Some Basic Measurement Methods

EER2.014 - 2. 1. Temperature (Introduction)

• Why temperature is one of the most
important of all measurable variables?
• How many types of Temperature
sensing?
• Temperature sensor families?
• Temperature sensor applications?

Sensors and Analytical Devices 1

 Temperature sensors

Source: Temperature Sensor Market Size, Share | Growth Report, 2032 ([Link]) Source: Smartbuilding, Grenoble, France

MARKET SIZE (2022): >$8 Bn

TEMPERATURE SENSORS MARKET Compound Annual Growth Rate (2023-2032): >4%
MARKET VALUE (2032): >$11Bn
Introduction to sensors 2
Temperature sensors
Temperature sensors detect a change in a physical parameter such as
resistance or output voltage that corresponds to a temperature change.
There are two basic types of temperature sensing:
• Contact sensing requires the sensor to be in direct physical contact with
the media or object being sensed. It can be used to monitor the temperature
of solids, liquids or gases over an extremely wide temperature range.
• Non-contact measurement interprets the radiant energy of a heat source in
the form of energy emitted in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. This method can be used to monitor non-reflective solids and
liquids but is not effective with gases due to their natural transparency.
Temperature sensors comprise three families: electro-mechanical, thermo-
electronic (Thermocouples, Infrared (IR) pyrometry), and resistive
(Thermistors, RTDs).

Introduction to sensors 3
 Some Basic Measurement Methods
EER2.014 - 2. 1. Temperature
2.1.1 Thermocouple

J. S. Wilson, Sensor Technology Handbook, Chapter 20

Sensors and Analytical Devices 4
Thermocouple
OUTLINE
1. Principle of Thermocouple
2. Thermocouple construction/Characteristics
3. Connecting Thermocouples (Thermopile/CJC)
4. Thermocouple Temperature calculation
5. How to select the right Thermocouple?
6. Examples: Measuring with a thermocouple
7. Thermocouple applications
8. Advantages and disadvantages

Introduction to sensors 5
Principle of Thermocouple
• What is a Thermocouple? It’s consists of two wires of dissimilar metals joined
near the measurement point. The output is a small voltage measured between the
two wires.

• Seebeck-effect (1821, Thomas Johann Seebeck):

This type of effect occurs among two different
conducting material wires form a closed circuit.
Current flows in the circuit as long as the
junctions are in different temperature. The
current is created by a thermo-voltage.
• The electromotive force (EMF): E(mV) = f(∆T)
Where ∆T is the temperature difference among the hot junction end and the reference junction end

Sensors and Analytical Devices 6

Thermocouple construction
Thermocouple -Type K

Thermocouple construction Thermocouple measurement system

Sensors and Analytical Devices 7
Source: Desmarais, Ron and Jim Breuer. “How to Select and Use the Right Temperature Sensor.”
Sensors Online. January 2001. [Link]
Measurement junction
An grounded junction: suitable for corrosive media and for high pressure
applications. It provides faster response than the ungrounded junction and
protection not afforded by the exposed junction.
An ungrounded junction: More suitable for corrosive media although the
thermal response is slower.
An exposed junction: Recommended for the measurement of flowing or static
non-corrosive gas temperature when the greatest sensitivity and quickest response
is required.

Sensors and Analytical Devices 8

Thermocouple wires and cables

Source: Labfacility ([Link])

Sensors and Analytical Devices 9
 Thermocouple characteristics

Thermocouple types/Operating temperature range

Acuracy of thermocouple depend on type and
operating temperature, and comply with IEC 584-2 Thermocouple Sensitivities
standard.
Sensors and Analytical Devices 10
Connecting thermocouples
• Thermopile
 Series connection of thermocouples
⇒ larger sensitivity
 However, larger impedance and thermal
conductance (heat loss) between the hot
and cold junctions
• Cold junction compensation
Cold junction - Ice bath Cold junction - Isothermal block

Sensors and Analytical Devices 11

Determining the measured temperature
Cold junction compensation (CJC) by thermocouple reference table or
Nonlinearity functions by NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology).
Three steps to determine the measured temperature

1. TS VS
2. VTC + VS = Vcomp Nonlinearity temperature functions
Source: Thermocouple - Wikipedia

3. Vcomp TMeasured

Sensors and Analytical Devices 12

Example 1: Determining TMeasured
Type “T” Thermocouple/ Measured “VTC” = 3.41 mV and Reference
Junction temperature TS =22°C. Calculate TMeasured =? .
1. On the reference table, the point of 22°C corresponding with 0.87 mV.
2. VTC + 0.87 mV = 4.28 mV.
3. The point of 4.28 mV in the table corresponding with temperature of
100°C. So, the measured temperature TMeasued =100°C
THERMOCOUPLE REFERENCE TABLE

Source: How to calculate Thermocouple Temperature by measuring the output? ([Link])

Sensors and Analytical Devices 13

How to select the right Thermocouple?
• Temperature range/ Accuracy/Corrosion/ response time/
Thermocouple type (T, J, K, E, S, R)/ Termination (Wires)
• Environment: Junction protection (sheath or not)
• Output signal: Transmitter or not
• Cost and benefits

American Wire Gauge (AWG)

Sensors and Analytical Devices 14

14
Examples: Measuring with a thermocouple
Example 2: Cold junction compensation (CJC)

Ambient temperature vary - Cold junction compensation

measured reading change components add on

Example 3: Remote control system

Sensors and Analytical Devices Source: Thermocouple Explained | Working Principles - RealPars 15
Advantage-Disadvantage
Advantages
• Less expensive than RTDs/More linear than thermistors
• Easier to use than RTDs or thermocouples due to higher output
• IC types feature on-chip signal conditioning
• Many IC types include communication protocols with bus-type data acquisition systems
Disadvantages
• Not as linear as RTDs/Less accurate than other electronic-based systems
• More expensive than thermistors or thermocouples
• Limited temperature range/Slower thermal response than other electronic-based systems
• Typically larger than RTDs and thermistors/Require larger package sizes for immersion
• Additional components/circuitry required to control application loads

Sensors and Analytical Devices 16

16
Thermocouple applications

Source: How To Choose the Right Type of Thermocouple?

Charts on Page ([Link])

Sensors and Analytical Devices 17

 Some Basic Measurement Methods
EER2.014 - 2. 1. Temperature
2.1.2 RTD
Control board Temperature control

Power circuit

Sensors and Analytical Devices 18

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
OUTLINE How It work?
1. Principle of RTDs
2. Why RTDs?
3. RTD structure
4. Type of RTD elements
5. RTD properties
6. Wire Connections
7. Measuring with Pt-100
8. Advantages and disadvantages
9. Thermocouple applications

Sensors and Analytical Devices 19

Principle of RTD
A resistance-temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature sensing device whose
resistance changes with temperature.
RTDs can be made of different metals and have different resistances, but the
most popular RTD is platinum and has a nominal resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C.
Resistance of a metal equation:
– β << α, can be approximated on the first degree
• Close to linear, β may be 3-4 orders of magnitude smaller than α
• The most stable temperature sensor
• Temperature range: -250 °C – +950 °C
• Specific resistance: ~ 10 – 1000 Ω
• The most common type is platinum based Pt-100 Temperature

[Link]

Sensors and Analytical Devices 20

Why RTDs ?
• Excellent accuracy over a wide temperature range (accuracies as high as 0.01
Ω (0.026° C) at 0° C).
• Extremely stable. Common industrial RTDs drift less than 0.1° C/year, and
some models are stable to within 0.0025° C/year.

Rt = R0 * (1 + A* t + B*t2 + C*(t-100)* t3)

 Rt is the resistance at temperature t
 R0 is the resistance at 0 °C, and A= 3.9083 E-3oC-1
 B = -5.775 E-7 oC-2 ; C = -4.183 E -12 oC-4(below 0 °C), or C = 0 (above 0 °C)
Sensors and Analytical Devices 21
RTD structures

Sensors and Analytical Devices 22

Types of RTDs
• Film resistor
– Thin → short response time
– Inexpensive
– Not very accurate (thermal expansion)
• Wire-wound resistor
– Better accuracy
– Wider temperature range
– Compromise between accuracy and stability

Sensors and Analytical Devices 23

RTD properties
• Temperature dependencies of resistance thermometers
• NTC thermistor plotted for comparison
• Copper is the most linear, but oxidizes intensively
• Platinum is the most stable

Sensing element materials and Temperature limits

Sensors and Analytical Devices 24

Wire Connections

The output voltage would be directly proportional to the

resistance of the RTD.
Sensors and Analytical Devices 25

[Link]
Measuring with Pt-100 sensor
Case 1:Constant current source

• Voltage V is a direct result

of Pt-100 resistance and
Case 2: Wheatstone bridge (Voltage source) constant current flowing
through it
• An increase in lead wire
resistance does not affect
the Voltage V.
Issues of error: Distance between RTD and bridge lead wire resistance
A drifting V Supply affect the voltage V
Sensors and Analytical Devices 26
Pt-100 specifications
Measurement range: -259 to +962 °C
Standard sensor sensitivity:
 0.385 /°C (European standard)
 0.392 /°C (American standard uses more pure Pt)
Error of 0.1 mV or 1 µA in signal to be measured  temperature error of 0.4 °C
Self heating:
 Measuring current of 1 mA produces 100 µW of heat
 Low thermal resistance is important!

Sensors and Analytical Devices 27

Advantage-Disadvantage
Advantages
• Very accurate and repeatable
• Wide temperature range –200 to +650°C (–328 to +1202°F) depending on type
• Extremely stable over time: >0.1°C/year drift
• Larger voltage output than thermocouples
• Excellent resistance linearity
• Resistance can be determined in the laboratory and will not vary significantly over
time
• Area or point sensing
• Low variation for better interchangeability
• Can use standard instrumentation cable to connect to control equipment
• Established industry accepted resistance curves
Disadvantages
• Higher cost than thermistors or thermocouples
• Self heating of the RTD can affect overall system accuracy
• Larger size than thermistors or thermocouples
• Not as durable as thermocouples in high-vibration and high-shock environments

Sensors and Analytical Devices 28

28
RTD Applications
• RTD sensor is used in automotive to measure the engine temperature, an oil level
sensor, intake air temperature sensors.
• In communication and instrumentation for sensing the over the temperature of
amplifiers, transistor gain stabilizers, etc…
• RTD is used in power electronics, computer, consumer electronics, food handling
and processing, industrial electronics, medical electronics, military, and aerospace.

Sensors and Analytical Devices 29

29
 Some Basic Measurement Methods
EER2.014 - 2. 1. Temperature
2.1.3 Thermistor
Control board Temperature control

Power circuit

Sensors and Analytical Devices 30

Thermistors
OUTLINE
1. Principle of Thermistor
2. Thermistor types
NTC thermistor
PTC thermistor
3. Linearization of a thermistor
4. Advantages and disadvantages
5. Applications

Sensors and Analytical Devices 31

Thermistors
The word “Thermistor” is a combination of the words “Thermal” and “resistor“.
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance changes with the change in
temperature.
• Usually ceramics (metal oxides) or polymers
• Based on temperature dependency of resistance
• High sensitivity (2 – 8 %/°C)

• Non-linear: Glass encapsulated NTC thermistor

(Reference: [Link])
High specific resistance → error caused by the wires is small
Faster and more sensitive than RTD and thermocouples

Sensors and Analytical Devices 32

Thermistors types
There are two types of thermistors
• PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor
• NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) Thermistor

The thermistor temperature PTC (left) and NTC (right) thermistor

characteristic curves electrical symbols.

Sensors and Analytical Devices 33

NTC thermistor
• More accurate than PTC
• Size and material resistivity determines the resistance
• Tolerance for mass produced thermistors is often ±20%
• General specifications provided by manufacturer are often not
accurate enough
• User can calibrate (several calibration points needed)

Sensors and Analytical Devices 34

PTC thermistor
Response might be challenging to model
• The temperature ranges can be modeled separately
Often used as an overload protector (Polymeric Positive Temperature Coefficient,
PPTC, poly-fuse)
• Self heating causes the resistance to increase

Sensors and Analytical Devices 35

Linearization of a thermistor
Voltage dividing: Measuring voltage e0(T) increases as the temperature increases

Not completely linear

Sources: ELEC-E5710 Sensors and Measurement Methods-Alto University

Sensors and Analytical Devices 36
Linearization of a thermistor
Voltage divider with parallel resistance
S-shaped transfer function has a bending point (a local maximum of a derivative)
• By choosing suitable R1 and R2, this point is in the middle of the area
• Better average linearity

Sources: ELEC-E5710 Sensors and Measurement Methods-Alto University

Sensors and Analytical Devices 37
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
• Fast response over narrow temperature range.
• Small
• Contact and lead resistance problem not occurred due to large resistance.
• Good sensitivity in NTC
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Thermistor need of shielding power lines.
• The excitation current required to avoid self heating.
• Limited temperature range.
• Non linear.

Sensors and Analytical Devices 38

Thermistor applications
The thermistor has various other applications.
• It is used for the measurement of high-frequency power.
• The thermistor measures the thermal conductivity.
• The thermistor measures the pressure of the liquid.
• It measures the composition of gases.
• The thermistor measures the vacuum and provides the time delays.

Sensors and Analytical Devices 39

 Some Basic Measurement Methods
EER2.014 - 2. 1. Temperature
2.1.3 Infrared sensor

Sensors and Analytical Devices 40

Infrared sensor
OUTLINE
1. Principle of IR sensor
2. Infrared thermometers
3. Factor effect to IR thermometers accuracy
4. Advantages and disadvantages IR sensor
5. Applications

Introduction to sensors 41
Infrared sensor- Optical thermometer
Infrared sensors use physical properties of infrared rays to measure
temperature.
The infrared sensor includes an optical system, a detection element,
and a conversion circuit.
Optical thermometer: (Pyrometers)
Measure temperature by measure photons emitted by objects.
Enable non-contact temperature measurements
Based on Planck’s law
The first pyrometer (in 1901) – Selective radiation pyrometer (red
filter), only for high temperatures

Introduction to sensors 42
Principle of pyrometer
Infrared light has the properties of reflection, refraction, scattering,
interference, and absorption.

Introduction to sensors 43
Black body

Introduction to sensors 44
Pyrometer - Working principle
It is a non-contact temperature-measuring device.
The objects’ radiation temperature is identified by measuring objects’ radiation
infrared energy. There is a direct correlation between the infrared energy an
object emits and its temperature.
A built-in lens focuses the collected energy, which is then converted into a
temperature reading by detector and measurement circuits.

Sensors and Analytical Devices 45

Factor effect to pyrometer accuracy
• Reflectivity (the measure of a material’s ability to reflect infrared energy)
• Transmissivity (the measure of a material’s ability to transmit or pass
infrared energy)
• Emissivity (the ratio of the energy radiated by an object to the energy
radiated by a perfect radiator of the surface being measured).
An object that has an emissivity of 0.0 is a perfect reflector
An object with an emissivity of 1.0 emits (or absorbs) 100% of the infrared
energy applied to it. (An emissivity of 1.0 is called a “blackbody” and does
not exist in the real world.)

Sensors and Analytical Devices 46

Factor effect to pyrometer accuracy
Several factors can have an impact on both device and system
performance.
• Dust in the atmosphere between the sensor and the target will absorb
or deflect some the radiated energy and cause large variations in
measurements.
• The environmental temperature capabilities of the cable itself must
now be considered.

Sensors and Analytical Devices 47

Advantage and Disadvantages
Advantages
Non-contact measurement of moving objects/ No friction, high sensitivity and
fast response/ Can be used for remote sensing/ Typical temperature range –18
to +538°C (0 to 1000°F)/ Accuracy to ±1%
Disadvantages
Accuracy can be affected by surface finish/ Field of view must be matched to
target size/ Ambient temperature can affect readings/ Wavelength filter must be
matched to the application/ Higher cost ($200+) can be even higher if control
circuitry is required/ Calibration can be difficult and costly/ Additional
components and circuitry required to control application/ Dust, gas, or other
vapors in the environment can effect the accuracy of the system

Sensors and Analytical Devices 48

Applications
• Industrial/Electrical – Monitoring motor/engine cooling systems
performance, boiler operations, steam systems and detection of hot
spots in electrical systems and panels
• Food safety – Checking equipment performance, sanitation and
process temperature conditions, and scanning refrigerated display
cases, trucks, storage areas and cooling systems
• Agriculture – Monitoring plant temperatures for stress and animal
bedding to detect spoiling.

Sensors and Analytical Devices 49

 Some Basic Measurement Methods
EER2.014 - 2. 2. Air Moisture

CAGR: Compound
Annual Growth Rate

[Link]
Sensors and Analytical Devices 50
Humidity sensors
OUTLINE
1. Humidity definitions
2. Described with different quantities
(Absolute and relative humidity, Mass
ratios)
3. Sensor Types and Technologies
4. Humidity comparisons
5. Applications
Hygrometer

Introduction to sensors 51
Humidity definitions
What is humidity? Water vapor in gas or in other substances
• In gas: Humidity
• In other substances: Water content
Humidity is usually measured in terms of:
• Absolute humidity (the ratio of water vapor mass to air/gas volume)
• Dew point (temperature and pressure at which a gas begins to condense into
a liquid)
• Mass ratios
• Relative humidity (the ratio of air moisture content compared to the
saturated moisture level at the same temperature or Pressure)

Introduction to sensors 52
Absolute humidity

Introduction to sensors 53
Relative humidity (RH)

Introduction to sensors 54
Mass ratios

Introduction to sensors 55
Humidity definitions
• Since the early 1960s, chilled mirrors have been used to measure dew
point, but the thin film capacitive sensors now allows measurement of
dew points at temperatures as low as –40°F at far less cost and with
greater accuracy.
• Relative humidity was once determined by measuring the change in
moisture absorption in silk, human hair, and later, nylon and synthetics.
• Mechanical methods for measuring RH were introduced in the 1940s.
• Recently, polymer-based resistive and capacitive sensors

Introduction to sensors 56
Sensor Types and Technologies
Capacitive RH sensor:
• Change in dielectric constant is almost directly proportional to relative humidity in
the environment.
• Typical change in capacitance is 0.2–0.5 pF for 1% RH change.
• Have low temperature coefficient and can function at high temperatures up to 200°C.
• Response time ranges from 30 to 60 seconds for a 63% RH step change.
• Fully recover from condensation and resist chemical vapors.

Introduction to sensors 57
Sensor Types and Technologies
Thermoset polymer-based capacitive RH sensors
• Directly detect changes in relative saturation as a change in sensor capacitance with
fast response, high linearity, low hysteresis, and excellent long-term stability.
Sensor capacitance change  RH change.
• Three layer capacitance construction:
 Water vapor in the active capacitor’s
dielectric layer equilibrates with the
surrounding gas.
 Porous platinum layer shields the
dielectric response from external influences
 Protective polymer overlay provides
mechanical protection for the platinum
layer from contaminants such as dirt, dust
and oils.
 On-chip silicon integrated voltage output
signal conditioning.

Introduction to sensors 58
Sensor Types and Technologies
Resistive humidity sensors:
• Measure impedance change, which has an inverse exponential relationship to
humidity.
• Impedance range of typical resistive elements varies from 1 ΚΩ to 10 ΜΩ.
• Response time ranges from 10 to 30 seconds at a 63% step change.
• Interchangeability, typically within ±2% RH

Introduction to sensors 59
Sensor Types and Technologies
Thermal Conductivity Humidity Sensors (absolute humidity sensors)
• Measure absolute humidity by calculating the difference between the thermal
conductivity of dry air and air containing water vapor.
• Constructed using two negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor elements in
a DC bridge circuit.
• One of the thermistors is sealed in dry nitrogen, other is exposed to environment.
The difference in the resistance between the two thermistors is directly proportional
to absolute humidity.

Introduction to sensors 60
Humidity comparisons

Introduction to sensors 61
Applications
• HVAC Systems
• Printers and Fax Machines
• Weather Stations
• Automobiles
• Food Processing
• Refrigerators, Ovens and Dryers

Introduction to sensors 62
 Some Basic Measurement Methods
EER2.014 - 2. 3. Thermal conductivity

Sensors and Analytical Devices 63

Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity: describes a material’s ability Why is Thermal conductivity
to conduct heat. important?
Denoted as k and has the SI units of W/mK (Watts per
meter Kelvin).
Heat transfer occurs when there is a temperature
difference between two regions; Conduction is
distinct in that the heat “passes through the body of the
substance itself”. L

Within solids, convection is absent, and radiation is

usually negligible, meaning that conduction is
extremely important for describing thermal behavior.
Fourier First Law, Thermal conductivity equation:
𝐐/𝐀
𝐤=
𝐓/𝐋
Thermal conductivity relate to:
• Heat flux
• Temperature difference
Introduction to sensors 64
Thermal characterization techniques

Introduction to sensors 65
Steady-State Heat Flow
This method involves establishing a steady-state heat flux through the material and
measuring the temperature gradient. Using Fourier’s Law of heat conduction.
Cross-plane thermal conductivity measurement (thin films): Temperature drop across a
thin film sample needs to be created and measured to characterize the cross-plane
thermal conductivity. Creating and measuring the temperature drop is extremely
challenging when sample thickness is as small as a few nanometers to tens of microns.

In both measurements, metallic strip serves as both an electrical heater and a

temperature sensor measuring its own temperature rise. 𝑇𝑓,1 on the top side of thin film
is assumed to be the same as heater/sensor average temperature 𝑇ℎ . 𝑇∞ is ambient
temperature. To determine 𝑇𝑓,2 at the bottom of thin film, either a) a sensor is deposited
between thin film and substrate for direct measurement, or b) a sensor is deposited at a
known distance away from the heater. A two-dimensional heat conduction model is
then used to calculate the temperature at the bottom of the thin film.
Introduction to sensors 66
Transient Hot Wire Method
A thin wire with a known value is placed in contact with the material in this technique.
A constant heat flux is applied to the wire, and the temperature rise is measured. By
analyzing the rate of temperature change, thermal conductivity can be determined.
Thermal conductivity is obtained from temperature rise Δ𝑇 versus the time ln(𝑡)
expressed below:

Introduction to sensors 67
Laser Flash Analysis
The laser flash method in thermal analysis involves exposing the front side of the
sample to a brief burst of laser energy, causing the internal temperature to rise and
creating a thermal gradient.
The heat flow at the rear side of the sample is then measured until the sample reaches
thermal stability. At thermal stability, a time-temperature graph is plotted to determine
thermal diffusivity.
Formula to calculate the thermal diffusivity (α) using the half-rise time (t*), which is
the time taken by the temperature to reach half of its maximum value:
α=0.1388 Δx2/t*
Δx = the material thickness. The thermal conductivity (k) is calculated from the
following equation:
k=α.ρ.cp
cp is the specific heat, and ρ is the mass density.

Introduction to sensors 68
Applications
• Designing heat sinks for electronic devices: helps dissipate heat
generated by components, ensuring optimal performance and preventing
overheating.
• Energy recovery systems: to capture and utilize waste heat generated by
industrial processes. By efficiently transferring heat, it enables the
conversion of waste heat into usable energy, reducing energy consumption
and costs.
• Enhancing thermal management in engineering applications: helps
design and optimize cooling systems, ensuring efficient heat dissipation
and preventing equipment failure due to overheating.

Introduction to sensors 69
 Some Basic Measurement Methods
EER2.014 - 2. 4. Measuring Flow
Anemometer
Differential pressure
Vortex – shedding
Positive Displacement Flow
Turbine – Based Flow
Mass Flow
Magnetic Flow
Ultrasonic Flow
Laser Doppler Flow
Applications
Sensors and Analytical Devices 70
Overview
Flow rate is typically obtained by first measuring the velocity of a fluid in a
pipe, duct, or other structure and then multiplying by the known cross-sectional
area at the point of measurement.
Methods for measuring airflow include
Thermal anemometers, differential pressure measurement systems, and vortex
shedding sensors.
Methods used for measuring liquid flow include
Differential pressure measurement systems, vortex shedding sensors, positive
displacement flow sensors, turbine based flow sensors, magnetic flow sensors,
and ultrasonic flow sensors

Introduction to sensors 71
Anemometer
• When an electrically heated wire is
placed in a flowing gas stream, heat is
transferred from the wire to the gas and
hence the temperature of the wire
reduces, and due to this, the
resistance of the wire also changes.
• This change in resistance of the wire
becomes a measure of flow rate.
• Hot wire sensors are available as single
point instruments for test purposes, or
in multi-point arrays for fixed
installation
• The sensors are better at low airflow measurements than differential pressure types,
and are commonly applied to air velocities from 50 to 12,000 feet per minute.

Introduction to sensors 72
Differential Pressure measurement
Differential pressure measurement sensor technologies can be used for both
airflow and liquid flow measurements. For principle of the meter:
• The working principle is that something makes the velocity of the fluid change and
this produces a change in the pressure: p = p2 - p1
• It can be shown that the volume flow rate Q is related to p by:
where K is the meter constant.
Differential pressure flow devices, like most flowmeters, have a primary and
secondary element. The primary element causes a change in the kinetic
energy, to create the differential pressure in the pipe.

Introduction to sensors 73
Types of Differential Pressure Measurement

The Pitot tube

Introduction to sensors 74
Types of Differential Pressure Measurement

Manometer
The concentric orifice

The Venturi tube The flow nozzle

Introduction to sensors 75
Vortex – shedding sensor
These flow sensors use the
principle (Von Karman) that when
a fluid flows around an obstruction
in the flow stream (bluff object),
eddies or vortices are shed
alternately downstream of the
object. The frequency of the vortex
shedding is proportional to the
velocity of the flowing fluid.
Single sensors are used in small ducts, and arrays of sensors are applied to
larger ducts, as with the other types of airflow measuring instruments.
Vortex shedding airflow sensors are commonly used with air velocities in the
range of 350 to 6000 feet per minute. These meters are equally suitable for
flow rate or flow total measurements. Use with slurries or high viscosity
fluids is not recommended.

Introduction to sensors 76
Positive Displacement Flow sensor
• These types have a mechanical element that makes the shaft of the meter
rotate once for an exact known quantity of fluid.
• The quantity of fluid depends on the number of revolutions of the meter shaft
and the flow rate depends upon the speed of rotation. Both the revolutions
and speed may be measured with mechanical or electronic devices such as:
 Rotary piston type.
 Vane type.

Introduction to sensors 77
Turbine – Based Flow sensor
A rotor which is made to spin, then the speed of the rotor is sensed
mechanically or electronically, such as Turbine rotor type.
Turbine Rotor:
• It has an axial rotor which is made to spin by fluid and speed represents
flow rate.
• This may be sensed electrically by coupling the shaft to a small electric
tachometer

Introduction to sensors 78
Mass Flow meter
Mass-related processes such as chemical reactions, heat transfer, etc. require
more accurate flow measurements, and this has led to the development of mass
flow meters.
A number of designs are available such as:
 Coriolis meter
 Thermal mass flow measurement

Introduction to sensors 79
Coriolis meter (Mass Flow Meter)

Principle of Mass Flowmeter based on

Coriolis force phenomenon.
Coriolis meters are true mass meters
that measure mass rate of flow
directly, as opposed to measuring
volume flow. Since mass does not
change, the meter is linear without
having to be adjusted for variations in
liquid properties. No need to
compensate for changing
temperatures and pressure conditions.

Introduction to sensors 80
Thermal mass flow measurement
• If the flow increases, more heat is absorbed by gas. The amount of heat
dissipated from the heat source is proportional to the gas mass flow and
its thermal properties. A mass flow rate may be calculated by
measurement of the heat transfer.
• Thermal mass flow meter does not require a correction for changes in gas
temperature, pressure, viscosity, and density. Measure gas mass flow rate
directly. Suitable for applications where temperature and pressures
fluctuate. No moving part. Able to measure accurately low gas flow rates
or low gas velocities.

Introduction to sensors 81
Magnetic Flow sensor
The sensor design is based on Faraday’s law of magnetic induction, which states that:
"The voltage induced across a conductor as it moves at right angles through a
magnetic field proportional to the velocity of that conductor”. If a conductor is
moving perpendicular to its length through a magnetic field, it will generate an electrical
potential (E) between its two ends:
E = B x Lx V
Where:
B = the strength of the magnetic field (induction)
L = Length of the conductor (distance of electrodes)
V = velocity of the conductor (average flow velocity)
If a conductive fluid flows through a pipe of
diameter (D) through a magnetic field density (B)
generated by the coils, the amount of voltage (E)
developed across electrodes will be proportional to
velocity (V) of liquid.
Because magnetic field density and pipe diameter are fixed values, they can be combined
into a calibration factor (K) and the equation reduces to: E= K x V

Introduction to sensors 82
Ultrasonic Flow sensor
When pressure waves are released into the flowing fluid, their velocity and
amplitude are affected by the fluid velocity. Ultrasonic flowmeters help in
measuring these pressure wave changes.

• Its working depends on measuring the phase

difference.
• The two peizo-crystals (p1 and p2) working both as
transmitter and receiver of signals alternatively, so that
the ultrasonic signals are transmitted between them and
through liquid.
• Switch ‘sw’ is utilized to supply p1 and p2 alternately
from an oscillator simultaneously connecting the
detector to p1 and p2 respectively.
• The detector is designed to measure the transit time
from upstream to downstream and vice versa via phase
shift measurement.

Introduction to sensors 83
Laser Doppler Flow sensor
• LDA sends a monochromatic laser beam toward the target and collects the reflected
radiation. According to the Doppler effect, the change in wavelength of the reflected
radiation is a function of the targeted object’s relative velocity.
• Therefore, velocity of object can be found by measuring the change in wavelength of
reflected laser light. This is done by forming an interference fringe pattern (pattern of
light and dark stripes) by superimposing the original and reflected signals
• Directional sensitivity and
non-intrusiveness of LDA
make it useful for applications
with reversing flow,
chemically reacting or high-
temperature media, and
rotating machinery, where
physical sensors might be
difficult or impossible to use.
This technique require tracer
particles in the flow.

Introduction to sensors 84