE
The hardware is the tangible part of the computer, i.e., the part of the computer that we can see
and touch. It is categorized into input, output, processing and storage devices including
peripherals. Note that the generic term device refers to any piece of hardware. Below is a brief
description of the categories starting with the system unit, which houses most of these
components.

The System Unit

A computer includes devices used for input, processing, output, storage, and communications.
Many of these components are part of the system unit. The system unit is a case that contains
electronic components of the computer used to process data. System units are available in a
variety of shapes and sizes. The case of the system unit is made of metal or plastic and protects
the internal electronic components from damage.

Input Devices
These are devices that are used to enter data into the basic system unit for processing. Input
devices accept data and instructions from the user. Over the years, input devices have been
built in many forms for many special purposes. Examples are: Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick,
Barcode Reader, Touch Pad/Screen, Scanner, Web Camera/Digital Camera, Microphones.
The Keyboard
The keyboard is the primary input device for entering text and numbers. It is a relatively simple
device, consisting of about 100 - 106 keys, each of which sends a different character code to
the CPU. It was one of the first input devices to be used with PCs (Personal Computers), and
it is still the most common.
The Mouse
A mouse is an input device that fits comfortably under the palm of your hand as you roll it
along a hard, flat surface. This movement allows you to control the movement of the pointer
on the screen or display device. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen
moves in the same direction. Mice contain at least one button and sometimes as many as three
which have different functions depending on what program is running.

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Other pointing devices include:

• Touchpad: found in laptop computers
• Trackball: has a ball that is rolled to control the pointer on the screen
• Touch Screen: mostly found in smart phones and other mobile devices
Voice and Audio Input Devices: examples include microphone
Cameras: use to capture still and motion images
Scanners: a light-sensing input device that reads printed text and graphics and then translates
the results into a form the computer can process.
Optical and Magnetic Readers: devices that use a light source to read characters, marks, and
codes and then converts them into digital data that a computer can process. Technologies used
by optical readers are:
• Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
• Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
• Bar Code Readers
• Magnetic Stripe Card Readers (MSCR)
• Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
Biometric Input
Biometrics is the technology of authenticating a person’s identity by verifying a personal
characteristic. Biometric devices grant users access to programs, systems, or rooms by
analysing some physiological (related to physical or chemical activities in the body) or
behavioural characteristic. Examples include fingerprints, hand geometry, facial features,
voice, signatures, and eye patterns.
Other input devices include:
• Game pads
• Joysticks
• Dance pads
• Light gun
• Pen input or stylus
[Link]
visit this site to read more about input devices.

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Output Devices
An output device is any hardware component that conveys information to one or more people.
Users therefore, view or watch output on a screen, print it, or hear it through speakers,
headphones, or earphones. Four basic categories of output are encountered by users whilst
working with computers. These include: text, graphics, audio, and video. Some types of
hardware can act as both input and output devices. One example is the touch screen, a type of
monitor that displays buttons you can touch.

The Monitor
Monitor, commonly known as Visual Display Unit (VDU) or screen or simply monitor is the
main output device of a computer. Monitors are the most important output devices because
they are the output devices with which users interact most often.

The Printer
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as
paper or transparency film. Many different printers exist with varying speeds, capabilities, and
printing methods. There are two types of printers. They are:

• Impact Printers: examples include Dot-Matrix Printers.

• Non-Impact Printers: examples include: ink-jet printers, photo printers, laser printers,
thermal printers, mobile printers, plotters, and large-format printers.

Speakers, Headphones, and Earphones

An audio output device is a component of a computer that produces music, speech, or other
sounds, such as beeps. Audio output devices are speakers, headphones, earphones, EarPods,
etc. Most personal computers have a small internal speaker that usually emits only low-quality
sound. Thus, many personal computer users add surround sound speakers to their computers to
generate a higher-quality sound.

Storage Devices
The purpose of storage is to hold data. Hence, storage devices hold data, instructions, and
information for future use. A storage medium is the physical material on which a computer
keeps data, instructions, and information. Examples of storage media are Hard Disk Drives
(HDD), Solid State Drives (SSD), USB (Universal Serial Bus) Flash Drives, etc.

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Storage capacity is the number of bytes (characters) a storage medium can hold. The capacity
of a storage medium is measured by the number of bytes it can hold. For instance, a reasonably
priced USB flash drive can store from 1GB of data to above 128 GB of data, and a typical hard
drive or solid-state drive, has greater than or less than 250 GB of storage capacity. As seen in
the illustration below, a Bit is the smallest unit of measurement as it represents “1” or “0”.
Eight (8) bits make a byte.

Storage term Unit

Bit BIT 0 or 1
Byte B 8 bits /1 character
Kilobyte KB 1024 Bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 Kilobytes
Gigabyte GB 1024 Megabytes
Terabyte TB 1024 Gigabytes
Petabyte PB 1024 Terabytes

Individuals use Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) or Solid-State Drives (SSDs) to store all types of
documents, spreadsheets, presentations, databases, e-mail messages, Web pages, digital
photographs, music, videos, and software.

Businesses use HDDs/SSDs to store correspondence, reports, financial records, e-mail

messages, customer orders and invoices, payroll records, inventory records, presentations,
contracts, marketing literature, schedules, and Web sites.

Individuals as well as businesses can now store their data, information and instructions in the
cloud. Examples include: iCloud, OneDrive, Google Drive, Oracle Cloud, etc.

Removable/portable drives as the name implies are not fixed inside the system unit. They are
portable drives that serve as additional storage for individuals and businesses. Such drives are
mostly used to backup data.

Other storage devices include Optical discs (Compact Discs – CDs, Digital Versatile Discs –
DVDs), etc. These are considered as secondary storage devices.

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Memory
Memory units are the internal storage areas of a computer. Every computer comes with a certain
amount of memory usually referred to as the main/primary memory or the Random-Access
Memory (RAM), which loses its contents when the power is switched off from the computer.
Hence, it stores data temporarily. Another type of memory is called Read Only Memory
(ROM), which stores data permanently, as it holds instructions for starting the computer.

Processing Device
The complex procedure that transforms raw data into useful information is called processing.
To perform this transformation, the computer uses two components: the processor and memory
which are found within the Systems Unit.

The processor also known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU), is like the brain of the
computer, the part that organizes and carries out instructions that come from either the user or
the software.

SOFTWARE
Software also known as a program, is a set of executable instructions that tells the computer
what to do and how to do it.

There are two types/categories of software; viz: system software and application software.

System Software
The system software is the software that directs the functionality of the basic system
components including input, output, process and storage. This software consists of the
programs that control or maintain the operations of the computer and its devices. There are two
types of system software. These are operating system and utility software.

The Operating System

An operating system is a set of programs that coordinates all the activities among computer
hardware devices. It provides a means for users to communicate with the computer and other
software, as it serves as the interface between the user, the application software, and the
computer’s hardware.

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Many of today’s computers use Windows 8, 10 or 11, three of Microsoft’s operating systems,
or Mac OS Mojave, Catalina, Ventura, etc., three of Apple’s operating systems.

In most cases, the operating system is installed and resides on the computer’s hard disk drive
or solid-state drive. On handheld computers and many mobile devices such as smart phones,
however, the operating system may reside on a ROM chip. In computers such as Chrome
computers, the OS is cloud based.

When one starts a computer, portions of the operating system load into memory (RAM) from
the computer’s primary storage such as the HDD or SSD. It remains in memory while the
computer is on.

Utility Software
A utility software, also called a utility, is a type of system software that allows a user to perform
maintenance-type tasks that are usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its
programs. Utility software can either be built-in ([Link]. disk defragmentation and disk clean-up)
or stand-alone ([Link]. anti-virus, file compressors, etc.)

Application Software
Application software consists of programs designed to make users more productive and/or
assist them with personal tasks. That is, application software tells the computer how to
accomplish specific tasks such as creating letters, reports, and other documents; designing web
pages and diagrams; drawing images; enhancing audio and video clips; preparing taxes;
playing games; composing e-mail messages and instant messages; etc. for the user.

Popular application software includes word processing software, spreadsheet software,

database software, presentation software and web browsers. Many other types of application
software exist that enable users to perform a variety of tasks such as project management,
accounting, document management, computer-aided design, desktop publishing, paint/image
editing, audio and video editing, multimedia authoring, Web page authoring, education and
entertainment.

Application software includes a variety of software that can be divided into general-purpose
application software and specific-purpose application software.

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General Purpose Application Software

Software that performs common information processing jobs for end users. For instance, word
processing, spreadsheet, database management, and graphics programs are popular with
microcomputer users for home, education, business, scientific, and many other purposes. Other
examples include Web browsers, e-mail, and groupware, which help support communication
and collaboration among workgroups and teams.

Specific Purpose Application Software

These can also be classified into custom application software and application specific software.

Custom Application Software

This is the term used to identify software applications that are developed within an organization
for use by that organization. In other words, the organization that writes the program code is
also the organization that uses the final software application; i.e., the software is generally
owned by the organization that developed it or that paid to have it developed.

Application Specific Software

These are designed to be used in specific areas such as those used in Business [such as
Accounting (SAGE, QuickBooks), Transaction Processing, Customer Relationship
Management, Enterprise Resource Planning, Electronic Commerce, etc.], Science,
Engineering, Education, Medicine and Entertainment.

When interacting with an application software, you must know the following:

• The desktop is an on-screen work area that has a graphical user interface.
• An icon is a small image displayed on the screen that represents a program, a document,
or some other object.
• A button is a graphical element that you activate to cause a specific action to take place.
One way to activate a button is to click it. To click a button on the screen requires
moving the pointer to the button and then pressing and releasing a button on the mouse
(usually the left mouse button).
• The pointer is a small symbol displayed on the screen that moves as you move the
mouse. Common pointer shapes are an I-beam, a block arrow and a pointing hand.
• A menu contains a list of commands from which you make selections.
• A command is an instruction that causes a program to perform a specific action.

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• A window is a rectangular area of the screen that displays data and information. At the
top of a window is the title bar, (horizontal space that contains the window’s name) and
at the right-hand corner is the windows control buttons which are used to minimize,
restore/maximize or close the program
• A file is a named collection of stored data, instructions, or information. A file can
contain text, images, audio, and video.
• A dialog box is a window that provides information, presents available options, or
requests a response. Dialog boxes often contain option buttons, text boxes, check boxes,
and command buttons.

Assignment 2

Trends in ICT (Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Deep Learning)

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 INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
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LECTURE THREE

COMPUTER NETWORKS AND THE

INTERNET

MRS. FINDA F. MBRIWA MR. VICTOR SMITH

+232 31 178336 / +232 77 624224 +232 77 763444
mbriwafinda1@[Link] vmsipam@[Link]

MR. MUSA JALLOH MR. ALHAJIE BANGURA

+232 76 674746 +232 78 243725
musajalloh86@[Link] mamamayakie@[Link]

MR. JAMES BERNARD TURAY MR. MOHAMED PATEH BAH

+232 76 342693 +232 31 076095 / +232 76 254715 / +232 77 953046
tjamesbernard01@[Link] bahpateh@[Link]
 INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
(University of Sierra Leone)

LECTURE THREE

COMPUTER NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET

Network
A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources, such
as hardware, software, data, and information. This connection can either be wireless (through
radio waves, infrared beams, etc.) or wired (through cables, telephone lines, etc.) and is done
through communications devices and transmission media. Such a network can be internal to an
organization or it can span the entire world.
Hence, networks facilitate communications among users and allow them to share resources such
as data, information, hardware and software.

Types/Classification of Networks
Networks usually are classified as Local Area Network, Metropolitan Area Network, or Wide
Area Network. The main differentiation among these classifications is their area of coverage, as
described in the following paragraphs.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as a home, school computer laboratory, office building, or closely
positioned group of buildings. Resources shared include printers, large hard disks, and programs.
Often, the nodes are connected via cables.

A Wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that uses no physical wires. Very often, a WLAN
communicates with a wired LAN for access to its resources.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that connects local area networks in a
metropolitan area such as a city or town. This geographical area covered by a Man include
several buildings, such as a college campus, sometimes referred to as a campus network, or an
area as large as a city (metropolitan area).

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Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area (such as a city,
country, or the world). A WAN can be one large network or can consist of two or more LANs
connected together. The Internet is the world’s largest WAN.

Another type of network is the Virtual Private Network (VPN), which does not have physical
existence. The devices that are part of a VPN could be present anywhere in the world, connected
to each other over the internet. VPNs are used by organizations to interconnect their offices
located in different places and give their employees access to organization’s resources.

Further reading: Campus Area Network (CAN), Personal Area Network (PAN), Storage Area Network
(SAN), Enterprise Private Network (EPN), Home Area Network (HAN)

Components of Networks
A network component is a component that is needed to install computer networks and they
include both physical (hardware) and software parts.
Types of network components
For ease and simplicity, we will divide the network components into two: viz:
Hardware components
➢ Servers: which provide data to other devices. This means that all network users have
access to the resources of the network through the server. Examples of servers include
Web servers, database servers, file servers, etc.
➢ Clients: these are the components that request for and receive services from servers. The
client, exchanges data with the server across a network connection.
➢ Peer: a computer in a workgroup network (without centralized control) that can both
supply and receive services from other peers.
➢ Transmission media: the channels via which data, instructions and information are
transferred from one device to another in a network. The media can be physical (use of
wires such as fiber optic cables, twisted pair cables, etc.) or wireless (Infrared, Bluetooth,
Broadcast Radio, Cellular Radio, Microwaves, and Communications Satellites).

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➢ Connecting devices: these are the devices that connect computers, printers, and other
electronic devices to a network. They enable one to efficiently, securely, and precisely
transfer data from one network to another. Examples of such devices include: hub,
repeater, router, switch, bridge, gateway, etc.
Software components
➢ Operating systems: software that enable devices connected by a network to exchange
data, programs, printers, etc. They are sometimes referred to as Network Operating
Systems (NOS) and are usually installed on the server. Examples include Linux,
Windows Server, UNIX, etc.
➢ Protocol: this is a set of rules or guidelines that are laid down and followed by each
computer for data communication. In short, a protocol is a rule that governs how devices
communicate in a network. Examples of protocols include:
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is a protocol that is used to transmit data
over the internet. It is the foundation of the World Wide Web, and it is used to
transmit web pages, images, and other types of data between servers and clients.
• Domain Name System (DNS): DNS is a service that is used to translate human-
readable domain names (e.g., [Link]) into machine-readable IP
addresses. This allows users to access websites and other resources using domain
names rather than IP addresses.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP is a protocol that is used to transfer files over the
internet. It allows users to upload and download files from servers and to share files
with others.
• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)/Transport Layer Security (TLS): SSL/TLS is a protocol
that is used to secure communications over the internet. It is used to encrypt data in
transit and to establish trust between servers and clients.

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The Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that serve billions of users
worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic,
business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are connected by a broad range
of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. It carries a vast variety of
information resources and services. This Internet which is the largest computer network in the
world, connecting more than a billion computer users can be accessed at any time, from a
computer anywhere: at home, at work, at school, in a restaurant, at the park etc.

Brief History of the Internet

The origins of the internet stretch back to the 1960s, when US defense agencies tried to build a
network of computers that could not be taken down by enemy attacks. It started with a
networking project by the Pentagon’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), an agency
of the U.S. Department of Defense. ARPA’s goal was to build a network that:
• allowed scientists at different physical locations to share information and work together
on military and scientific projects; and
• could function even if part of the network were disabled or destroyed by a disaster such
as a nuclear attack.
That network, called ARPANET, became functional in September 1969, linking scientific and
academic researchers across the United States. The original ARPANET consisted of four main
computers, one each located at the University of California at Los Angeles, the University of
California at Santa Barbara, the Stanford Research Institute, and the University of Utah. Each of
these computers served as a host (more commonly known today as a server; any computer that
provides services and connections to other computers) on the network. As researchers and others
realized the great benefit of using ARPANET to share data and information, ARPANET
underwent phenomenal growth. By 1984, ARPANET had more than 1,000 individual computers
linked as hosts. In 1986, the National Science Foundation (NSF) connected its huge network of
five super computer centers, called NSFnet, to ARPANET. This configuration of complex
networks and hosts became known as the Internet. Until 1995, NSFnet handled the bulk of the
communications activity, or traffic, on the Internet. In 1995, NSFnet terminated its network on
the Internet and resumed its status as a research network.

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From this technology, the internet of today was born. It’s an electronic network that can add new
devices like your home computer at any time, and will dynamically and intelligently figure out a
way to get data from point X to point Y across multiple ISPs.
Today, the Internet consists of many local, regional, national, and international networks.
Numerous corporations, commercial firms, and other companies such as IBM (International
Business Machine) provide networks to handle Internet traffic. Both public and private
organizations own networks on the Internet. These networks, along with telephone, cable and
satellite companies, and governments, all contribute towards the internal structure of the Internet.
Each organization on the Internet is responsible only for maintaining its own network. One
important thing you need to know about the Internet is that it is a self-publishing medium, i.e. no
one is in charge of the content found on it. Anyone can publish anything on the Internet, be it
true or not. Hence, no single person, company, institution, or government agency controls or
owns the Internet. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), however, oversees research and
sets standards and guidelines for many areas of the Internet.

Basic Terms and Concepts

The World Wide Web (WWW)
The abbreviation “www” stands for World Wide Web (commonly called “The Web”). Many
people think the World Wide Web is the same thing as the Internet. It is not. While the Internet is
a large connection of networks, the World Wide Web is a way to access the information on the
Internet.
Web Page
A web page is a single page of information on the World Wide Web. A web page can contain
text, graphics, animation, audio, and video. An example of a web page is the IPAM web page
from the University of Sierra Leone (USL) website. [Link]
Homepage
The homepage is the first or “front” page of a website. For instance, if you type
“[Link] into your web browser, the first web page that comes up would be the
website’s homepage.

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Website
A website is a collection of related web pages and associated items, such as documents and
pictures, stored on a Web Server (a computer or dedicated server that delivers requested Web
pages to one’s computer). Hence, we can say that a website refers to a group of web pages
identified by a single domain. For example, all of the web pages on the USL website begin with
[Link]
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
URL or “Uniform Resource Locator” is the unique address (Web Address) of each website or
web page. For example, the URL for USL is: [Link]
Web Browser
A browser is an application software that is used to access the internet. It is used for retrieving,
presenting, and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web.
Examples of browsers include: Microsoft’s Edge, Google’s Chrome, Mozilla’s Firefox, Apple’s
Safari etc.
Search Engine
A search engine is used in locating information for which you do not know the exact Web
address (URL) or you are not looking for a particular Web site. It is a website that searches the
World Wide Web for specific keywords, which you enter into a search field. The search engine
then displays a list of web pages that are somehow related to the keywords you entered. You can
then click the links to any of these web pages that interest you.
Google ([Link]) Yahoo! ([Link]) and Bing ([Link]) are three
popular search engines.
Hyperlink/Link
A link, short for hyperlink, is a built-in connection to another related Web page or part of a Web
page. A link can be text or an image. Each link on a Web page corresponds to a Web address or a
document on the same web page, at the same Web site, or a separate Web page at a different
Web site.
Cookies
A cookie which is used to help the website keep track of your visits and activity. The main
purpose of a cookie is to identify users and possibly prepare customized web pages for them.

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Videoconferencing and Teleconferencing

Video Conferencing and Teleconferencing are two ways in which people communicate and work
with each other or hold meetings without being present in the same room. This is referred to as a
virtual meeting, which have become quite popular in the contemporary business world. They
allow users to communicate and collaborate via audio (teleconferencing – audio only) and video
(video conferencing – both audio and video) over the internet. They can be used for meetings,
presentations, and other types of communication that require a visual or face-to-face component
without being present in the same room or location. Examples include Zoom and Google Meet.

Internet Communication
The internet is fundamentally a communications tool, and since its creation decades ago, people
have been using it to communicate with one another. Hence, in much of the world today, the
Internet is becoming the primary medium for communication. For instance, using the latest tools
and methods of communicating over the Internet is crucial for bringing a business into the
modern age of communication and marketing. Internet communication tools save money in a
variety of ways.
Internet communication tools are used for both personal and professional purposes to:
• Increase followers and friends by an individual
• Establish formal/informal connections with clients by business firms and startups.

Cloud-Based Tools for Collaboration and Communication

In this age of the internet, cloud computing is one of the most important innovations. cloud-
based software has simplified and reduced the cost of running a business. For instance, with the
help of cloud technology, communication has become more versatile, effective, flexible, and
affordable. Gradually, more and more companies have started using cloud-based communication
tools to handle their business communication.
According to Amazon Web Services, “Cloud computing is the on-demand delivery of IT
resources over the Internet with pay-as-you-go pricing. Instead of buying, owning, and
maintaining physical data centers and servers, you can access technology services, such as
computing power, storage, and databases, on an as-needed basis from a cloud provider like
Amazon Web Services (AWS).”

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Different types of cloud computing tools focus on collaboration and communication as well as
project management and customer service experience. For this course, we shall discuss cloud
communication and collaboration tools.
Below are some of the most popular cloud communication tools use for collaboration and
communication
• Google Meet: a video conferencing application available for personal and commercial
use for free. With Google Meet, the installation of any program or app is eliminated as
users can join meetings via their web browsers. It has features such as screen sharing as
well as text chat.
• Zoom: became popular during the COVID-19 outbreak, as people were forced to work
from home. It allows you to speak with team members from anywhere with your phone
or computer. It has features such as screen sharing, emotes, file sharing, and text chat.
• KrispCall: this is a business phone service that is integrated with call center software,
which allows you to operated and manage a call center for your business. With KrispCall,
you can own a virtual phone number. With KrispCall, you can own different kinds of
virtual phone numbers, be it local or international. For the international numbers, you can
choose from more than hundred (100) countries.
• Slack: popular for teams as it allows team members to communicate in real-time. It also
allows the integration of third-party applications (apps) such as Skype, Zoom, etc.,
allowing you to access them without leaving the app.
• Microsoft Teams: this tool has capabilities such as file sharing, screen sharing, virtual
meetings, audio and video conferencing, etc. It allows you to make outgoing calls and is
also linked to Microsoft 365, which allows you to use Word, Spreadsheet, etc. within the
channel. Third-party applications can also be used.
• Skype: this enables team members to communicate with mobile phone or computer,
allow video chat in real time and allows you to record video conferencing sessions which
can be shared to team members.
• Discord: irrespective of it being designed for video game players, small businesses can
use it to communicate (video calls, audio chat, text) with team members. With its search
function, it enables the addition of new employees to the team for interaction.

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• WhatsApp Business: medium and large-scale organizations use this application to offer
customer service and as well as send vital notifications to customers, as it allows you to
personally communicate with your customers. With this an organization can easily
respond to the inquiries of its customers. It allows the creation of catalogs that are used to
exhibit products and services as well as using unique features used to automate, sort and
answer messages.

Other Collaboration and Communication Tools for Businesses

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)
Email is an electronic messaging system that allows users to send and receive messages,
attachments, and documents over the internet. It is a widely used tool for communication and
collaboration in business.
Further reading and practice: creating email accounts, sending and managing emails

Social Networking/Media
Social networking is now a major part of life in the modern world. Some of the most popular
internet communication tools are social networking services, and they include Meta (Facebook,
Instagram, etc.,) and WhatsApp, X (formerly called Twitter), Snapchat, Tik-Tok and business-
oriented LinkedIn. These services generally enable people to connect with and follow posts from
a chosen group of associates, sharing updates about their lives, careers or reflections throughout
the day.
Hence, people frequently use social networking tools to stay in touch with remote friends and
family and simply for entertainment. Some people follow updates from celebrities on social
media, as the networks have changed how politicians, businesses and entertainers communicate
with the public. For instance, it has become a platform upon which to exchange information on
products and services for businesses and marketers. Therefore, if someone likes an article on
your business blog or website, he may decide to share it with his friends over Facebook,
WhatsApp or X. Others use social media as a way to follow the news or follow media
organizations, individual journalists, artists, sport teams and stars, religious figures etc. on
Facebook, X, TikTok, Instagram, etc. Social networking sites are generally free and supported by
advertising.

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Intranets and Extranets

Intranets and extranets support two different areas within a business, but have goals that are
alike: to improve how employees work with clients and with each other. They are very vital as
they make day to day activities more efficient, more streamlined, better connected, and more
productive.
Intranets
The prefix “intra” means within or inside. Hence, an intranet is a private network accessible only
to an organization’s staff. Intranets, therefore, provide a wide range of information and services
to employees of an organization which are unavailable to the public. It is where employees can
create content, communicate, collaborate, and develop the organization’s culture. It is the
organization’s digital workspace that merges and streamlines every person, document, tool,
conversation, and project within the organization. Hence, it is an important focal point of internal
communication and collaboration. In short intranets:
✓ improve internal communication;
✓ ensure efficient project management and workflow systems; and
✓ centralizes information that connects employees.

Extranets
The prefix “extra” in this context refers to any contact or activity outside of the organization.
Therefore, an extranet is a private network where clients, vendors, suppliers, partners, etc. can
communicate with an organization and its employees in a closed digital workspace. Hence, an
extranet is the digital platform for external communications with a limited or selected number of
individual(s), company(s)/organization(s) etc. Extranets serve an extremely important role, as
they allow for private communication, collaboration, knowledge sharing, document sharing, and
data transfer between organizations and their partners, customers, etc.

Assignment 3
1. Write short notes on Web 2.0. (Definition, Features, Tools, Examples, etc.)
2. Benefits and drawbacks of installing networks.
3. Benefits and drawbacks of the internet

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LECTURE FOUR

DATA MANAGEMENT

MRS. FINDA F. MBRIWA MR. VICTOR SMITH

+232 31 178336 / +232 77 624224 +232 77 763444

mbriwafinda1@[Link] vmsipam@[Link]

MR. MUSA JALLOH MR. ALHAJIE BANGURA

+232 76 674746 +232 78 243725

musajalloh86@[Link] mamamayakie@[Link]

MR. JAMES BERNARD TURAY MR. MOHAMED PATEH BAH

+232 76 342693 +232 31 076095 / +232 76 254715 / +232 77 953046

tjamesbernard01@[Link] bahpateh@[Link]
 INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
(University of Sierra Leone)

LECTURE 4

DATA MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Data management refers to the process of organizing, storing, and securing data so that it can be
accessed and used effectively. This includes tasks such as inputting data, storing it in a database,
and backing it up to prevent loss. Hence, it is the process used by organizations to collect, store,
retrieve and secure data. With data management, organizations are able to efficiently and
effectively analyze data which will provide them with insights needed to enhance operations of
the organization as well as recognizing areas that need improvement and potential investment
areas. With data management, organizations are also able to make better and informed decisions
that will enable them to deliver products and services that are of the highest quality to their
customers.
Data management therefore aims at ensuring that an organization is able to get reliable data that
can be accessed quickly in a secure manner through which informed decisions are taken.
Almost all software used in contemporary business capture data for organizations. These software
which include Customer Relationship Management (CRM) software, accounting software, Supply
Chain Management (SCM) software, credit/debit card processing software, point of sale (POS)
software, etc., feed a wide range of data into organizations. These data include those of customers,
business partners, finance, etc. Such data can be sensitive in nature, historical, used for future
predictions, for auditing, marketing, etc.
Data analysis is the process of examining and interpreting data to gain insights and inform
decision-making. This can involve tasks such as summarizing data, identifying patterns and trends,
and creating visualizations to represent the data.
Data security refers to the measures that are taken to protect data from unauthorized access or use.
This can include measures such as encryption, password protection, and access controls.
In business, effective data management, analysis, and security are crucial for a range of tasks and
activities, including decision-making, customer relationship management, and financial planning.
By properly managing, analyzing, and securing data, organizations can make better-informed
decisions, serve their customers more effectively, and protect their assets.

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Importance of Data Management to Organizations

For effective data analysis, which enables organizations to get vital insights which will add to their
customers’ value and hence, improve their revenue, data management must be the stepping stone.
This is because with effective data management, employees can easily access secure data and at
the right time. Here are a few reasons why data management is important to organizations.
➢ Visibility: With data management, employees will be able to access the right data at the
right time for analysis and to perform their jobs. This makes the organization more
productive as it increases the visibility of the organization’s data to the employees.
➢ Reliability: Organizations will be able to respond efficiently and effectively to changes in
business environment as well as to the needs of the customers, when they have reliable data
that is abreast with internal and external happenings. This reliable data comes as a result of
the data management being able to detect and correct corrupt and inaccurate data.
➢ Security: With a very strong data security, data management ensures that important
information of the organization is safe and can be accessed when, where and how needed
by the authorized individuals. Backing up of data for instance, is one of such security
measures taken by organizations to ensure that they are able to retrieve their data if the
primary source is not available.
➢ Scalability: With data management, organizations are able to scale easily. Scalability in
the context of business means the ability of a business to cope with challenges efficiently
and maintain or increase profits as it grows. In short, it refers to the growth of a company,
in which profits go up whilst expenses go down.

Benefits and Challenges of Data Management

With a very good data management, organizations will reap so many benefits, few of which are
discussed below.
➢ By enhancing the effectiveness of the operations of the organization and providing
information for informed decision making, organizations are likely to gain a competitive
edge over its competitors.
➢ With a well-structured and managed data, organizations become more agile. This means
that data management enables organizations to respond to customer needs or changes in

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the market at a moment’s notice, or being able to make the necessary adjustments
proactively.
➢ Data management when effectively managed, will prevent organizations from data
security issues such as breaches, hacking, etc., as well as privacy issues. All of these when
not properly managed, will damage the reputation of the organization.
➢ With an effective and efficient data management, organizations will be able to provide
better business performance, increasing profit, etc., by enhancing the improvement of
business strategies, processes, decision making, insight, etc.
Irrespective of the benefits of data management, it has its challenges. These include:
➢ Overwhelming data to deal with: especially for big organizations, the data that is handled
and manipulated is huge.
➢ Data silos: because many organizations silo their data, it will be difficult to integrate all of
them. For a complete data management to function well and develop business intelligence
for instance, the data management system must access all of these silos which in some
cases are stored in different formats.
➢ Transforming unstructured to structured data: as organizations get data that is not
structured entering into its systems, it needs to make sure that such unstructured data is
well structured (organized, de-duplicated, cleaned, uncorrupted, etc.), so as to be able to
use it for decision making and other business processes.
➢ Awareness of the benefits of data management: the importance and benefits of data
management can only be achieved if employees know how and why they are using the
data. Hence, creating an awareness of the benefits of data management as well as the skills
needed the data correctly is a challenge.

Data, Information and Knowledge

All individuals and organizations are continuously capturing data, that would afford them a better
understanding of their own environment and of themselves. These data, in the form of information
enable them to make more accurate decisions. For this reason, the right amount of information at
the right time is a key factor for every organization.

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Managers take decisions, prepare plans and control the organization’s activities using information
that they obtain either from formal sources or from informal channels such as social media
platforms, face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, social contacts, etc. Since managers are
challenged by an increasingly complex and uncertain environment, they should find ways that
enable them to define and obtain the type of information they require. This is because the way they
perform their work depends on the available information that they have access to. Despite the
difficulties in obtaining information, managers need relevant information on which to base their
planning, controlling and decision-making functions.

Data and Information

Although the terms data and information are sometimes used indiscriminately, they do have
different meanings. Data are non-random symbols that represent the values of attributes or events.
Hence, data are facts, events and transactions stored according to an agreed code. Data are facts
obtained through reading, observation, calculation, measurement, etc. They include the amounts
and other details on an organization’s invoices, cheques or pay slips, characters, symbols, images,
numbers etc. Data is the beginning of knowledge management.
Information is a set of data transformed in such a way that it helps to reduce future uncertainty
and, therefore, contributes to the decision-making process. Information is data transformed in a
way that makes sense to the person who receives it; in other words, it has a real or perceived value
for that person when he or she acts or takes decisions. Information, moreover, is data that have
been interpreted and understood by the recipient of the message.
The relationship between data and information is similar to that of raw materials and the finished
product. Information will be meaningful insofar as it provides useful raw material for taking a
specific decision.
The process of reflecting on and understanding information is what allows the message to have
different meanings for different people.
This process also implies that the data analyzed, summarized or processed to produce messages
will only become information if its recipient understands its meaning. For data to be transformed
into information, there must be an awareness of what the person receiving the message will use it

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for, his or her training, position in the organization and familiarity with the language and
calculations used in the message.
While all managers need information, they do not all need the same type of information. The kind
of information required will depend on a range of factors: their level in the hierarchy, the work
they are carrying out, confidentiality, urgency, etc.
Indeed, the usefulness of information is a debatable point, and what for one person is information,
for another is data. In an organization, for example, when information is transferred from one
organizational level to another its meaning may change significantly, such that at one hierarchical
level it is regarded as significant information, whereas at another level it is simply data.

Knowledge
Most organizations collect data and process that data into information. What is done with that
information is what makes organizations excel more than others. Rules and relationships can be
set up to organize data into useful, valuable information. The type of information created depends
on the relationships defined among existing data. Adding new or different data means you can
redefine relationships and create new information. For instance, a sales manager could add specific
product data to his sales data to create monthly sales information organized by product line. The
manager could use this information to determine which product lines are the most popular and
profitable.
Turning data into information is a process, (which can be defined as a set of logically related tasks
performed to achieve a defined outcome). The process of defining relationships among data to
create useful information requires knowledge. Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of
a set of information and the ways that information can be made useful to support a specific task
or reach a decision. Having knowledge means understanding relationships in information.
Selecting or rejecting facts according to their relevance to particular tasks is based on the
knowledge used in the process of converting data into information.
Let us consider the case of a retail store that is trying to increase sales. Some of the data available
will include for instance, sales levels for the last twenty-four (24) months, advertising expenses,
customer comments from surveys, etc. This data must be organized and analyzed to be useful in
making a decision. In order to do so, a manager might use economic and marketing models to

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forecast patterns and determine relationships among various advertising expenses and sales. The
resulting information which will be presented in equations, charts, tables, etc., would clarify
relationships among the data and would be used to decide how to proceed. Knowledge is therefore
required in determining how to analyze data and make decisions. A manager therefore needs
knowledge in order to determine which data to collect, the proper models to apply, and ways to
analyze results for making better decisions. Hence, knowledge, is what is channeled into action.
Such action can be many things including changes in business tactics, making a vital decision and
sometimes it can simply be a learning experience for an employee, a unit or a department.
In some cases, this knowledge represents the ability to learn from experience and adapt to changing
conditions that enables managers to spot trends, identify potential problems, and develop new
techniques to analyze the data. Hence, knowledge is required in ensuring that the information
generated from the data is converted into action plans that enables organizations to gain a
competitive advantage.

Database and Spreadsheet Software

When it comes to data management, there are two main options for storing the data and
information. These are spreadsheets and databases. While both store and organize information,
each solution serves a distinct purpose.
Why a database rather than a spreadsheet?
➢ Kind of data collected: spreadsheets are great for numeric as well as text values in low
volume
➢ Databases like spreadsheets are also great with numeric and text values but also incorporate
data downloads from data loggers, GPS devices, cameras, drones, etc.
➢ Data Volume: Spreadsheets have record limitations whereas databases do not. Hence,
databases handle huge volumes of data than spreadsheets
➢ Editing the data: if the data is subject to changes, especially if the same information is
stored in multiple records, then updating such data in databases is easier than spreadsheets.
➢ Data Accessibility and Speed: with databases, there are numerous ways in which data can
be accessed and retrieved. Also, since data in a database are maintained in a centralized
relational database, data is easily accessible for querying, analysis, and reporting than in

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spreadsheets. Therefore, databases operate faster than spreadsheets when handling large
datasets. And spreadsheets have memory limitations
➢ Data Integrity: databases usually follow standard integrity rules specifying the data types,
formats, lengths, etc., making it easy for data to be accurate and accessible. Referential
integrity for instance is a collective set of rules that ensures consistent and valid data within
the database.
➢ Redundancy: with databases, the different database tables are linked, this ensures that there
is little or no duplication of data. Unlike spreadsheets which might contain numerous sheets
containing similar data.
➢ Error Proliferation: with spreadsheets, it is easier to unintentionally overwrite or delete
data. Hence, it is not easy to prevent errors in spreadsheets.
➢ User Access: databases are the great when it comes to multiple users accessing, sharing,
adding new data or making changes to the data in the database. They therefore enhance
collaboration and sharing of information.
➢ Security: Databases provide centralized data storage and offer better security. User
permissions can be assigned to view data, edit data, and restrict access to privileged
information.
From the above we can say that databases are more efficient that spreadsheets, store almost
unlimited amount of data, easy to access, less potential for errors, secure, makes collaboration
easier, etc.

Fundamental data concepts (fields, records, tables)

Tables are essential objects in database management. This is because they hold all the information
or the data. For instance, an organization can have a database that contains Supplier Table that
stores the names of their suppliers, addresses, and telephone numbers.
➢ Field: this is an area within a record which is reserved for a specific piece of data. This
means that fields are the individual parts that contain information about a record. Fields
have different types of data, such as text, numbers, dates, and hyperlinks
➢ Record: this is a collection of values of a specific entity. They contain specific data such
as information about a particular supplier or item being supplied. For instance, a supplier,

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an item, an employee, Salary account, etc. Each record is made up of fields, i.e., each record
has a field value.
➢ Table: a table has records (rows) and fields (columns). It is the collection of records of
specific types. For instance, Supplier Table is a collection of records related to all suppliers,
Employee Table is a collection of record related to all the employees. Item Table is a
collection of records related to all items being supplied.

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LECTURE FIVE

ICT SECURITY

MRS. FINDA F. MBRIWA MR. VICTOR SMITH

+232 31 178336 / +232 77 624224 +232 77 763444

mbriwafinda1@[Link] vmsipam@[Link]

MR. MUSA JALLOH MR. ALHAJIE BANGURA

+232 76 674746 +232 78 243725

musajalloh86@[Link] mamamayakie@[Link]

MR. JAMES BERNARD TURAY MR. MOHAMED PATEH BAH

+232 76 342693 +232 31 076095 / +232 76 254715 / +232 77 953046

tjamesbernard01@[Link] bahpateh@[Link]
 INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

(University of Sierra Leone)

LECTURE FIVE

COMPUTER SECURITY
Security comes in all shapes and sizes, ranging from problems with software on a computer, to
the integrity of messages and emails being sent on the Internet. Computer security, also known
as cybersecurity or IT security, is the protection of information systems from theft or damage
to the hardware, the software, and to the information on them, as well as from disruption or
misdirection of the services they provide. It is therefore the practice of defending computers,
servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, networks, data and information from malicious
attacks.

Hence, it is the process of preventing and detecting unauthorized use and access of an
information system. It covers all the processes and mechanisms by which computer-based
equipment, information and services are protected from unintended or unauthorized access,
change or destruction. It also includes protection from unplanned events and natural disasters.

With respect to ICT security:

➢ A vulnerability is a weakness in a system that can be exploited.

➢ A threat is a circumstance or event that exploits a given vulnerability.
➢ Countermeasures are mechanisms designed into a system to reduce its vulnerabilities.
➢ Risk is the probability that a given threat will exploit a given vulnerability and the
existing countermeasures will not stop the threat.

The Need for ICT Security

Following are a few of the reasons why organizations need ICT Security
Prevent Loss of Confidential Information (Protect Organization’s Assets)
When an organizations systems are not secured, it leaves private data (such as trade secrets,
customers’ details, etc.), exposed. ICT security is therefore needed to protect the
confidentiality, integrity and availability of one of the vital asset or resource of the organization
which is information.
Protect the Reputation of organizations.
Stealing of customers’ details by hackers, and selling them to be used in fraud for instance,
creates negative publicity and public mistrust of the organization. Whereas, a secure system or

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network, boost the reputation of organizations as clients and partners can interact with your
such organizations with confidence and respect.
To prevent or avoid account hijacking
Some organizations rely on cloud services. This pose a risk as cybercriminals can exploit their
resources, alter their information and influence or manipulate their business transactions
through Cyber fraud, Phishing, software manipulations, etc. Hence, ICT security is needed to
prevent such from happening
Reduce Employee and Organizational Property Risk
The majority of common attacks against networks are designed to gain access to information,
by spying on the communications and data of users, rather than to damage the network itself.
But attackers can do more than that. They may be able to damage users’ devices or manipulate
systems to gain physical access to facilities. This leaves the organization’s property and
members at risk of harm.
To Gain Competitive Advantage
Developing and maintaining effective security measures can provide an organization with a
competitive advantage over its competitors. One way of doing this is to keep data secure and
block vulnerable systems from outside interference. This allows the network’s users to remain
safe and focus on achieving the organization’s goals.

Pillars of Information Security

The pillars of information security are Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability, (CIA).
Authenticity and Accountability are other pillars to be considered.

➢ Confidentiality: This is to ensure that information is private and is not disclosed to

unauthorized individuals. It must only be seen and accessed by authorized individuals.
➢ Integrity: This is to ensure that information and other programs are updated/upgraded
or edited in an authorised manner by an authorised individual.
➢ Availability: This ensures that the system works promptly and information can be
accessed as and when needed by an authorised individual.
➢ Authenticity: This is to ensure that users of the system are authenticated, i.e. verifying
that users are who they say they are. Also, it ensures that each input arriving at the
system is from a trusted source.

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➢ Accountability: This is to ensure that the requirement for actions of an entity can be
traced distinctively to that entity. This means that the system must be able to trace a
security breach, through system records, to a responsible entity.

Cybercrimes
Cybercrime is any illegal activity that involves a computer, another digital device or a computer
network. It includes common cyberattack patterns like social engineering, software
vulnerability exploits and network attacks as well as criminal acts like cyberstalking,
harassment and extortion, money laundering, child pornography etc. According to Techopedia,
“Cybercrime is defined as a crime in which a computer is the object of the crime (hacking,
phishing, spamming) or is used as a tool to commit an offense (child pornography, hate
crimes).
Cybercriminals may use computer technology to access a user’s personal information,
confidential business information (such as trade secret), government information, or for
exploitative or malicious purposes or simply to disable a device (s). It is also a cybercrime to
sell or elicit the above information online. Criminals who perform these illegal activities are
often referred to as hackers.”
Cybercrime encompasses a broad range of illegal activities. Among them are Social
Engineering and Malware.

Social Engineering
Social engineering is a term that refers to the ability of something or someone to influence the
behaviour of a group of people. In the context of security, Social Engineering refers to a
collection of techniques used to deceive internal users into performing specific actions or
revealing confidential information. Examples of social engineering techniques include
pretexting and phishing

Pretexting
This is a form of social engineering where an invented scenario (the pretext) is used on a victim
in order to get the victim to release information or perform an action. This often requires some
prior knowledge or research on the part of the attacker. For instance, since they want to gain
your confidence, they will usually pose as a customer service agent so you’ll give the necessary
information needed. This is typically a password, information about the company you work

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for, or bank information. Also, they will find out what they can about you on the internet and
then attempt to add you as a friend on social accounts. Once they gain access to an account,
they can sell your information or secure accounts in your name.
Phishing Attack
Phishing is a form of social engineering where the phisher pretends to represent a legitimate
outside organization. Phishing attempts often arrive in the form of an email, but also can arrive
as a text message (called SMiShing) or voicemail (called Vishing), and it often directs users to
enter details such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details at a fake website whose look
and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one.

Phishing attacks typically appear to come from a trusted source, including individuals or
companies that we do business with on a regular basis. The email may seem legitimate and
contains a recognizable call to action such as to verify an email address, username, password
or to provide invoice information. This however, is actually a trick used to capture personal
information, online credentials or even to install malware on one’s computer or your
organization’s system.

Malware (Malicious Software)

Malware is usually a software written to cause damage on a computer system or network or an
entire information system. More often than not malicious software is used as a means to set up
and or establish the infrastructure needed to perform a system or network-based attacks. These
software programs can be used on their own or together as part of an intended attack.

Different types of malware can cause havoc on your devices or on an organization’s system in
different ways. Some malware enables your computer to be remotely controlled, others steal
personal documents or information (financial, personal, online account credentials etc.) saved
on your device(s), spy on online activities, hack into other systems etc.

Following are examples of malware.

Virus
They are well known and often very effective in creating extensive damage. They operate by
replicating once activated i.e. they can spread across computers and networks by making copies
of themselves, usually without the user’s knowledge. In most cases, malicious software is used

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by viruses to perform their malicious acts. Viruses can have harmful side-effects which
includes:

• displaying irritating messages,

• deleting some or all the files from a system,

• reducing security settings in order to allow intruders to remotely access a system

through a given computer. Etc.

Virus Contraction and Prevention

Following are the the most common ways of contracting a computer virus:

➢ Opening Links in Emails from Unknown Senders

➢ Downloading Malware from Untrustworthy Sites
➢ Clicking Online Ads (“Malvertisments”)
➢ Software that Hasn’t Been Patched Properly
Following are the most common ways of preventing a computer virus:

➢ Using antivirus and keeping it current by downloading the latest updates from the
vender’s web site
➢ Use encryption
➢ Be suspicious – e.g., don’t open email attachment from unknown sender
➢ Remain informed – always check security sites. This will keep you informed of the
latest viruses and attacks and what you can do to protect your system against them.
➢ Configuring your browser and e-mail clients to the highest level of security
➢ Always update your software including operating systems, application software etc.
➢ Keeping backups of all-important files
Worm
A worm is a small piece of malware that is very similar to a virus but it does not need to be
activated before it starts to self-replicate. It uses computer networks and security holes to
replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another machine that has a specific
security hole. It copies itself to the new machine using the security hole, and then starts
replicating from there, as well.

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Trojan horse
This is malware that looks legitimate and is advertised as performing one activity but actually
does something else; it does not self-replicate but can achieve various attacks on the host:
irritate the user with pop-ups or changing desktops. In other words, they often appear as
harmless programs such as a useful application or a game, however, they are hiding dangerous
pieces of code which may allow a hacker or program to take over your system.

Spyware and Adware

Spyware is any program that gathers personal information from your computer without your
permission or knowledge. This information is sent to advertisers or others on the Internet and
can include passwords and account numbers.

Adware is a form of spyware used to collect information about a user based on websites the
user visits. That information is then used for targeted advertising or for malicious intent.

Tracking Cookies
Cookies are a form of spyware but are not always bad. They are used to record information
about an Internet user when they visit websites.

Illicit Server
This will install hidden services on your system which will allow a hacker remote control of
your system. Illicit servers consist of "client" code and "server" code that enable the attacker
to monitor and control the operation of the computer infected with the server code.

Ransomware
In this type of attack, malicious software causes devices and networks to be locked down or
encrypted until a ransom is paid. Organizations that have significant amounts of confidential
information that need to be used in a timely manner, such as hospitals or law firms are normally
the victims of ransomware attacks.

Some signs that Malware such as virus or worm may be present in a system include:

✓ Computer starts acting abnormally

✓ Programs do not respond to mouse and keystrokes.
✓ Programs starting or shutting down on their own.
✓ CPU usage becomes very high

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✓ Computer slows down significantly or crashes

Common Security Measures

As we all know, security risks cannot be eliminated or prevented completely. However,
effective risk management and assessment can significantly minimize the existing security
risks. Cybercrime is continually evolving, which is why organizations must continually train
their employees and help them build upon their awareness of IT security threats. By exercising
common sense and following security best practices, users can protect against phishing attacks,
malware, identity theft, scams, and some of the other most common types of cybercrime.

An organization can start by developing a security policy. A security policy is a formal

statement of the rules that users must adhere to when accessing technology and information
assets. It should be the central point for how a system is secured, monitored, accessed, tested
and improved upon.

Below are some common security measures

✓ Identification and Authentication: specifies authorize persons that can have access to
network resources and procedures. This includes physical access to wiring closets and
critical system resources such as servers, switches, routers and access points.
✓ Password policies: ensures passwords meet minimum requirements, are strong and are
changed regularly.
✓ Acceptable Use Policies: identifies systems applications and usages that are acceptable
✓ Access Control: set certain levels of file or directory permissions to users or user
groups within a system or on a standalone system.
✓ Remote Access Policies: identifies how remote users can access a system and what is
accessible via remote connectivity.
✓ System maintenance Procedures: specifies system devices and end user application
update procedures.
✓ Incident handling procedures: describes how security incidents will be handled

Other security tools and applications used in securing a network/computer/system include:

✓ Patches and Updates: one of the most common methods that a hacker uses to gain
access to system, is through software vulnerabilities. It is therefore important to keep

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software applications up-to-date with the latest security patches and updates to help
deter threats.
✓ Virus Protection: discussed earlier.
✓ Spyware Protection (Anti-Spyware): detects and deletes spyware applications, as
well as prevents future installations from occurring.
✓ Spam Blockers (Anti-Spam): protects hosts by identifying spam and performing an
action, such as placing it into a junk folder or deleting it. It can be loaded on a machine
locally, but can also be loaded on email servers.
✓ Firewalls: A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors incoming
and outgoing network traffic and permits or blocks data packets based on a pre-set of
security rules. Its purpose is to create a barrier between your internal network and
incoming traffic from external sources (such as the internet) so as to block malicious
traffic like viruses and cybercriminals. It is one of the most effective security tools
available for protecting internal system users from external threats.
✓ Encryption: Encryption is another way of checking for authentication and is the
primary means to ensure privacy across the network, be it a LAN or WAN such as the
internet. In simple terms, encryption is turning recognizable data into code. This implies
the use of some means to effect this change, and also allow the data to be reverted back
to its original format. The first step is usually achieved by the use of algorithms, which
are able to regenerate data in a random and unrecognizable format.
✓ Digital Signatures: Digital signatures are commonly used for authentication purposes.
They use a combination of encryption techniques.
When it comes to protecting your computer, and that of your organization, be aware of:
 What you download,
 What websites you visit,
 Where your emails come from,
 What links you click on,
 What/where you enter your information into and
 Avoid using unsecure Wi-Fi networks in public places as unsecure networks leave
you vulnerable to attacks such as man-in-the-middle attacks.
And also, when it comes to e-mails:

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 Do not open email attachments from unknown senders: These could be infected with
malware, be a scam, be a phishing attack etc.
 Do not click on links in emails from unknown senders or unfamiliar websites: This is
a common way that malware is spread.

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