LECTURE NOTES - IV

« FLUID MECHANICS »

Dr. SIMO Ulrich

Dr. AZEUFACK Ulrich

University of BUEA

Faculty of Engineering and

technology

Mechanical Engineering
Department
 THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation, and
is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible (Fig.
1). Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics. In this chapter,
we derive the Bernoulli equation by applying the conservation of linear momentum principle, and
we demonstrate both its usefulness and its limitations.

Acceleration of a Fluid Particle

Often it is convenient to describe the motion of a particle in terms of its distance s along a
streamline together with the radius of curvature along the streamline. The speed of the particle is
related to the distance by V = ds/dt, which may vary along the streamline. In two-dimensional
flow, the acceleration can be decomposed into two components: streamwise acceleration as along
the streamline and normal acceleration an in the direction normal to the streamline, which is given
as an = V2/R. Note that streamwise acceleration is due to a change in speed along a streamline, and
normal acceleration is due to a change in direction. For particles that move along a straight path,
an = 0 since the radius of curvature is infinity and thus there is no change in direction. The
Bernoulli equation results from a force balance along a streamline.
Mathematically, we take the velocity V of a fluid particle to be a function of s and t. Taking the
total differential of V(s, t) and dividing both sides by dt yield

In steady flow 𝜕V/𝜕t = 0 and thus V = V(s), and the acceleration in the s-direction becomes
where V = ds/dt if we are following a fluid particle as it moves along a streamline. Therefore,
acceleration in steady flow is due to the change of velocity with position.

Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in steady flow. Applying Newton’s second
law (which is referred to as the linear momentum equation in fluid mechanics) in the s-direction
on a particle moving along a streamline gives
∑Fs = mas (1)
In regions of flow where net frictional forces are negligible, there is no pump or turbine, and there
is no heat transfer along the streamline, the significant forces acting in the s-direction are the
pressure (acting on both sides) and the component of the weight of the particle in the s-direction
(Fig. 2).Therefore, Eq. (1) becomes

P dA − (P + dP) dA − W sin 𝜃 = mV dV/ds (2)

where 𝜃 is the angle between the normal of the streamline and the vertical z-axis at that point, m
= 𝜌V = 𝜌 dA ds is the mass, W = mg = 𝜌g dA ds is the weight of the fluid particle, and sin 𝜃 =
dz/ds. Substituting,
−dP dA − ρg dA ds dz/ds = ρ dA ds V dV/ds (3)
Canceling dA from each term and simplifying,
−dP − ρg dz = ρV dV (4)

Noting that V dV = 1/2 d(V2 ) and dividing each term by 𝜌 gives

(4)

(5)

since the last two terms are exact differentials. In the case of incompressible flow, the first term
also becomes an exact differential, and integration gives

(6)
This is the famous Bernoulli equation (Fig. 3), which is commonly used in fluid mechanics for
steady, incompressible flow along a streamline in inviscid regions of flow.

Figure 2 Figure 3

The value of the constant in Eq. 6 can be evaluated at any point on the streamline where the
pressure, density, velocity, and elevation are known. The Bernoulli equation can also be written
between any two points on the same streamline as

(7)

We recognize V2/2 as kinetic energy, gz as potential energy, and P/𝜌 as flow energy, all per unit
mass. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation can be viewed as an expression of mechanical energy
balance and can be stated as follows (Fig. 4):

The sum of the kinetic, potential, and

flow energies of a fluid particle is
constant along a streamline during
steady flow when compressibility and
frictional effects are negligible

Figure 4
 CHAPTER 4

BASIC EQUATIONS FOR ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

4.1. EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION

Consider a streamline and select a small cylindrical fluid system for analysis as shown
in Fig. 4.1.
2 V2
p + dp P2
V ds V + dV
dA dz
P

V1 dW = ρg ds dA
1 z
P1

Horizontal datum plane

Fig. 4.1

The forces tending to accelerate the cylindrical fluid system are: forces on the ends of
the system,

pdA − ( p + dp )dA = − dpdA

and the component of weight in the direction of motion,

dz
− ρgdsdA = − ρgdAdz
ds

The differential mass being accelerated by the action of these differential forces is,

dm = ρdsdA

Applying Newton’s second law dF = dm×a along the streamline and using the one-
dimensional expression for acceleration gives

− dpdA − ρgdAdz = ( ρdsdA)V

dV
ds

1
 Dividing by ρdA produces the one dimensional Euler equation,

dp
+ VdV + gdz = 0
ρ

This equation is divided by g and written

⎛ p V2 ⎞
d ⎜⎜ + + z ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ γ 2g ⎠

4.2. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

The one-dimensional Euler equation can be easily integrated between any points
(because γ and g are both constants) to obtain

p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
γ 2g γ 2g

As points 1 and 2 are any two arbitrary points on the streamline, the quantity

p V2
+ + z = H = Constant (4.1)
γ 2g

Applies to all points on the streamline and thus provides a useful relationship between
pressure p, the magnitude V of the velocity, and the height z above datum. Equ. (4.1) is
known as the Bernoulli equation and the Bernoulli constant H is also termed the total head.

Examination of the Bernoulli terms of Equ. (4.1) reveals that p/γ and z are
respectively, the pressure (either gage or absolute) and potential heads and may be visualized
as vertical distances. The sum of velocity head V2/2g and pressure head p/γ could be
measured by placing a tiny open tube in the flow with its open end upstream. Thus Bernoulli
equation may be visualized for liquids as in Fig. 4.2, the sum of the terms (total head) being
the constant distance between the horizontal datum plane and the total headline or energy line
(E.L.). The piezometric head line or hydraulic grade line (H.G.L.) drawn through the tops of
the piezometer columns gives a picture of the pressure variation in the flow; evidently

1) Its distance from the stream tube is a direct measure of the static pressure in the
flow,
2) Its distance below the energy line is proportional to the square of the velocity.

2
 E.L.
2
V /2g

H .G .L.

P
γ

V Total
P
head, H

dA

H orizontal datum plane

Fig. 4.2

4.3. MECHANICAL ENERGY OF A FLOWING FLUID

An element of fluid, as shown in Fig. 4.3, will posses potential energy due to its height
z above datum and kinetic energy due to its velocity V, in the same way as any other object.

Cross-sectional
ρ B area A
B'

V
A

z mg A'

Datum level

Fig. 4.3

For an element of weight mg,

Potential energy = mgz

Potential energy per unit weight = z (4.2)

1
Kinetic energy = mV 2
2

V2
Kinetic energy per unit weight = (4.3)
2g

3
 A steadily flowing stream of fluid can also do work because of its pressure. At any
given cross-section, the pressure generates a force and, as the fluid flows, this cross-section
will move forward and so work will be done. If the pressure at section AB is p and the area of
the cross-section is A,

Force exerted on AB = pA

After a weight mg of fluid has flowed along the stream tube, section AB will have
moved to A’B’:
mg m
Volume passing AB = =
ρg ρ
Therefore,
m
Distance AA’ =
ρA

Work done = Force×Distance AA’

m
= pA ×
ρA
p p
Work done per unit weight = = (4.4)
ρg γ

The term p/γ is known as the flow work or pressure energy. Note that term pressure
energy refers to the energy of a fluid when flowing under pressure. The concept of pressure
energy is sometimes found difficult to understand. In solid body mechanics, a body is free to
change its velocity without restriction and potential energy can be freely converted to kinetic
energy as its level falls. The velocity of a stream of fluid which has a steady volume rate of
flow (discharge) depends on the cross-sectional area of the stream. Thus, if the fluid flows in
a uniform pipe, its velocity cannot change and so the conversion of potential energy to kinetic
energy cannot take place as the fluid loses elevation. The surplus energy appears in the form
of an increase in pressure. As a result, pressure energy can be regarded as potential energy in
transit.

Comparing the results obtained in Eqs. (4.2), (4.3) and (4.4) with Equ. (4.1), it can be
seen that the three terms Bernoulli’s equation are the pressure energy per unit weight, the
kinetic energy per unit weight, and the potential energy per unit weight; the constant H is the
total energy per unit weight. Thus, Bernoulli’s equation states that, for steady flow of a
frictionless fluid along a streamline, the total energy per unit weight remains constant from
point to point although its division between the three forms of energy may vary:

Pressure Kinetic Potential Total

energy per + energy per + energy per = energy per = Constant
unit weight unit weight unit weight unit weight

p V2
+ +z=H (4.5)
γ 2g

4
 Each of these terms has the dimensions of a length, or head, and they are often referred
to as the pressure head p/γ, the velocity head V2/2g, the potential head z and the total head H.
Between any two points, suffixes 1 and 2, on a streamline, Equ. (4.5) gives

p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 (4.6)
γ 2g γ 2g

or

Total energy per unit weight at 1 = Total energy per unit weight at 2

In formulating Equ. (4.6), it has been assumed that no energy has been supplied to or
taken from the fluid between points 1 and 2. Energy could have been supplied by introducing
a pump; equally, energy could have been lost by doing work against friction in a machine
such as a turbine. Bernoulli’s equation can be expanded to include these conditions, giving

Total energy Total energy Loss Per Work done Energy

per unit = per unit + unit + per unit - supplied per
weight at 1 weight at 2 weight weight unit weight

EXAMPLE 4.1: A fire engine develops a head of 50 m, i.e., it increases the energy
per unit weight of the water passing through it by 50 m. The pump draws water from a sump
at A through a 150 mm diameter pipe in which there is a loss of energy per unit weight due to
friction h1 = 5V12/2g varying with the mean velocity V1 in the pipe, and discharges it through
a 75 mm nozzle at C, 30 m above the pump, at the end of a 100 mm diameter delivery pipe in
which there is a loss of energy per unit weight h2 = 12V22/2g. Calculate,

a) The velocity of the jet issuing from the nozzle at C,

b) The pressure in the suction pipe at the inlet to the pump at B.

Jet velocity , V3
C Jet diameter , d 3

z3 Pipe velocity , V2
Pipe diameter , d 2= 100 mm
2
Delivery pipe loss = 12 V2 / 2g
Z2=2 m Pump
B

A Datum level
Pipe velocity , V1
Pipe diameter , d1= 150 mm
1

2
Delivery pipe loss = 5V1 / 2g
Fig.4.4

5
 SOLUTION:

a) We can apply Bernoulli’s equation in the form of Equ. (4.6) between two points, one
of which will be C, since we wish to determine the jet velocity V3, and the other point
at which conditions are known, such as a point A on the free surface of the sump
where the pressure will be atmospheric, so that pA = 0, the velocity VA will be zero if
the sump is large, and A can be taken as datum level so that zA = 0. Then,

Total energy Total energy Loss in Energy per unit Loss in

per unit = per unit + inlet - weight supplied + discharge (I)
weight at A weight at C pipe by pump pipe

Total energy
pA V A2
per unit = + + zA = 0
γ 2g
weight at A

Total energy
pC V32
per unit = + + z3
γ 2g

weight at C

pC = Atmospheric pressure = 0

z 3 = 30 + 2 = 32m
Therefore,

Total energy
V32 V2
per unit = 0+ + 32 = 3 + 32
2g 2g
weight at C

V12
Loss in inlet pipe, h1 = 5
2g

Energy per unit weight supplied by pump = 50 m

V22
Loss in delivery pipe, h2 = 12
2g
Substituting in (I),

V32 V2 V2
0= + 32 + 5 1 − 50 + 12 2
2g 2g 2g

V32 + 5V12 + 12V22 = 2 × g × 18 (II)

6
 From the continuity of flow equation,

πd12 πd 22 πd 32
V1 = V2 = V3
4 4 4

Therefore,

2
⎛d ⎞
2
⎛ 75 ⎞ 1
V1 = ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ V3 = ⎜ ⎟ V3 = V3
⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎝ 150 ⎠ 4
2
⎛d ⎞
2
⎛ 75 ⎞ 9
V2 = ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ V3 = ⎜ ⎟ V3 = V3
⎝ d2 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ 16

Substituting in Equ. (II),

⎡ ⎛1⎞
2
⎛9⎞ ⎤
2

V ⎢1 + 5⎜ ⎟ + 12⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 2 × g × 1
3
2

⎣⎢ ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎦⎥
5.109V32 = 2 × g × 18
V3 = 8.31 m sec

b) If pB is the pressure in the suction pipe at the pump inlet, applying Bernoulli’s
equation to A and B,

Total energy Total energy Loss in

per unit = per unit + inlet
weight at A weight at B pipe

V12
pB V12
0= + + z2 + 5
γ 2g 2g

pB V12
= − z2 − 6
γ 2g

1 8.31
z 2 = 2m , V1 = V3 = = 2.08 m sec
4 4

pB 2.08 2
= −2 − 6 = −3.32 m
γ 2g

p B = −3.32 × 1 = −3.32 t m 2 (below atmospheric pressure)

7
 4.4. THE WORK-ENERGY EQUATION

The application of work-energy principles to fluid results in a powerful relationship

between fluid properties, work done, and energy transported. The Bernoulli equation is then
seen to be equivalent to the mechanical work-energy equation for ideal fluid flow.
ρ , P2 ds 2
2
V2
dA2 2 O

P1 , ρ
ds1 z2
1

V1

1 1
I
z1
Horizontal datum plane

Fig. 4.5

Consider the differential stream tube section shown in Fig. 4.5 and the fluid system
that occupies zones I and R of the control volume 1221 at time t and zones R and O at time
t+dt. For steady flow the continuity Equ. (3.8) gives

dA1V1 = dA2V2 or dA1 ds1 = dA2 ds 2

From dynamics, the mechanical work-energy relation (which is only an integrated

form of Newton’s second law) states that the work dW (expressed as a force acting over a
distance) done on a system produces an equivalent change in the sum of the kinetic (KE) and
potential (PE) energies of the system, that is, in time dt

dW = d(KE+PE) = (KE+PE)t+dt – (KE+PE)t

Now
(KE+PE)t = (KE+PE)R + (KE+PE)I

(KE+PE) t = (KE+PE) R +
1
(ρdA1ds1 )V12 + γ (dA1ds1 )z1
2

(KE+PE) t+dt = (KE+PE) R + (KE+PE) O

(KE+PE) t+dt = (KE+PE) R +

1
(ρdA2 ds2 )V22 + γ (dA2 ds2 )z 2
2

Because kinetic energy of translation is mV2/2 and potential energy is equivalent to

the work of raising the weight of fluid in a zone to a height z above the datum.

8
 The external work done on the system is all accomplished on cross sections 11 and 22
because there is no motion perpendicular to the stream tube so the lateral pressure forces can
do no work. Also because all internal forces appear in equal and opposite pairs, there is no
network done internally. The work done by the fluid entering I on the system in time dt is the
flow work.

( p1dA1 )ds1
As the system does work on the fluid in time O in time dt, the work done on the
system is

− ( p 2 dA2 )ds 2

In sum then

( p1dA1 )ds1 − ( p 2 dA2 )ds2 = 1 (ρdA2 ds2 )V22 + γ (dA2 ds2 )z 2 − 1 (ρdA1ds1 )V12 − γ (dA1ds1 )z1
2 2

Dividing by dA1ds1 = dA2ds2 produces

1 1
p1 − p 2 = ρV22 + γz 2 − ρV12 − γz1
2 2

When rearranged, this is recognized as Bernoulli’s equation,

p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 (4.7)
γ 2g γ 2g

Which can be interpreted now as a mechanical energy equation. Terms such as p1/γ,
V12/2g, z have the units of meters which represent energy per unit weight of fluid.

4.5. KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION FACTOR

The derivation of Bernoulli’s equation has been carried out for a stream tube assuming
a uniform velocity across the inlet and outlet sections. In a real fluid flowing in a pipe or over
a solid surface, the velocity will be zero at the solid boundary and will increase as the distance
from the boundary increases. The kinetic energy per unit weight of the fluid will increase in a
similar manner. If the cross-section of the flow is assumed to be composed of a series of small
elements of area dA and the velocity normal to each element is u, the total kinetic energy
passing through the whole cross-section can be found by determining the kinetic energy
passing through an element in unit time and then summing by integrating over the whole area
of the section,

u2 u2 ρdt 3
Kinetic energy = ∫ dm = ∫
2 ∫A
ρudtdA = u dA
A
2 A
2

9
 Which can be readily integrated if the exact velocity is known. It is, however, more
convenient to express the kinetic energy in terms of average velocity V at the section and a
kinetic energy correction factor α such that

V2 ρdt
K.E. = α m =α AV 3
2 2

In which m = ρAVdt is the total mass of the fluid flowing across the cross-section
during dt. By comparing the two expressions for kinetic energy, it is obvious that

1
3 ∫
α= u 3 dA (4.8)
AV A

Mathematically, the cube of the average is less than the average of cubes, that is,

1 3
A ∫A
V3 < u dA

The numerical value of α will always be greater than 1. Then Equ. (4.6) takes the form
of Equ. (4.9) by taking kinetic energy correction factor, α, as

p1 V12 p V2
+ α1 + z1 = 2 + α 2 2 + z 2 (4.9)
γ 2g γ 2g

The factor α depends on the shape of the cross-section and the velocity distribution. In
most engineering problems of turbulent flow in circular pipes, α has a numerical value
ranging from 1.01 to 1.10. Here α can be assumed to be unity without introducing any serious
error.

The energy equation (Equ.4.9) for the flow system becomes

p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 (4.7)
γ 2g γ 2g

Which is identical to the energy equation for fluid flow along a streamline.

4.6. APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Although there is always some friction loss in the flow of real fluids, in many
engineering problems the assumption of frictionless flow may yield satisfactory results.

An important feature of Bernoulli’s equation is in its graphical representation of the

three terms, p/γ, z, and V2/2g, at each section of the flow system. In Fig. 4.6 there is shown a
typical example of steady flow of an ideal fluid from a large reservoir through a system of
pipes varying in size and terminating in a nozzle.

10
 P
Total energy line γ
2
Piezometric V
line 2g
Reservoir Vj2
2g

Vj

Fig. 4.6

Since the cross-sectional area of the reservoir is very large and there the velocity is
zero, both the total energy line and piezometric line coincide with the free surface in the
reservoir. The total energy line of the whole flow system must be horizontal if the flow is
assumed to be frictionless (ideal). The flow in the pipes at various sections follows the
continuity principle, that is, Q = VA. The volume rate of flow (discharge) Q can be
determined by writing Bernoulli’s equation to relate flow conditions at the free surface of the
reservoir and the jet at the nozzle outlet. Thus the velocity head V2/2g at any section is
determined and, finally the piezometric line is sketched in at a distance of V2/2g below the
total energy line. The distance between the piezometric line and the line of the pipe is the
pressure head p/γ at any section. If the piezometric line stays above the centerline of the pipe,
the pressure head is positive. Otherwise, negative pressure prevails throughout the region
where the piezometric line falls below the centerline of the pipe. Care must be taken in
dealing with the regions of negative pressure because of the adverse effect of cavitation, a
phenomenon closely associated with the regions where the local pressure drops to the vapor
pressure of the liquid flowing in the system. At the region of low pressure liquid tends to
vaporize and water bubbles start to form. These vapor bubbles are carried downstream and
subsequently collapse in the zones of higher pressure. The repeated collapsing of vapor
bubbles produces extremely high hydrodynamic pressures upon the solid boundaries,
frequently causing severe physical damages to the boundary material. In order to avoid
cavitation, it is essential to eliminate the zone of low pressure where vaporization may take
place. The position of the piezometric line yields visual information on the pressure
conditions of the whole flow system.

EXAMPLE 4.2: The 10 cm (diameter) siphon shown in Fig. 4.7 is filled with water
and discharging freely into the atmosphere through a 5 cm (diameter) nozzle. Assume
frictionless flow and find, a) the discharge in cubic meter per second and, b) the pressure at C,
D, E, and F.

SOLUTION:

a) Since the flow is assumed to be frictionless, Bernoulli’s equation (Equ. 4.6) can be
applied to points A and G with elevation datum at G and zero gage pressure as
pressure datum:

pA V A2 p V2
+ zA + = G + zG + G
γ 2g γ 2g

11
 D
3m PC PE
γ PD γ Total energy line
C A γ E

2
Piezometric
V line 2
5m 2g PF VG
γ 2g

10 D
cm
F
G 5 cm

Fig. 4.7

Point A is at the reservoir surface where atmospheric pressure prevails and velocity is
negligible. Therefore,
VG2
0+5+0 = 0+0+
2g
VG = 2 g × 5 = 9.90 m sec
π
Q = AGVG = × 0.05 2 × 9.90 = 0.0194 m 3 sec
4

b) From the continuity equation the velocity in the 10 cm diameter siphon is,

Q 4Q 4 × 0.0194
V= = = = 2.48 m sec
A πD 2 π × 0.10 2

By using the same elevation and pressure data as in (a) and writing Bernoulli’s
equation to relate flow conditions at A and C,

pC 2.48 2
0+5+0 = +5+
γ 2g
from which

pC
= −0.31m of water
γ
p C = −0.31 t m 2

The minus sign indicates vacuum.

Similarly, between A and D

pD 2.48 2
0+5+0 = +8+
γ 2g
pD
= −3.31m of water
γ
p D = −3.31t m 2

12
Between A and E,

pE 2.48 2
0+5+0 = +5+
γ 2g

pE
= −0.31m of water
γ
p E = −0.31t m 2

Between A and F,

pF 2.48 2
0+5+0 = +0+
γ 2g

pF
= 4.69m of water
γ
p F = 4.69 t m 2

The total energy line and piezometric line shown in Fig. 4.7 are self-explanatory.

4.6.1. Torricelli’s Theorem

The classical Torricelli’s theorem, which was formulated through experimentation,

states that the velocity of liquid flowing out of an orifice is proportional to the square root of
the height of liquid above the center of the orifice. This statement can readily be proved by
applying Bernoulli’s equation.

The reservoir in Fig. 4.8 is filled with a liquid of specific weight γ to a height h above
the center of a round orifice O in its side. It is assumed, 1) That both the free surface of the
liquid in the reservoir and the liquid jet are exposed to the atmospheric pressure, that is, pA =
p0; 2) That the liquid surface in the reservoir remains constant; and 3) That the surface area of
the reservoir is large compared with the cross-sectional area of the orifice. Thus the velocity
head at A may be neglected, that is, VA2/2g ≅ 0. Therefore, if the elevation at the center of the
orifice is taken as a datum, Bernoulli’s equation for flow conditions between A and O
becomes,

pA pO Vo2
+h+0= +0+
γ γ 2g

or, solving for Vo,

VO = 2 gh (4.10)

Which is known as Torricelli’s theorem. It is worth noting here that the velocity of efflux is
identical to the velocity attained in free fall.

13
 A

2
VO
h 2g

VO
O

Fig. 4.8

EXAMPLE 4.3: The pressurized tank shown has a circular cross-section 2 m in

diameter. Oil is drained through a nozzle 0.08m in diameter in the side of the tank. Assuming
that the air pressure is maintained constant, how long does it take to lower the oil surface in
the tank by 2 m? The specific weight of the oil in the tank is 0.75 t/m3 and that of mercury is
13.6 t/m3.

Compressed air
A
5 cm dh
B

5m
Mercury
h

8 cm
Oil

2m
Fig. 4.9

SOLUTION: The pressure head in the tank above the oil surface is maintained at a
constant value of,

pA 13.6
= 0.05 × = 0.91m of oil
γ oil 0.75

Since the oil surface drops constantly, the discharge out of the nozzle will vary with time. By
neglecting the friction loss, Bernoulli’s equation (Equ. 4.6) is written for flow conditions
between a point B in the oil when the oil surface is at a height h above the center of the nozzle
and the point j in the jet.

14
 pB VB2 pj V j2
+ zB + = + zj +
γ oil 2 g γ oil 2g

The cross-sectional area of the tank is very much larger than the jet area; VB is
approximately zero for all practical purposes. The jet issuing out of the nozzle is subject to the
atmospheric pressure. By choosing the center of the nozzle as the elevation datum and the
local atmospheric pressure as the pressure datum,

V j2
0.91 + h + 0 = 0 + 0 +
2g
V j = 2 g (0.91 + h )

Which is the instantaneous velocity of the jet when the oil surface is at h above the
center of the nozzle.

From the continuity equation the total discharge out of the nozzle during a small
interval dt must be equal to the reduction in the volume of oil in the tank. Thus,

A jV j dt = At dh
or
π π
× 0.08 2 2 g (h + 0.91)dt = − × 2 2 × dh
4 4

from which

t 3

∫ (0.91 + h )
625
∫ dt = −
−1 2
dh
0 2g 0

By integrating

t=−
625
2g
[2(0.91 + h) ] 12 3
5 = 128 sec

4.6.2. Free Liquid Jet

A free liquid jet is actually a streamline along which the pressure is atmospheric.
Accordingly, Bernoulli’s equation may be applied to the whole trajectory of the jet if the air
resistance is neglected. With the pressure head p/γ equal to zero, the sum of velocity head and
elevation head above any arbitrarily chosen datum must remain constant for all points along
the trajectory (Fig. 4.10).

15
 z

Total energy line

2
(υo)x
2g
υ = (υo)x
Trajectory υ2
of 2g
free jet
υo2
2g υ2o (υo)2x
z max= υx= (υo)x
2g 2g
υo
(υo)z z υz υ
Datum
x
(υo)x
x
Fig. 4.10

Therefore,

V2
z+ = Constant
2g

The total energy line is shown to be horizontal and at a distance of V2/2g above
trajectory. The velocity at any point of the jet may be determined from its components Vx and
Vy. Thus V equals (Vx2 + Vy2) 1/2. Here basic equations of projectile motion in physics are
used to determine the velocity components at any point along the trajectory:

( )
V x = V0 x

V z = (Vo )z − gt

The coordinates of the trajectory are expressed as follows:

x = (V0 )x t

z = (V0 )z t −
1 2
gt
2

Where t is the elapsed after the liquid jet leaves the nozzle.

EXAMPLE 4.4: Water is discharged from a 5 cm (diameter) nozzle, which is inclined

at a 300 angle above the horizontal. If the jet strikes the ground at a horizontal distance of 5 m
and a vertical distance of 1 m from the nozzle as shown in Fig. 4.11, what is the discharge in
cubic meter per second?

16
 5 m

30°

1 m

Fig. 4.11

SOLUTION:

(VO )x = V j Cos30 0 = 0.866V j

(VO )z = V j Sin30 0 = 0.5V j

Therefore the two coordinate equations for the trajectory are

(
x = V j Cos300 t )

(
z = V j Sin300 t −) 1 2
2
gt

By eliminating t and solving for Vj from these two equations,

12
x ⎡ g ⎤
Vj =
Cos300
⎢ ( 0 ⎥
⎣ 2 xTan30 − z ⎦ )
12
5 ⎡ 9.81 ⎤
= ⎢ ( ⎥
0.866 ⎣ 2 5 × 0.577 − 1) ⎦

V j = 9.31 m sec

Hence
π
Q = A jV j = × 0.05 2 × 9.31 = 0.0183 m 3 sec
4

4.6.3. Venturimeter

If the flow constriction in a pipe, as shown in Fig. 4.12, is well streamlined, the loss of
energy is practically equal to zero. The difference in velocity heads, Δ(V2/2g), at two sections
across the constriction results in a change in potential heads, Δhpz=Δ(p/γ)+Δz. Such a device is
used for metering the quantity of flow Q in the pipe system by measuring the difference in
potential head.

17
 Total energy line
2
V1
2g
2
Pressure V2
P1 line 2g
γ

1 P2
γ

(h pz)1 2

(h pz)2

z1

z2

Datum

Fig. 4.12

The Bernoulli’s equation for the two sections is

p1 V12 p V2
+ z1 + = 2 + z2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g

and the continuity equation is

Q = A1V1 = A2V2

These two equations may be solved for V1 and V2 it the two potential heads (hpz)
1=(p1/γ)+z1 and (hpz) 2=(p2/γ)+z2 are known. Hence, Q may be calculated. The difference in
potential heads may be measured either by means of two piezometric columns at two sections
or by using a differential manometer connected to the two sections.

EXAMPLE 4.5: The inclined Venturimeter shown in Fig. 4.13 is installed in a 20 cm

(diameter) water pipe line and has a throat diameter of 10 cm. Water flows in the upward
direction. For a manometer reading of 25 cm of mercury, what is the discharge in cubic meter
per second? The specific weight of mercury is 13.6 gr/cm3.

SOLUTION: Denote h as the vertical distance between the throat and the water-
mercury interface in the manometer tube and y as the vertical distance between the centers of
the two sections in which manometer tappings are located. If the friction loss of flow through
the Venturimeter is neglected, Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to sections A and t:

18
 10 cm

A
20 cm
w
flo
r
ate
W

25 cm

Mercury , γ = 13.6 gr/cm3

Fig. 4.13

pA V A2 Pt Vt 2
+ zA + = + zt +
γw 2g γ w 2g

By taking section A as the elevation datum,

pA V A2 Pt V2
+0+ = + y+ t (a)
γw 2g γ w 2g

The difference in pressure head (pA/γw – pt/γw) is determined by writing pressure

equation for the differential manometer starting at section A:

pA pt
+ (h − y + 0.25) − 0.25 × 13.6 − h =
γw γw

From this

pA pt
− = y + 0.25 × 13.6 − 0.25
γw γw

Which now is substituted into Equ. (a) to obtain,

Vt 2 V A2
− = 0.25 × 13.6 − 0.25 = 3.15m (b)
2g 2g

19
The continuity equation of flow is

AAV A = AtVt
π π
× 0.2 2 × V A = × 0.12 × Vt
4 4
1
V A = Vt
4

Then, by substituting Vt/4 for VA in Equ. (b),

Vt 2 ⎛ 1⎞
⎜1 − ⎟ = 3.15
2 g ⎝ 16 ⎠

Hence the velocity at the throat

2 g × 3.15 × 16
Vt = = 8.12 m sec
15

The discharge is

π
Q = AtVt = × 0.10 2 × 8.12 = 0.064 m 3 sec
4

4.6.4. Stagnation Tube

A stagnation tube, such as the one shown in Fig. 4.14, is simply a bent tube with its
opening pointed upstream toward the approaching flow. The tip of the stagnation tube is
stagnation point, and stagnation tube, therefore measures the stagnation pressure (or the total
pressure), which is the sum of static pressure and the dynamic pressure.

υ21
2g

Ps
P1
γ
γ

υ1
s-stagnation point
υ=0
s

Fig. 4.14

20
 By using the Bernoulli equation and taking the stagnation point s be section 2 as
datum, the stagnation pressure ps is determined:

p1 V12 p
+ = s +0
γ 2g γ
or
1
p s = p1 + ρV12 (4.11)
2

Stagnation = Static + Dynamic

pressure pressure pressure

4.6.5. Pitot Tube

A typical Pitot tube is shown schematically in Fig. 4.15. It consists of a stagnation

tube surrounded by a closed outer (static pressure) tube with annular space in between them.
Small holes are drilled through the outer tube to measure the static pressure. The stagnation
tube in the center measures the stagnation (total) pressure which is the sum of the static and
the dynamic pressure.

γ υ12
υ1 h= γ −γ
g
2g
p1
υ1
γ ps
υs = 0
γg
Fig. 4.15

When the two tubes are connected to a differential pressure-measuring device, the
resulting difference in the pressure, ps-p1, is a direct measure of the velocity V1:

2( p s − p1 )
V1 = (4.12)
ρ

EXAMPLE 4.6: The Pitot tube in Fig. 4.16 is carefully aligned with an air stream of
specific weight 1.23 kg/m3. If the attached differential manometer shows a reading of 150 mm
of water, what is the velocity of the air stream?

21
 Pitot tube
150 mm
Air
po, Vo

Water
Fig. 4.16

SOLUTION: Stagnation pressure will be found at the tip of the Pitot tube. Assuming
that the holes in the barrel of the static tube will collect the static pressure p0 in the
undisturbed air stream, the manometer will measure (ps-p0). Applying Equ. (4.11),

1
p s = p0 + ρV02
2

Therefore,

0.15(1 − 0.00123) =
1 0.00123
× × V02
2 9.81
V0 = 48.90 m sec

4.6.6. Flow Over a Weir

The Bernoulli principle may be applied to problems of open flow such as the overflow
structure of Fig. 4.17. Such problems feature a moving liquid surface in contact with the
atmosphere and flow pictures dominated by gravitational action. A short distance upstream
from the structure, the streamlines will be straight and parallel and the velocity distribution
will be uniform.

2
V1
1 2g E.L.
V1

2
V1 V2
2g P
V1 γ = x cos α
y1
2 x
V1
α p = γx cos α
V1 V2
Datum α

Fig. 4.17

22
 In this region the quantity z+p/γ will be constant, the pressure distribution hydrostatic,
and the hydraulic grade (piezometric) line (for all stream tube) located in the liquid surface;
the energy line will be horizontal and located V12/2g above the liquid surface. With
atmospheric pressure on the liquid surface the stream tube in the liquid surface behaves as a
free jet allowing all surface velocities to be computed from the positions of liquid surface and
energy line. The prediction of velocities elsewhere in the flow field where stream tubes are
severely convergent or curved is outside the province of one-dimensional flow. At section 2,
however (if the streamlines there are assumed straight and parallel), the pressures and
velocities may be computed from the one-dimensional assumption.

EXAMPLE 4.7: Refer to Fig. 4.17. At section 2 the water surface is at elevation 30.5
m, and the 600 spillway surface at elevation 30 m. The velocity in the water surface VS2 at
section 2 is 6.1 m/sec. Calculate the pressure and velocity on the spillway face at section 2. If
the bottom of the approach channel is at elevation 29 m, calculate the depth and velocity in
the approach channel.

SOLUTION:

30.5 − 30
Thickness of sheet of water at section 2 = = 1m
Cos60 0

Pressure on spillway face at section 2 = 1 × 1 × Cos 60 0 0.5 t m 2

6.12
Elevation of energy line = 30.5 + = 32.40m
2g

0.5 VF22
32.4 = + + 3.0
1 2g

VF 2 = 6.1m sec

Which is to be expected from the one-dimensional assumption. Evidently all velocities

through section 2 are 6.1 m/sec, so

q = 1 × 1 × 6.1 = 6.1 m 3 sec per meter of spillway length

At section 1,
p1
y1 + 29.0 = z1 +
γ

and applying the Bernoulli equation,

2
V12 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 6 .1 ⎞
y1 + = y1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3.4m
2g ⎝ 2 g ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ y

23
 Solving this cubic equation by trial and error, the roots are y1 = 3.22 m, 0.85 m and -
0.69 m. Obviously the second and third roots are invalid here, so depth in approach channel
will be 3.22 m. The velocity V1 may be computed from

V12
= 3.40 − 3.22 = 0.22m
2g

or from

6.10
V1 =
3.22

Both of which give V1 = 1.9 m/sec.

4.1.6. The Power of a Stream of Fluid

A stream of fluid could do work as a result of its pressure p, velocity V and elevation z
and that the total energy per unit weight H of the fluid is given by

p V2
H= + +z
γ 2g

If the weight per unit time of fluid is known, the power of the stream can be
calculated, since

Power = Energy Per unit time = (Weight/Unit time)×(Energy/Unit weight)

If Q is the volume rate (discharge) of flow,

Weight per unit time = γQ = ρgQ

⎛ p V2 ⎞
Power = ρgQH = ρgH ⎜⎜ + + z ⎟⎟
⎝ γ 2g ⎠

1
Power = pQ + ρV 2 Q + ρgQz (4.13)
2

EXAMPLE 4.8: Water is drawn from a reservoir, in which the water level is 240 m
above datum, at the rate of 0.13 m3/sec. The outlet of the pipeline is at datum level and is
fitted with a nozzle to produce a high-speed jet to drive a turbine of the Pelton wheel type. If
the velocity of the is 66 m/sec, calculate

a) The power of the jet,

b) The power supplied from the reservoir,
c) The head used to overcome losses,
d) The efficiency of the pipeline and nozzle in transmitting power.

24
 SOLUTION:

a) The jet issuing from the nozzle will be at atmospheric pressure and at datum level so
that, in Equ. (4.13), p = 0 and z = 0. Therefore,

1
Power of jet = ρV 2 Q
2

1 1000
= × × 66 2 × 0.13 = 28862 kgm sec
2 9.81
= 28862 × 9.81 = 283140W = 283.14 KW

b) At the reservoir, the pressure is atmospheric and the velocity of the free surface is zero
so that, in Equ. (4.13), p = 0, V = 0. Therefore,

Power supplied from reservoir = ρQgz = γQz

= 1000 × 0.13 × 240 = 31200 kgm sec

= 31200 × 9.81 = 306072W = 306.72 KW

c) If, H1 = Total head at the reservoir, H2 = Total head at the jet, h = Head lost in
transmission,

Power supplied from reservoir = γQH 1 = 31200 kgm sec

Power of issuing jet = γQH 2 = 28862 kgm sec

Power lost in transmission = γQh = 2338 kgm sec

Head lost in pipe = h = (Power lost)/(γQ)

2338
h= = 17.98m
1000 × 0.13

d) Efficiency of transmission = (Power of jet)/(Power supplied by reservoir)

28862
Efficiency of transmission = = 0.925 = 92.5%
31200

25