Module 5 [09 hours]

THERMODYNAMICS AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

THERMODYNAMICS : Zeroth law of thermodynamics, first law of
thermodynamics, brief discussion on application of 1st law, second law of
thermodynamics and concept of Engine, entropy, change in entropy in
reversible and irreversible processes, third law of thermodynamics.
ELECTROMAGNETISM : Continuity equation for current densities –
Maxwell’s equations in vacuum and non-conducting medium.

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 THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics deals with the concepts of heat and temperature and the inter-conversion
of heat and other forms of energy. The four laws of thermodynamics govern the behaviour of
these quantities and provide a quantitative description. William Thomson, in 1749, coined
the term thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics in physics is a branch that deals
with heat, work and temperature, and their relation
to energy, radiation and physical properties of
matter.
Distinction Between Mechanics and
Thermodynamics
The distinction between mechanics and thermodynamics is
worth noting. In mechanics, we solely concentrate on the
motion of particles or bodies under the action of forces and
torques. On the other hand, thermodynamics is not
concerned with the motion of the system as a whole. It is only
concerned with the internal macroscopic state of the body. 2
Laws of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics laws define the fundamental physical quantities like energy, temperature
and entropy that characterize thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium. These
thermodynamics laws represent how these quantities behave under various circumstances.
There are four laws of thermodynamics and are given below:
❖ Zeroth law of thermodynamics
❖ First law of thermodynamics
❖ Second law of thermodynamics
❖ Third law of thermodynamics
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two
bodies are individually in equilibrium with a
separate third body, then the first two bodies are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
This means that if system A is in thermal equilibrium with
system C and system B is also in equilibrium with system C,
then system A and B are also in thermal equilibrium. 3
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics
Consider two cups A and B, with boiling water. When a
thermometer is placed in cup A, it gets warmed up by
the water until it reads 100 °C.
When it reads 100 °C, we say that the thermometer
is in equilibrium with cup A.
When we move the thermometer to cup B to read the
temperature, it continues to read 100 °C.
The thermometer is also in equilibrium with cup B.
By keeping in mind the zeroth law of
thermodynamics,
we can conclude that cup A and cup B are in
equilibrium with each other.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics enables us

to use thermometers to compare the
temperature of any two objects that we like. 4
 First law of thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy,
states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed
from one form to another.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and
thermodynamic processes are therefore subject to the principle of
conservation of energy. This means that heat energy cannot be created or
destroyed. It can, however, be transferred from one location to another and
converted to and from other forms of energy.
First Law Of Thermodynamics Examples:
Plants convert the radiant energy of sunlight to chemical energy through
photosynthesis. We eat plants and convert the chemical energy into kinetic
energy while we swim, walk, breathe, and scroll through this page.
Switching on light may seem to produce energy, but it is electrical energy that
is converted. 5
Explaining the first law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics relates to heat,
internal energy, and work.
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the
law of conservation of energy, states that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be
changed from one form to another.
According to this law, some heat given to
the system is used to change the internal
energy while the rest is used in doing work
by the system.
It can be represented mathematically as ∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾
Where,
So, we can infer from the above equation
ΔQ is the heat given or lost
ΔU is the change in internal energy that the quantity (ΔQ – W) is independent
W is the work done of the path taken to change the state.
We can also represent the above equation as follows, Further, we can say that internal energy
∆𝑸 − 𝑾 = ∆𝑼 increases when the heat is given to the
system and vice versa. 6
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1. Calculate the change in the system’s internal energy if 3000 J of heat is added to a
system and a work of 2500 J is done.
Solution:
The following sign conventions are followed in the numerical:
Q is positive as heat is added to the system ∆𝑼 = ∆𝑸 − 𝑾
W is positive if work is done on the system
Hence, the change in internal energy is given as: ∆𝑼 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 ∆𝑼 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎
The internal energy of the system is 500 J.
2. What is the change in the internal energy of the system if 2000 J of heat leaves the
system and 2500 J of work is done on the system?
Solution: The change in the internal energy of the system can be identified using the formula:
Q is negative as heat is leaves to the system
W is positive if work is done on the system
∆𝑼 = ∆𝑸 − 𝑾
Substituting the values in the following equation, we get
∆𝑼 = −𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 ∆𝑼 = −𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎

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Internal energy increases by 4500 Joules.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy in an isolated system always
increases. Any isolated system spontaneously evolves towards thermal equilibrium—the
state of maximum entropy of the system.
If a room is not tidied or cleaned, it invariably becomes more messy and disorderly with
time. When the room is cleaned, its entropy decreases, but the effort to clean it has resulted
in increased entropy outside the room exceeding the entropy lost.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics Equation
Mathematically, the second law of thermodynamics is represented as
𝚫𝑺univ >0
Where 𝚫𝑺univ is the change in the entropy of the universe.

Entropy is a measure of the randomness of the system, or it is the measure of energy or

chaos within an isolated system. It can be considered a quantitative index that describes the
quality of energy.
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Concept of Engine, entropy, change in entropy in reversible and irreversible processes
Concept of Engine
A heat engine is a system which converts heat into work by taking
heat from the reservoir (hot body) to carry out some work. There
is a discharge of some heat to the sink (cold body). In this system,
there will also be some waste in the form of heat. There are
different types of heat engines, in which a Carnot engine has the
maximum efficiency.
Types of Heat Engine
There are mainly two types of heat engines – external
combustion engines and internal combustion engines.

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Entropy
Entropy, the measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable
for doing useful work. Because work is obtained from ordered molecular motion, the
amount of entropy is also a measure of the molecular disorder, or randomness, of a system.
The concept of entropy provides deep insight into the direction of spontaneous change for many
everyday phenomena. Its introduction by the German physicist Rudolf Clausius in 1850 is a highlight of
19th-century physics.
Formula 𝑺 = 𝑲𝒃 𝒍𝒏𝜴
Where, S=Entropy
𝑲𝒃 =Boltzmann constant
𝒍𝒏 = 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒎
𝜴 =number of microscopic
configurations

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Change in entropy in reversible and irreversible processes
Entropy change of a closed system during an irreversible process is greater that the integral of δQ/T evaluated
for the process. In the limiting case of a reversible process, they become equal. Note that the entropy
generation 𝑺𝒈𝒆𝒏 is always a positive quantity or zero (reversible process).

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 Third Law of Thermodynamics
Third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant
value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
The entropy of a pure crystalline substance (perfect order) at absolute zero temperature is
zero. This statement holds true if the perfect crystal has only one state with minimum
energy.
Third Law Of Thermodynamics Examples:

1. The molecules within it move freely and have high entropy.

2. If one decreases the temperature below 100 °C, the steam gets converted to water,
where the movement of molecules is restricted, decreasing the entropy of water.
3. When water is further cooled below 0 °C, it gets converted to solid ice. In this state,
the movement of molecules is further restricted and the entropy of the system
reduces more.
4. As the temperature of the ice further reduces, the movement of the molecules in them is
restricted further and the entropy of the substance goes on decreasing.
5. When the ice is cooled to absolute zero, ideally, the entropy should be zero. But in
reality, it is impossible to cool any substance to zero. 16
 Mathematical Explanation of the Third Law
As per statistical mechanics, the entropy of a system can be expressed via the following
equation: S – So = 𝑘B ln𝛀
Where, •S is the entropy of the system.
•S0 is the initial entropy.
•𝑘B denotes the Boltzmann constant.
•𝛀 refers to the total number of microstates that are consistent with the system’s
macroscopic configuration.
Now, for a perfect crystal that has exactly one unique ground state, 𝛀 = 1. Therefore, the equation can
be rewritten as follows:
S – S0 = 𝑘B ln(1) = 0 [because ln(1) = 0]
When the initial entropy of the system is selected as zero, the following value of ‘S’ can be
obtained:
S–0=0⇒S=0
Thus, the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero.

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 ELECTROMAGNETISM
Continuity equation for current densities – Maxwell’s equations in
vacuum and non-conducting medium

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Continuity equation for current densities

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Assignment questions Module 5: THERMODYNAMICS AND
ELECTROMAGNETIS
1. Explain Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
2. Explain first law of thermodynamics.
3. Explain brief discussion on application of 1st law of thermodynamics.
4. State and Explain second law of thermodynamics.
5. Write a note on entropy.
6. Paraphrase change in entropy in reversible and irreversible processes.
7. Describe the third law of thermodynamics.
8. Describe the Continuity equation for current densities.
9. Explain the Maxwell’s equations in vacuum and non-conducting medium.
[Link] all the numerical problems.

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