Chapter 3:

Offshore Shallow Foundations

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Department of Ocean Engineering,
IIT Madras, Chennai
Email: bghorai@[Link]
Contents OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

❖ Shallow foundation types and

applications
❖ Installation analysis
❖ Bearing capacity – Classical approach,
Advanced solutions
❖ Settlement analysis – Classical approach,
Advanced solutions
❖ Practical applications – Assignment /
Mini project

Source: Randolph et al. (2005)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Shallow Foundation

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Shallow Foundation

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Gravity Base Structures

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Gravity Base Structures

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Gravity Base Structures

Deep Skirted Condeep

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Concrete Bucket Foundation for TLPs

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Steel Bucket Foundation for Jackets

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Foundations for Subsea Structures

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Embedment of Shallow Foundations

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Shallow Foundation Design Consideration

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
 Environmental Loads OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Self-weight of Structure
and Foundation (V)

H Loads from Wind,

V Wave and Current on
substructure (H, M)
M = f(H,h) h

= VHM loading on Foundation

Combined VHM
Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Production / Operational Loading

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Cyclic Loading OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Design Considerations OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Installation – rest on surface or embedded by means of skirt

• Ultimate limit state / Stability / Capacity – under general loading including uplift
and cyclic loads, undrained and drained conditions

• Serviceability limit state – Short - / long-term settlements under non-vertical

loads, magnitude and rate, magnitude required to mobilize capacity

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Design Codes OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Factor of Safety (FOS) OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Working stress design (WSD) approach – a single safety factor applied to the
ultimate limiting load

• API RP 2A-WSD (2000) recommends FOS = 2 (bearing failure) and FOS = 1.5
(sliding failure)

• Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) approach – partial safety factors for
soil strength and applied loads

• ISO (2000) recommends reducing the shear strength by γm = 1.25 and increasing
loads by γf = 1.1 (dead load) and 1.35 (live load)

• Probabilistic approach – probability of failure < pre-determined value

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Installation Sequence of GBS OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Construction of GBS requires deep water site and deep tow path – Norwegian
fjords

• Construction begins at dry dock → moved to wet dock after completion of the base
(foundation) and portion of substructure (concrete pillars)

• The structure is then submerged by controlled flooding with seawater and iron ore

• Construction continues in incremental fashion → building and submergence until

the design height

• The topside is constructed in wet dock, then floated out and mounted on top of the
concrete pillars

• Water partially pumped out of the base and pillars to raise the structure above
water line

• The platform is towed to the final site by means of tug boats

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Installation Sequence of GBS OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• At final location, the platform is gradually lowered to the seabed by controlled

flooding in the base

• Suction is needed to reach the target embedment if equipped with deep skirts

• Once design depth is

achieved, the base is
ballasted with concrete /
iron ore for permanent on-
bottom stability

• After ballasting, sub-base

grouting is carried out to
prevent further penetration
of the foundation and to
keep the platform level for
uniform stress distribution

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Installation of GBS OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Super Rigs: Troll Offshore Natural Gas Platform (Full Documentary)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Installation of SBJ OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Flooding legs

Expulsion of Pumping out

free water of water

Touchdown Self-weight + Ballast Penetration Suction-assisted Penetration

Formation of soil heaves during installation

Dr. Bithin Ghorai
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Suction Installation OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Installed Suction Caissons OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Houlsby and Byrne (2005)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Installation Resistance OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

D Forces during Installation of a Suction Bucket

Vent Vent closed, Pumping

Vent open
W d u
t

 e su  i su z

Atip z
 e su  i su 
N c su ,tip +  z
N c su ,tip +  z
Q = W  = As su + Atip ( N c su ,tip +  z )
As = Surface area of outer and inner skirt walls
Atip = Skirt tip bearing area
 = Friction factor (inverse of soil sensitivity)
su = Average undrained shear strength over penetration depth
su = Undrained shear strength at skirt tip level
  = Effective unit weight of soil
z = Instantaneous penetration depth
Dr. Bithin Ghorai,
N c = Skirt tip bearing capacity factor ( = 7.5 for plane strain) Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Under Pressure - Suction OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Suction assistance needed when Q > W’

Q −W 
• Required suction pressure ureq =
Aplug
• Q is the total penetration resistance, W’ is the buoyant weight of the bucket and
Aplug represents internal area of the skirt compartment for suction application

• Soil plug failure happens if required suction pressure can overcome plug bearing
resistance and internal shaft friction

• Allowable suction pressure to prevent plug failure

 −  dAplug
Aplug N c , plug su + As ,i su + W plug
ua =
Aplug
As ,i = Internal surface area
N c , plug = Plug bearing capacity factor
= 9 (deeply embedded circular plates)
Dr. Bithin Ghorai,
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Safety Factor for Plug Failure OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Ratio of allowable suction to prevent failure of the soil plug to suction required to
advance the foundation into the seabed gives the factor of safety against plug
failure

ua
FoS =
ureq

• For plug stability

ureq  ua
 Q − W   N c , plug su Aplug +  i su Ai

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Numerical Example OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Predict the following for Snorre TLP suction

buckets:
(i) penetration depth under bucket self-weight
(ii) maximum installation resistance
(iii) required suction pressure
(iv) factor of safety for plug stability

Given data: Soft NC clays: sum ~ 0, k = 7 kPa/m,

γ ’ = 6 kN/m3

3 buckets / leg, Dbucket = 17 m, d = 12 m, tw = 0.35

m, α = 1.0
W ’ = 40 MN (fully ballasted)

Compare your predictions with the measured

profile in the field.

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Comparison of Installation Resistance

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Active And Passive Earth Pressure

' '
 = 45 +  ='  = 45 −
2 2
(a) Active (b) At Rest (c) Passive

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Active Earth Pressure OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Active earth pressure on a soil mass may occur due to movement of wall away from
the soil mass causing the horizontal earth pressure to reduce when compared to the
horizontal pressure at rest

CD CD
sin  ' = =
AC AO + OC
 v' −  a'
CD =
2
AO = c 'cot  '
 v' +  a'
OC =
2
 v' −  a'
sin  ' = 2
 v' +  a'
c ' cot  ' +
2
 v' +  a'  v' −  a'
c ' cos  '+ sin  ' =
2 2
1 − sin  ' cos  '
 a' =  v' − 2c
1 + sin  ' 1 + sin  '

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Active Earth Pressure Coefficient

′v = vertical effective overburden pressure =  ′z

1 − sin  '  '

= tan 2  45 − 
1 + sin  '  2

cos  '  '

and = tan  45 − 
1 + sin  '  2

 '  '
 a =  z tan 2  45 −  − 2c  tan  45 − 
 2  2
 '
For cohesionless soils, c’=0 and  a' =  v' tan 2  45 − 
 2
The ratio of ′a to ′v is called the coefficient of Rankine’s active earth pressure, Ka,

 a'  '
K a = ' = tan 2  45 − 
v  2

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Passive Earth Pressure OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Passive earth pressure on a soil mass may occur due to the wall moving towards
the soil mass causing horizontal pressure increase when compared to the horizontal
pressure at rest

CD CD
sin  ' = =
AC AO + OC
 'p −  v'
CD =
2
AO = c 'cot  '
 'p +  v'
OC =
2
 'p −  v'
sin  ' = 2
 'p +  v'
c ' cot  '+
2
 'p +  v'  'p −  v'
c ' cos  '+ sin  ' =
2 2
1 + sin  ' cos  '
 'p =  v' + 2c Dr. Bithin Ghorai,
1 − sin  ' 1 − sin  ' Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Passive Earth Pressure Coefficient

′v = vertical effective overburden pressure =  ′z

 '  '
 'p =  v' tan 2  45 +  + 2c ' tan  45 + 
 2  2
 '  '
= ' z tan 2  45 +  + 2c ' tan  45 + 
 2  2
2 '
and  p =  v tan  45 + 
' '
For cohesion less soils, c’=0
 2

The ratio of ′p to ′v is called the coefficient of Rankine’s passive earth pressure,
Kp,

 'p  '
K p = ' = tan 2  45 + 
v  2

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Plasticity Theory
A plausible failure mechanism is to be determined by either speculation, experiment
or limit equilibrium method. Two bounds can be defined:
Lower Bound Theorem
True failure load is large than the load corresponding to an equilibrium system
Upper Bound Theorem
The true failure load is smaller than the load corresponding to a mechanism if that
load is determined using the virtual work principle

Equilibrium System
An equilibrium system, or a statically admissible field of stresses is a
distribution of stresses that satisfies the following conditions

a) it satisfies the conditions of equilibrium in each point of the body

b) it satisfies the boundary conditions for the stresses
c) the yield condition is not exceeded in any point of the body.

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Plasticity Theory OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Mechanism
A mechanism, or a kinematically admissible field of displacement is a distribution
of displacements and deformations that satisfies the following conditions.

• the displacement field is compatible, i.e. no gaps or overlaps are

produced in the body (sliding of one part along another part is allowed)

• it satisfies the boundary conditions for the displacements

• wherever deformations occur the stresses satisfy the yield conditions

Shear stress

Idealized stress-strain
relationship

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras Shear strain
Lower Bound Solution OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Lower Bound Solution OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

 1 − sin     1 − sin    For Clay   = 0,

 3 =  1   − 2su  
 1 + sin     1 + sin      
then tan 2  45 −  = 1
       2
 3 =  1 tan 2  45 −  − 2 su tan  45 − 
 2  2
 3 =  1 − 2su OR  1 =  3 + 2 su
For element 1 under the load  1,1 = q
and for equilibrium  1,1 = qu =  3.1 + 2su
and  3,1 =  1.2 =  3.2 + 2su
and  3,2 = qo
qu =  3.1 + 2su
qu = ( qo + 2su ) + 2su = 4su + qo
qu = 4su (For case where foundation D = 0)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Upper Bound Solution OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

τ = su

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

σ'n σ'n
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Upper Bound Solution OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

For Clay   = 0,
By taking qu = q at equailibrium
  
then tan 2  45 +  = 1
B B  2
( qu B ) − ( su B ) B − ( qo B ) = 0
2 2
qu = 2 su + qo

When qo = 0,
qu = 2 su = 6.28su

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Upper Bound Solution OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

B
θ θ R
qu

τ = su

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Failure Mechanisms OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

General Shear Failure Local Shear Failure Punching Shear Failure

(Dense sand / Stiff clay) (Medium dense sand / (Loose sand / Soft clay)
Medium consistency clay)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Bearing Capacity Theory OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

qu
Terzaghi’s Equation (1943):
q = surcharge
B Assumptions:
Df
• Strip footing (2D problem, L >> B)
III I III • Soil is homogeneous
II II
• General shear failure
Soil failure • Shear above foundation level not
Soil properties: mechanism considered ( q =  D f )
c,  ,  (general shear) • Load is vertical and concentric
• Df < B

Zone I: Elastic wedge (active) qu = cN c + qN q + 0.5 BN

Zone II: Radial shear zone
Zone III: Rankine passive zone
Cohesion
Surcharge
Self-weight

• Nc, Nq, Nγ – Bearing capacity factors

Dr. Bithin Ghorai (as a function of φ)
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Bearing Capacity Factors

  
N q = e tan   tan 2  45 + 
 2
N c = ( N q − 1) cot  
N = ( N q − 1) tan (1.4  )

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Bearing Capacity Theory OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Meyerhof’s (1963) Generalized Equation :

qu = cN c sc d cic + qN q sq d q iq + 0.5 BN  s d i

• sc, sq, sγ – shape factors

• dc, dq, dγ – depth factors

• ic, iq, iγ – inclination factors

B B
sc = 1 + 0.2 ; sq = s = 1 + 0.1K p
L L
D D
d c = 1 + 0.2 f ; d q = d = 1 + 0.1 K p f
B B
2 2
     
ic = iq = 1 −   ; i = 1 − 
 90    
Dr. Bithin Ghorai
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Undrained Bearing Capacity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Tresca Failure Criterion:  max = su [API RP 2GEO]

qu = N c su 0 qu = ( N c su 0 + kB 4 ) FK c +  v0
Uniform Soil with linearly increasing
strength soil strength profile

qu = Ultimate bearing capacity ( = Vu / A')

N c = 5.14 (exact solution for plane strain surface footing on uniform strength soil)
su 0 = Undrained shear strength at foundation level
k = Gradient of undrained shear strength
B' = Effective width of foundation to account for moment loading
 v0 = Effective overburden stress at foundation level
F = Correction factor for soil strength heterogeneity
K c = Modification factor accounting for foundation geometry, embedment depth,
and load orientation
Dr. Bithin Ghorai
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Shape Factor OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

qu = ( N c su + kB 4 ) FK c + p0
Modification factor K c is expressed as: L

K c = 1 + sc + d c − ic
B
sc , d c , and ic are respectively shape, depth and inclination factors
B Rectangular footing
sc = scv (1 − 2ic )
L
scv is a shape factor coefficient =f ( strength heterogeneity  )
Shape Factor Coefficient:
κ = kB/su0 scv
0 0.2
2 0.0
4 -0.05
6 -0.07
8 -0.09
10 -0.10 Dr. Bithin Ghorai
(Salenḉon and Matar, 1982) Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Shape Factor OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• No explicit provision for 3D foundation geometry

or circular footing

• Equal area and area moment of inertia of a

rectangle suggested for calculating equivalent D
dimensions (D ≡ 1.1B)
A = BL =  D 2 4 Circular footing

I xx = B 3 L 12 =  D 4 64

• Exact solutions available (Cox et al., 1961) for

both smooth and rough circular surface footing on
uniform soil
L
• Nc (smooth) = 5.69 and Nc (rough) =6.05

B
• Nc is overestimated if classical shape factor sc is
used Nc = 5.14(1+0.2) = 6.17
Rectangular footing
Dr. Bithin Ghorai
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Depth Factor OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

d c = 0.3e −0.5 kB/ su 0 tan −1 ( d B )

• dc = 0 if installation / scouring effects are

accounted for (no mobilization of shear stress above
the foundation / skirt tip level)

• Use radians in calculation

B B

d d

Embedded solid foundation Embedded skirted foundation

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Bearing Capacity for Lateral Load OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

 H  R
ic = 0.5 1 − 1 −  Inclination Factor
 Asu 0 


• Exact solution available for V-H loading (inclined

load) on a surface strip footing (Green, 1954) B

• For V Vu  0.5 , base shear governs failure in soil

 H u Asu 0 = 1
V
• Sliding resistance ↓ when vertical load ↑
H

B

Footing subjected to
inclined loading

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Strength Heterogeneity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

qu = ( N c su 0 + kB 4 ) FK c +  v0 B
su 0 su (kPa)

• Correction factor F is a function of non-

dimensional strength heterogeneity κ
kB
= 1
• Davis and Booker (1973) proposed a su 0
k
relation between F and κ
z (m )

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Bearing Capacity for Moment Load OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Effective width principle applies (Meyerhof, 1953) V

M
• Combined action of vertical load V and moment M
→ Vertical load with an eccentricity e
B
• Capacity of footing of width B under eccentrically
vertical load = capacity of footing of effective
width, B = B − 2e under the same vertical load V
applied centrally e

• B is the bearing area in contact with the soil if the

footing were to resist tensile loads B

B = B − 2e

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Bearing Capacity for Moment Load OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Classical bearing capacity equation applied to a foundation of effective width

V = N c su B = 5.14 ( B − 2e ) su ……(1)

M =V e ……(2)

( Bsu )
2
• V-M interaction diagram obtained through multiplying Eq. (1) by V
2
 V   V   M 
  − 5.14   + 2 ( 5.14 )  2 =0
 Bsu   Bsu   B su 
1
• V=0→M=0 0.8
Mult
u /B su
• V = 2.57Bsu → M = Mu = 0.64B2su 2
0.6
M/B2su

0.4
M

Vu
0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Vu /Bs
V/Bsu
u

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Effective Area for Eccentric Loads OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

One-way eccentric loading

e

B B

L L = L − 2e

A = LB A = LB = ( L − 2e ) B

Two-way eccentric loading

eL L = L − 2e

eB B = B − 2e
B

L A = LB = ( L − 2e )( B − 2e )
A = LB

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Drained Bearing Capacity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

qu =  v0 N q K q + 0.5 BN K

qu = Ultimate bearing capacity ( = Vu / A )

N q and N = BC factor for surcharge and self-weight
K q and K = Modification factor for foundation, shape, depth snd load inclinarion
B' = Effective width of foundation for moment loading
 v0 = Effective overburden stress

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Drained Bearing Capacity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Bearing capacity factors Modification factors

  tan     tan   m K q = sq d q iq
N q = tan 2  + 0.5 tan −1    e
 4 
 m  K = s d  i
 tan  
N = 1.5 ( N q − 1) tan  
Where
 m  B
sq = 1 + iq sin ( tan −1 ( tan   m ) )
• φ = Internal friction angle of L
soil d

d q = 1 + 2 ( tan   m ) 1 − sin ( tan −1 ( tan   m ) ) 
2
• γm = Material factor on shear
B
strength 5
• A’ = Effective area of   H 
iq = 1 − 0.5  
foundation = B’L   V + Aa  
B
s = 1 − 0.4i
L
d = 1
5
  H 
i = 1 − 0.7  
  V + A a 
Dr. Bithin Ghorai
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Horizontal Bearing Capacity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Horizontal bearing capacity may be critical for stability of shallow foundations

• Undrained horizontal failure of a surface footing governed by sliding at the

mudline H u = Ab su 0

• Undrained horizontal failure of an embedded footing is governed by base

shear + (active and) passive earth pressure D
(+ side wall shear)
d H Passive pressure,
H u = Ab su 0 + K ru su Ap N c su 0

Base shear, su 0

• Ab is the base area, and su0 is the shear strength at base level

• Ap is horizontal projected area (Dd) and ̅su the average shear strength over the
embedded depth

• Kru is the horizontal bearing factor – typical value 4 for two-sided mechanism
(one-sided mechanism if gap forms b/w foundation and soil, Kru = 2)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Horizontal Bearing Capacity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Kru is the horizontal bearing factor – typical value 4 for two-sided mechanism
(one-sided mechanism if gap forms b/w foundation and soil, Kru = 2)

• If a gap forms along the active skirt face, then it is one-sided mechanism.

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Summary: Classical BC Theory OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Classical BC theory developed based on onshore design practices

• Uses modification factors to account for complex conditions encountered

offshore (e.g. 3D geometry, heterogeneous deposit, general loading etc.)

• Adequate for predominantly vertical or horizontal load – conservative limit

states under general loading (VHM) conditions

• Complex load interactions (VHM) not considered – linear superposition of

separate solutions of load inclination and load eccentricity

• Uplift capacity is neglected → usually mobilized by offshore skirted

foundations if proper sealing (passive suction) is maintained

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Advanced Solutions OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Failure Envelope Method / Interaction Diagram

Unsafe Unsafe Unsafe

Safe Safe
Safe

• Interaction of different load components

(V, H, M) is represented by failure envelopes
considering the ultimate limit states

• Any load combination inside the envelope →

Safe

• Any load combination outside the envelope →

Failure

• The shape and size of an envelope = f (foundation geometry, embedment, soil

strength profile, drainage condition, interface roughness)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
3-D Failure Envelopes OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Experimental modelling – Most commonly used in practice

• Analytical studies – Plasticity theory: Upper bound (kinematic mechanism) and Lower
bound (stress field) solutions, Limit analysis

• Numerical analysis – Geotechnical Finite Element / Finite Difference technique (several

analysis to be performed to provide date points for constructing a failure envelope)

Finite element mesh Three-dimensional failure envelope

(Gourvenec and Randolph, 2003) (Taiebat and Carter, 2002)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Failure Envelope Approach in Design

Determine uniaxial limit states for apex points:

Vu (H = M = 0)
Hu (V = M = 0)
Mu (V = H = 0)

Define shape of envelope through closed-form

expression Safe, f < 0
f (V/ Vu, H/ Hu, M/Mu) Failure, f = 0
Impermissible, f > 0

If design load inside the envelope ( f < 0 )

→ Safe design
Or else increase the bearing capacity (area or
embedment ↑ Or design load ↓

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Conceptual Embedment of Skirts OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Skirted foundation → surface footing with full-tension (FT) interface (suction developed
between top cap and soil plug)

• Surface footing placed on reduced seabed at the level of skirt tip

• Neglects additional capacity due to embedment

• For non-uniform soil profile, shear strength to be considered at the skirt tip level

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Design Example OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Uniaxial Limit States - Advanced Solutions
• Surface strip footing, NcV = 5.14 (smooth
and rough)

• Surface circular footing, NcV = 5.91 (smooth)

and NcV = 6.05 (rough)

• Shape factor, scV = NcV,circle / NcV,strip = 1.15

(smooth) and 1.17 (rough) → API suggests
scV = 1.2 → slightly unconservative

• No exact solution for rectangular / square

surface foundation

• UB and FE analysis suggests scV = NcV,(B/L) / • Surface strip / circular footing, NcH = 0
NcV,strip as a quadratic function of the (smooth) and NcH = 1 (rough)
foundation aspect ratio (B/L)
• Failure (sliding) is independent of
2
B B foundation geometry – applied load
scV = 1 + 0.214 − 0.067   mobilizes interface shear strength
L L

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
 Uniaxial Limit States - Advanced Solutions
• Undrained ultimate moment capacity Mult • Mult for full-tension interface is mobilized
for zero-tension interface (effective width under zero vertical load (UB solution –
principle), NcM = 0.64 (strip footing) and 0.61 scoop mechanism)
(circular footing)
• NcM = 0.69 (strip footing) and 0.67 (circular
• Mult mobilized at V = 0.5 Vult footing)

• No analytical solution available for 2

rectangular / square surface foundation B B
scM = 1 + 0.25 − 0.026   (Full Tension Interface)
L L
• FE analysis suggests scM = NcM,(B/L) / NcM,strip
as a quadratic function of the foundation
aspect ratio (B/L)

2
B B
scM = 1 + 0.075 − 0.005   (No-Tension Interface)
L L

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Envelope for No-Tension Interface OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Three-dimensional undrained failure envelope under general loading for a surface

circular foundation on deposit of uniform shear strength

• Closed-form function derived from Finite Element analysis

• Shape of the envelope is independent of foundation geometry (Gourvenec, 2007)

• Normalized loads expressed by their respective ultimate limit states

v = V Vu , h = H H u , m = M M u
N cV ,circle = 6.05, N cH ,circle = 1, N cM ,circle = 0.67
2 2
h m
f =  *  +  *  −1
h  m 
h* , m*  f ( v ) → derived from the shape
of failure envelope in vh and vm space
h* = 4(v − v 2 ) for 0.5  v  1 Failure envelope in V-H-M loading space
(Taiebat and Carter, 2002)
= 1, for 0  v  0.5
m* = 4(v − v 2 )
Dr. Bithin Ghorai
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Envelope for No-Tension Interface OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

H-M failure envelope obtained from

Classical theory and FE analysis

• Failure envelope is quasi-linear in the classical theory as compared to curvilinear

envelope obtained from FE analysis

• Superposition of separate solutions for load inclination and load eccentricity in classical
approach → conservative

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Envelope for Full-Tension Interface OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Tensile capacity provided by skirts

(passive suction) represented as surface (Taiebat and Carter, 2000)
foundation with full-tension interface

• Applicable for shallow skirted

foundations where physical embedment
can be overlooked (disturbance during
installation or scouring)

• 3-D failure envelope for surface

foundation at the level of skirt tip

• Moment capacity Mu mobilized at V = 0 3-D normalized failure envelope

(Mu mobilized at V = 0.5 Vu for the No-
Tension interface)

• Failure envelope is asymmetric due to

coupling of horizontal and rotational
degrees of freedom

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
H-M failure envelope for V = 0
Envelope for Full-Tension Interface OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Closed-form expression for a circular

foundation on uniform strength soil with FT
interface:

 V   M  H  
2 2 3
 H 
f =   +   1 − 0.3  +   −1
V M
 u   u  H u   H
 u

• Choice of failure envelope is appropriate to
in-situ conditions being designed for

• Soil strength heterogeneity κ = kD/su0

influences the shape and size of the
envelope

(Taiebat and Carter, 2000)

3-D normalized failure envelope

H and M in H and M in Dr. Bithin Ghorai

opposite direction same direction Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Effect of Embedment OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• VHM capacity ↑ as embedment ↑

• Failure mechanism is forced deeper

within the soil mass

• For linearly increasing soil strength,

capacity further ↑ as failure takes
place in deeper, stronger soil

• Classical theory uses depth factors

(Skempton, 1951) to modify uniaxial
vertical bearing capacity

Dr. Bithin Ghorai (Randolph and Gourvenec, 2011)

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Envelopes for Embedded Footing OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Pure horizontal / moment load on surface

footing → translation

H
• Pure horizontal / moment load on embedded
footing → translation + rotation
H H

d/B = 0.25

• Coupling of horizontal and moment degrees

of freedom of an embedded foundation →
oblique failure envelope

• Obliqueness increases with embedment ratio

d/B = 1.0

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

(Gourvenec, 2008)
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Failure Modes OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Failure mode under vertical load

Failure mode under horizontal load

Failure under pure moment with full

tension interface

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
 Effect of Internal Skirts OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Failure may develop (Hill-type mechanism) if adequate number of internal skirts are
not provided

• Internal failure causes loss in foundation capacity

• Skirted foundation with optimal internal skirts → Solid embedded foundation

(Mana et al, 2013)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Effect of Interface Roughness OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Interface friction between the skirt wall

and soil influences the failure
mechanism → bearing capacity

• Foundation skirts can range from

smooth to rough

• Undrained interface shear strength

given by αsu (α is the friction /
adhesion factor)
Failure mechanism under vertical load

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

(Gourvenec, 2008)
Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Undrained Uplift Capacity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Uplift capacity mobilized for tensile loads arising from buoyancy / overturning
moment

• Vertical uplift capacity comprises of four components:

• Submerged weight of the foundation (No uncertainty!)

• External and internal friction along skirt walls (Uncertain – soil remolding and
set-up time)

• Weight of the soil plug inside the skirted compartment

• Reverse end bearing resistance (provided passive suction develops

between base plate and soil plug, reduced, ~80% of compression capacity)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Failure Mechanisms in Uplift OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Vented Capacity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Vented Uplift capacity (without passive suction) =

Submerged weight + Outer skirt-soil friction + Inner skirt-soil friction

Vult = W  + Aso o su (t ) + Asi i su (t )

̅su(t) is the average undrained shear strength

(suSS) at time t after installation

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Plug Pullout Capacity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Plug pullout capacity (without passive suction) =

Submerged weight + Outer skirt-soil friction + Soil plug weight

Vult = W  + Aso o su (t ) + W plug

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Reverse End Bearing Capacity OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Reverse end bearing capacity (with passive suction) =

Submerged weight + Outer skirt-soil friction + Reverse end bearing

Vult = W  + Aso o su (t ) + N c su ,tip Ao

Nc = 9 is the reverse end bearing factor

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Numerical Example OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Repeat the same problem with Dbucket =

17 m and d = 3 m

Also, check the failure mode when k ~

1.5 kPa/m

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Serviceability Limit State OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Definitions

• Settlement analysis – short- and long-term displacements

• Classical solutions

• Advanced solutions

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Serviceability Limit State OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Ultimate limit state (bearing capacity) estimates the collapse / failure load, but
serviceability limit state (settlement) determines the foundation displacement
under static / cyclic loads.

• The vertical, horizontal and rotational displacements are within permissible

limits ensuring no damage or loss of function of the structure

• Serviceability considerations:
• How much displacement will occur?
• At what rate displacement will occur?

• Design guidelines are very limited → Basic Soil Mechanics principle to

estimate displacements

• Use of unfactored loads in design

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Shallow Foundation Settlement
• Settlement (vertical displacement) comprises of :
• Immediate settlement ρi
• Primary compression / consolidation ρc
• Secondary compression / creep ρs
• Cyclically induced settlement

• Sands – all compression takes place

immediately

• Clays – calculation in two steps:

• Immediate compression
– based on elastic theory
• Time-dependent compression –
based on consolidation theory

Dr. Bithin Ghorai

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Immediate Settlement OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Calculation based on classical theory – soil considered as semi-infinite, linear,

isotropic, homogeneous, elastic material

• Boussinesq (1885) proposed stress distribution in soils under various surface

loads for an elastic half-space

• Different equations for various shape and distribution of the surface load

• Example: Increase in vertical stress at depth z under a circular footing with

radius a q s
  
3/2

1
 z = qs 1 −    = qs I f
  1+ (a z)  
2

   
Where, qs = surface stress B = 2a
I f = Influence factor z
 z

• Elastic settlement below the center of the footing  r

qs B
w =
E
(1 − 2 ) I f

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

 Immediate Settlement – Classical Approach

• For undrained response (fine-grained soils / clays) – Poisson’s ratio νu = 0.5

• For drained response (coarse-grained soils / sands) - Poisson’s ratio ν’ = 0.2 – 0.3

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Influence Factors OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Immediate Settlement – Advanced Solutions

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Immediate Settlement – Advanced Solutions

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Immediate Settlement – Advanced Solutions

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Stiffness Coefficients – Skirted Foundation

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Stiffness Coefficients – Skirted Foundation

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
Immediate Settlement – Summary
• Should be calculated using unfactored loads

• Use undrained Young’s modulus Eu and Poisson’s ratio νu

• Reliability of predictions limited by general caveats of applying elastic theory

to soil

• Reliability of predictions limited by the selection of equivalent linear stiffness

parameters

• Appropriate stiffness parameters must be selected as they are functions of

confining stress (varies along depth) and applied load level → requires
experience and engineering judgement

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering
 Void Ratio – Settlement Relation OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Initial volume of soil, V = 1 + e

Change in volume ( V ) = Change in void ratio ( e )
V e Vv = e
Volumetric strain,  v = =
V 1 + e0 V
For 1D consolidation,  v =  z
z e Vs = 1
v = =
H 0 1 + e0
e
z = H 0
1 + e0

e( NCL)
Compression index, Cc =
log10 ( v2 /  v1 )
e(UR L)
Recompression index, Cs =
log10 ( v2 /  v1 )

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Consolidation Settlement OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

e
Case 1- NC soil:  v0 +  v =  vc  v URL
Cs
H0   v0 +  v 
c = Cc log10   NCL
1 + e0   
v0  Cc

Case 2- OC soil:  v0 +  v   vc  v0  vf  vc log10  v

H0    +  v 
c = Cs log10  v 0 
1 + e0   
v0  e  v
Cs URL
NCL
Case 3- OC soil :  v0 +  v   vc Cc

H0    vc    v0 +  v  
c = Cs log10   + Cc log10  
1 + e0  
  v0    vc    v0  vc  vf log10  v

Alternatively, c = H 0 mv  v (mv obtained from consolidation test)

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

Settlement for Thick Soil Layers
• Divide the soil into sublayers (typically 2 -6) if H0 > 2 m

• Add the settlements for each sublayer to obtain total consolidation settlement
n
c =  H i
i =1

OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Caveats for 1D Consolidation
• Prediction is accurate only for idealized 1D settlement → no lateral strain

• Lateral strain will occur in most of the real cases because foundations are of
finite size

• Lateral strain leads to additional shear deformation → dilation or contraction →

influences the settlement

• In dense / OC soils, dilation counteracts the trend for reduction in volume

• In very soft, highly contractant soils extra compression occurs → increase in

settlement

• 1D assumptions overpredict consolidation times

• In reality most consolidation in field is governed by 3D flow and 3D strains.

OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Advanced Approach – 3D OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Predict the rate of consolidation (how long it will occur?)

• 1-D consolidation is reasonable for a shallow compressible layer or within a

soil plug confined by foundation skirts

• In field consolidation is governed by 3D flow and 3D strains

• Biot (1935, 1956) first proposed a 3D consolidation theory

• Embedment will
reduce the magnitude
and rate of
consolidation
settlement due to the
soil resistance above
foundation level and
longer drainage paths

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

(Gourvenec and Randolph, 2010 – FE analysis) Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Advanced Approach – 3D OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Advanced Approach – 3D OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Order of magnitude increase in consolidation time for rough skirted

foundation with d/D = 1

Dr. Bithin Ghorai,

Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras
Mandel-Cryer Effect OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

• Coupling between effective stress change and reduction in pore pressure via
volume continuity and the material effective stress – strain response.

• Development of effective stresses as the strain producing component rather

than dissipation of excess pore pressure in 3D consolidation

• Mandel – Cryer stress transfer effect (Mandel 1950, Cryer 1963)

• Soil near free surface drains more rapidly than deeper soil
• Strain (associated with drainage) in the near-surface material squeezes
deeper undrained material
• Increase in total stress over initial increase in total stress due to external
loads
• In early stages of consolidation → increase in excess pore pressure from
initial value
• As drainage progresses, deeper soil drains and total stress reduces
• Early rate of development of effective stress is small
• When rate of effective stress development becomes greater than the rate
of increase in total stress → pore pressure will start to dissipate

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras

3D Consolidation OE5545: Marine Geotechnical Engineering

Dr. Bithin Ghorai, Ocean Engineering Dept., IIT Madras