Lecture Notes: Fluid Mechanics 2

UNIT-A
Module 2: Turbulent Flow
Introduction to Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow is one of the fundamental concepts in fluid mechanics. It represents a complex
and chaotic state of flow characterized by irregular fluctuations in the velocity of the fluid
particles. In contrast to laminar flow, where fluid particles move in parallel layers with minimal
mixing, turbulent flow involves erratic and stochastic motion. This module delves into the
various aspects of turbulent flow, including its fundamental theories, causes, and impact on
flow in pipes.

Reynolds Experiment
The Reynolds experiment, conducted by Osborne Reynolds in 1883, demonstrated the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow. This experiment is pivotal in fluid mechanics, as it
introduced the concept of Reynolds number (Re), a dimensionless quantity used to predict flow
behavior in different fluid conditions.
The experiment was carried out using water flowing through a pipe and observing the flow
pattern at different velocities. Reynolds found that when the velocity of the fluid increased
beyond a certain threshold, the initially smooth, laminar flow began to break down, resulting
in turbulence.
The Reynolds number is given by:
ρvD
𝑅𝑒 =
μ
Where:
 ρ = density of the fluid,
 v = velocity of the fluid,
 D = diameter of the pipe,
 μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
When the Reynolds number is below 2000, flow remains laminar. Between 2000 and 4000, the
flow transitions, and above 4000, the flow becomes fully turbulent.

Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow

The transition between laminar and turbulent flow is not a sudden change but rather a gradual
process. As the flow velocity increases, disturbances grow in size, eventually leading to chaotic
flow patterns. Several factors contribute to this transition, including the fluid's velocity,
viscosity, and the pipe's surface roughness.
The critical Reynolds number, which marks the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, is
typically around 2300 for flow through a smooth pipe. However, in practical applications, this
value can vary based on factors like flow disturbances and pipe surface roughness.

Definition of Turbulence
Turbulence is defined as a state of fluid flow characterized by chaotic fluctuations in velocity
and pressure. Unlike laminar flow, where fluid particles move in smooth, parallel layers,
turbulent flow exhibits irregular and random fluctuations.
In turbulent flow, the velocity of a fluid particle at a given point in space is constantly changing,
which makes the flow highly unpredictable. These fluctuations occur across various scales,
from small eddies to large swirls of fluid.

Scale and Intensity of Turbulence

Turbulent flow exhibits different scales and intensities, which are crucial for understanding the
flow dynamics. The scale of turbulence refers to the size of the eddies or swirling motions that
form in the fluid. These eddies range from small, fine-scale turbulence to large, coarse-scale
motions.
The intensity of turbulence is a measure of energy in the turbulent fluctuations. It is often
quantified using the root-mean-square (RMS) velocity fluctuations. Higher turbulence intensity
indicates more chaotic fluid motion, leading to greater energy dissipation and enhanced mixing
within the fluid.

Causes of Turbulence
Several factors contribute to the onset of turbulence:
 Velocity Gradients: A high velocity gradient, where there is a significant difference in
fluid velocity across different layers, can lead to instability and turbulence.
 Surface Roughness: Rough surfaces within pipes or ducts increase the likelihood of
turbulence as the irregularities in the surface cause disturbances in the fluid flow.
 Instability: As the flow velocity increases, the smooth laminar flow becomes unstable.
Small disturbances can amplify, leading to chaotic motion and turbulence.
 Flow Discontinuities: Sharp bends, sudden changes in pipe diameter, or obstructions
in the flow path can introduce disturbances that trigger turbulent flow.
Instability and Mechanism of Turbulence
Turbulence is governed by instability in the flow. The primary mechanism for the onset of
turbulence is the amplification of small disturbances in the fluid. These disturbances grow and
interact with each other, leading to chaotic and irregular motion. The transition from laminar
to turbulent flow occurs when these disturbances exceed a certain threshold and become self-
sustaining.
The primary types of instability that contribute to turbulence are:
 Rayleigh-Bénard Instability: Occurs due to the instability caused by density
differences within the fluid.
 Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability: Results from velocity differences across fluid layers,
leading to the formation of turbulent vortices.
 Taylor-Couette Instability: Occurs when a fluid is confined between two rotating
cylinders, leading to the formation of turbulent flow.

Effect of Turbulent Flow in Pipes

Turbulent flow has significant implications for flow through pipes. The main effects of
turbulent flow in pipes include:
 Increased Energy Loss: Turbulent flow causes more frictional resistance compared to
laminar flow, leading to higher energy losses in the system.
 Flow Mixing: Turbulent flow promotes mixing of fluid layers, which can be beneficial
for heat transfer and material transport in engineering applications.
 Pipe Wear and Tear: The chaotic motion of turbulent flow can lead to erosion and
wear of the pipe surface over time.

Reynolds Stresses
Reynolds stresses are the additional stresses that arise in turbulent flow due to the fluctuating
velocities of the fluid particles. These stresses are important for understanding the momentum
transfer in turbulent flow. The Reynolds stress tensor is a mathematical representation of these
fluctuating stresses, and it is used to model the behavior of turbulent flow.
The Reynolds stress τij is given by:
𝜏 = −𝜌⟨𝑢𝑖′𝑢𝑗′⟩

Where:
 ui′ and uj′ are the velocity fluctuations in the i and j directions, respectively,
 ρ is the density of the fluid.
Reynolds stresses contribute significantly to the momentum transfer and energy dissipation in
turbulent flow.
Semi-Empirical Theories of Turbulence
Various semi-empirical theories have been developed to model and predict turbulent flow
behavior. These theories are based on experimental observations and provide simplified
methods for calculating turbulent flow parameters.
Prandtl’s Mixing Length Theory
One of the most widely used models is Prandtl's mixing length theory. This theory assumes
that turbulent flow is due to the mixing of fluid layers, and the mixing length represents the
characteristic length scale over which eddies or disturbances are transferred.
The mixing length l is defined as the distance over which momentum is transferred by
turbulent eddies. Prandtl’s equation for turbulent shear stress is given by:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = ρν =ρ⋅l⋅
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Where:
 ν is the kinematic viscosity,

 is the velocity gradient in the y-direction.

This theory helps in understanding and quantifying the shear stresses in turbulent flows.

Universal Velocity Distribution Equation

The universal velocity distribution equation is a key result in the study of turbulent flow. It
describes the relationship between the velocity distribution across a pipe in turbulent flow,
based on the assumption that the velocity profile follows a logarithmic law. The equation is
given by:
𝑢 𝑦
𝑢(𝑦) = 𝑙𝑛
𝜅 𝑦
Where:
 u(y) is the velocity at a distance y from the pipe center,
 uτ is the friction velocity,
 κ is the von Kármán constant (approximately 0.41),
 y0 is the roughness length.
This equation provides an essential tool for estimating the velocity distribution in turbulent
pipe flow.
Resistance to Flow in Smooth and Rough Pipes
The resistance to flow in pipes is significantly affected by whether the pipe is smooth or rough.
In a smooth pipe, the flow may transition from laminar to turbulent based on the Reynolds
number. However, in a rough pipe, turbulence is induced at lower Reynolds numbers due to the
roughness of the pipe surface.
 Smooth Pipes: In smooth pipes, resistance increases with the square of the flow
velocity. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is often used to calculate the friction factor in
such cases.
 Rough Pipes: In rough pipes, the resistance to flow is influenced by the roughness and
increases with the roughness height.
The flow resistance in turbulent flow is typically higher in rough pipes than in smooth pipes,
especially at high Reynolds numbers.

Numerical and Questions

Numerical 1: A fluid flows through a pipe with a diameter of 0.1 m and a flow velocity of 2
m/s. Calculate the Reynolds number for the flow and determine if it is laminar, transitional, or
turbulent.
Numerical 2: Given a pipe with a roughness height of 0.001 m and a Reynolds number of
5000, calculate the friction factor using the Colebrook equation.
Questions:
1. What is the significance of Reynolds number in determining flow types?
2. Explain the causes of turbulence in fluid flow.
3. Discuss the effects of turbulent flow on pipe resistance.
4. Derive the universal velocity distribution equation for turbulent pipe flow.
5. What are Reynolds’ stresses, and why are they important in turbulent flow?