 MODULE 4: CHAPTER IV CHEMISTRY OF MATERIALS

EXTRACTION OF METALS, POWDER METALLURGY, ALLOYS AND

ABRASIVES
 Topic 1: EXTRACTION OF METALS
 Most of the elements are metals.
 Metals occur in nature sometimes freely but mostly in the combined state as oxides, sulphides,
carbonates etc.,
 Metallurgy is the branch of science and technology concerned with the properties of metals and
their production and purification of metal from its ore.
 Metallurgy deals with extraction of a metal in its pure form from its ore.
 The various stages involved in extracting a metal from its ore are
a. Crushing and grinding of ore
b. Concentration of the ore by physical methods
c. Conversion of concentrated ore into its oxide by chemical reactions
d. Conversion of metal oxide into metal by reduction and
e. Purification of metal by a suitable method
 The types of ores that are based on how the ore was formed include igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic,
hydrothermal. Igneous ore forms when lava or magma cools at or near the Earth's surface and includes
the settling or wide dispersal of precious metals such as diamonds, copper, tin, and silver, among others.
 What are some examples of ore?
Ore comes in many different types which are classified based on the way they are formed as well as the
minerals found within them.
Examples of ores mined for the extraction of copper include chalcopyrite, bornite, and chalcocite, while ores
mined for iron include magnetite and pyrite.
 What is the simple definition of ore?
An ore is a rock that contains a valuable element or compound in a high enough concentration to make it
economically worthwhile to mine. These valuable substances are often metals like gold, silver, iron, or copper,
but also include nonmetals such as diamond or graphite.
 This lesson deals with the metallurgy of two important metals namely tungsten
and titanium (Ti) which are mainly used to prepare hard steel varieties.
 Metallurgy of tungsten Ores
The main ores of tungsten are
 Wolframite ((Fe, Mn)WO )
  Scheelite (CaWO )
 Tungstenite (WS )
 Solzite (PbWO )
Cuproscheelite (CuWO )
Extraction of tungsten from Wolframite ore
• The finely powdered ore of tungsten is concentrated by electromagnetic separation.
• The concentrated ore is fused with sodium carbonate in an oxidizing atmosphere of air. Tungsten forms
sodium tungstate.
4 FeWO + 4 Na2 CO3 + 2 Fe2 O3 → 4 Na2 WO4+ 4 CO2
2 MnWO + 2 Na2 CO3 + 2 O2 → 2 MnO + 2 Na 2WO4 + 2 CO
[Link] fused mass is extracted with water. The solution of sodium tungstate is concentrated to get the crystals.
The crystals are filtered out. Sodium tungstate crystals are again dissolved in minimum quantity of water and
acidified with hydrochloric acid. Hydrated tungstic acid is precipitated.
[Link] acid thus obtained is ignited strongly to remove water. The formed WO3 is reduced with hydrogen to
get tungsten.
H 2WO4 → WO3 + H2O

[Link] thus obtained is purified by converting it into vapours of tungsten hexachloride and the vapours
when passed over a heated tungsten wire give pure tungsten.
 Properties
Tungsten is a hard silvery white metal. It is as heavy as gold. It has highest melting point (8377°C). Its wire is
very hard and has high tensile strength. It is resistant to acids.
Uses
[Link] is used for making filaments of electric bulbs.
[Link] is used for making strings for musical instruments.
[Link] is mainly used for preparing special type of steels.
[Link] is used as anti-cathode in X-ray tubes.
[Link] is used for making surgical instruments.
[Link] carbide is used to prepare very hard alloys.
[Link] tungstate is used for making fire-proof fabrics. It is also used as a mordant in dyeing.
8.WO3 is used as yellow pigment.
  Metallurgy of titanium
Ores
The main ores of titanium are
[Link] (TiO2)
[Link] (FeTiO3)
1. Extraction of titanium from rutile ore
2. The finely powdered ore is concentrated by gravity separation method.
Stage I: Purification of TiO2
The concentrated ore is treated with hot concentrated sulphuric acid and then digested with excess of water.
Titanium hydroxide is precipitated.
TiO2 + 2 H2SO4 → Ti (SO4)2 + 2 H2O

The precipitated titanium hydroxide on heating gives pure titanium dioxide.

Stage II
The pure titanium dioxide is converted into titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) vapours by heating it with
carbon in a current of chlorine at 900°C.

Stage III
The vapours of TiCl4 are collected and condensed to get TiCl4 liquid. TiCl4 liquid, which boils at 136°C, is
purified by distillation.
 Stage IV
TiCl4 is then reduced with sodium metal in an argon atmosphere to get titanium.
TiCl4 + 4 Na --------- Ti + 4 Nacl
The metal thus obtained is washed with 3% nitric acid to remove the impurities.
Stage V
Van Arkel Method
Finally, the metal is purified by Van Arkel method. In this method, impure titanium is heated with iodine
vapours to get titanium tetra iodide vapours. These vapours are taken to a different chamber and passed over a
heated tungsten wire at 1400°C. TiI4 decomposes to give pure titanium.

Ti + 2 I2 → TiI4

 Properties
 Titanium is a shining white metal. It has low density and high melting point. It is a good conductor of
heat and electricity. It has better corrosion resistance.
Uses
[Link] is used in aircrafts industry.
[Link] is used in gas turbine engines.
[Link] is used in marine equipments.
[Link] is also used for hardening steel.
5.TiO2 is used as a semi-precious artificial gem.
POWDER METALLURGY
 Generally, metal components are prepared by pouring molten metal in the mould castings.
 Powder metallurgy is a new technique in which moulds are made using compressed metal powders,
even though this method is more expensive (As it involves preparation of metal powder).
 This method has many advantages over the traditional method. Metals and alloy can be made into metal
powders.
 The metal powder is then used for making the materials
 Powder metallurgy is an art of making metal materials of desired shape using metal powder by heat
treatment and compression. By this method, even complicated structures can be moulded easily.
 Eg. Aluminium and bronze powders are used in paints.
 Iron powder is used in welding rods.
 Materials can be made by using
[Link] metal powder
[Link] of metal powders
[Link] of metal and non-metal powders
 The powder metallurgical process consist of the the following two steps.
[Link] production
[Link] fabrication
Powder production
Metal powders with particle size ranging from 1 to 100 microns are produced.
Usually metal powders with particle size 10 to 20 microns are predominant.
The metal powders produced should be pure. They should also have the correct particle size and shape.
Preparation of metal powder
[Link]
Atomisation method is suitable for metals with low melting point like zinc, lead, tin, aluminium etc.
The metal is heated to convert it into a molten metal. The molten metal is then forced through an orifice. A
compressed stream of air is passed over the molten metal. The liquid metal is broken and sprayed into minute
droplets. The droplets are cooled and condensed to get metal powder.

 To avoid oxidation of metal powder, inert gas is used instead of air. Powders of low melting metals like
zinc, lead and tin are produced by this method.
 Advantages:
[Link] metal powder is obtained.
[Link] production cost is high.
[Link] grain size of the powder can be controlled.
[Link] of metal oxide
  Reduction method is suitable for the metals with high melting point like tungsten, iron, copper, nickel
etc.
 Metal powder can be obtained by passing reducing agent like carbon monoxide or hydrogen on heated
metal oxides. The metal thus obtained is then crushed and ground to particle of desired size.
Example:
[Link] copper can be obtained by reducing copper oxide using hydrogen.
Cu2O + H2 → 2 Cu + H2O
[Link] powder is obtained by passing hydrogen over WO2.
WO3 + 3H2 → W + 3H2O
Advantages:
[Link] yield is higher in this method.
[Link] method is highly convenient and economical.
Applications of powder metallurgy
[Link] for making compact, complicated geometrical shaped objects.
[Link] for making metal bearings embedded with graphite powder.
[Link] brush and electrical contact brush composite containing highly conductive copper and graphite with
lubricating property is manufactured by powder metallurgy.
[Link] for making dense ductile sheets of metals like tungsten and molybdenum.
[Link] for making filaments for bulbs (Tungsten filament).
[Link] to prepare magnetic materials.
[Link] hard cutting tools from carbides of tungsten, titanium, tantalum etc, are manufactured.
[Link] for making diamond impregnated cutting tools.
[Link] for making wear resistance cutting tools (Eg: with cobalt and nickel metal powder).
[Link] metallurgy techniques are used in surgical implants and in medicinal field.
ALLOYS
A metal that is normally very soft and malleable, such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another
soft metal, like copper. Although both metals are very soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will be
much harder and stronger. Gold when combined with copper becomes suitable to make jewels.
The melting point of Lead is [Link] melting point of tin is [Link] is an alloy of tin and lead. The
melting point of solder is 1830c. The low melting point of this alloy is made use of in electrical connections.
The mechanical properties will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. Hence alloys
play an important role in engineering materials.
Alloys are homogeneous mixture of two or more metals.
Eg. Brass, Bronze, Stainless steel.
Generally, alloys are prepared by fusing together the different ingredients (metals) in a furnace. The alloys
exhibit different properties when compared with the properties of metals in them.
Purpose of alloying
[Link] increase the hardness of the metal.
[Link] increase the tensile strength of the metal.
[Link] make it corrosion resistant.
[Link] enhance the malleability and ductility.
[Link] get attractive surface and appearance.
[Link] make it abrasion resistant.
[Link] machinability of the metal can be improved.
[Link] point of the metal can be decreased.
[Link] colour and metallic luster can be improved.
Types of alloys
Alloys are classified into two types.
[Link] alloys
[Link]-ferrous alloys
Ferrous Alloys
Alloys which contain containing iron as the main (major) constituent are called as ferrous alloys.

Sl. Name of the Composition Uses

alloy

No.

1 Stainless steel Chromium = 14% 1. Used for making kitchen utensils.

Nickel = 1% Carbon= 1% 2. Used for making surgical

instruments

Iron = 84%
3. Used for making automobile parts
2 Chromium steel Chromium = 0.5-18% 1. Used for making rock cutting machines

Carbon= 0.15 - 1.3% 2. Used for making files

Iron = 80.7 - 99.35% 3. Used for making ball

bearings

4. Used for making connecting rods

3 Vanadium steel Vanadium = 0.5% 1. Used for making gears and bearings

Chromium = 1.1 - 1.5% 2. Used for making axles

Carbon= 0.4 - 0.5% 3. Used for making springs and pistons

Iron = 97.5 - 98%

Non-ferrous alloys
Alloys which do not contain containing iron as the main constituent are called as non-ferrous alloys.

Sl. Name of the Composition Uses

alloy

No.

1 Nichrome Nickel = 60% [Link] in making resistance coils [Link] for making
heating elements in stoves, electric irons, water heater
and toasters
Chromium = 12%

Manganese = 02%

Iron = 26%

2 Dutch metal Copper = 80% 1. Used for making cheap jewelry

Zinc
= 20% 2. Used for making musical
 instruments
3. Used for making battery caps
[Link] for making flexible hoses

3 German silver Copper = 50% [Link] for making coins

Nickel = 30% [Link] for making ornaments
Zinc [Link] for making decorative materials
= 20%

4 Gun metal Copper = 88% [Link] for making bearings

[Link] for making coins
Tin = 10% 3. Used for making hydraulic Fittings

Zinc = 02% 4. Used in foundry works

5 Duralumin Aluminium = 95% 1. Used in building aircrafts

Copper= 04% 2. Used for making automobile parts and locomotive

parts

Magnesium = 0.5%
3. Used for making surgical
instruments
Manganese = 0.5%

4. Used for making cables

ABRASIVES
 We have observed different hard and soft substances used for the cutting, grinding and polishing
surfaces in day-to-day life.
 Abrasives are a hard substance which is used for cutting, grinding and polishing the surface of other
materials.
•Hard silicon carbide discs are used in workshops in shaping machines.
•Emery sheets are used to clean the metal surfaces before painting them.
•Discs are used for sharpening knives and other cutting tools.
•Fine metal powders are used for mosaic polishing.
 Hardness of an abrasive
Hardness is the main property of an abrasive. It is defined as the capacity of an abrasive to grind another
substance. Harder the abrasive, better will be its capacity to grind the surface of other substances.
Moh’s scale
 Hardness of abrasives is measured in a scale called Moh’s scale. In Moh’s scale, the hardness of
Diamond, which is the hardest among all the substances, is taken as 10. The hardness of Talc, which is
the softest substance, is taken as 1. Thus, the hardness of other substances in Moh’s scale lies in between
1 and 10.
 Hardness of abrasive materials
Material Hardness (Moh’s scale)
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Appatite 5
Feldspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond (C) 10
 Hardness of abrasives is measured by piercing a needle through it using some pressure.
 Hardness is measured in terms of the distance pierced by the needle in the abrasive material and
comparing the same with a standard substance of known hardness.
 The other important property of an abrasive is toughness. Abrasive material should be brittle so that it
can function effectively.
 The other important character of an abrasive is its ability to withstand high temperature (Refractoriness).

 Classification of Abrasives
Important natural abrasives
[Link]
•It is a natural, hard, non-siliceous abrasive.
•It is the hardest substance in the world.
•It is an allotrope of carbon.
•It is the purest form of carbon.
•Its hardness in Moh’s scale is 10.
•The impure varieties called Bort and carbanado are used as abrasives.
Uses
•It is used for cutting, grinding and polishing purposes.
•It is mainly used in rock drilling.
[Link]
•It is a natural, hard, non-siliceous abrasive.
•It is fused aluminium oxide (Al2O3).
•It is obtained by fusing the ore of aluminium called Bauxite.
•Its hardness in Moh’s scale is 9. Uses
•It is mainly used in grinding wheels.
•It is specially used for grinding paper pulp.
 [Link]
 •It is a natural, hard, non-siliceous abrasive.
 •It is a mixture of corundum (Al2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4).
 •The presence of magnetite decreases the hardness of corundum.
 •Its hardness in Moh’s scale is 7 to 9.
 Uses
 •It is mainly used for scratching and rubbing surfaces.
 •It is used for making abrasive paper and cloth.
 Types of emery
 Depending on the percentage of alumina, emery is classified into the following three types.

Sl. Type of emery % of alumina uses

No.

1 Grecian emery 85% In grinding wheels

2 Turkish emery 75% Grinding and polishing the glass

3 American emery 60% Used in metal and wood polishing work

 [Link]
•It is a natural, hard, siliceous abrasive.
•It consists of trisilicates of alumina, magnesia and ferrous oxide.
•Its hardness in Moh’s scale is 6.5.
• Uses
•It is used for grinding glass.
•It is used for making abrasive paper and cloth.
Important synthetic abrasives
[Link] carbide (SiC)-carborundum:
It is also known as carborundum. It is a siliceous artificial abrasives. In hardness, it is almost equivalent to
diamond 9.3.
Preparation
Silicon carbide is prepared by fusing a mixture of silica (sand) and carbon (coke) with some salt and saw dust in
an electric arc furnace at 3000°C.

Salt and saw dust is added to infuse air into the product so that it can be broken into pieces easily.
The product obtained is first washed with strong acid followed by strong base to remove basic and acidic
impurities respectively. Finally, it is washed with water.
 Properties
•It is chemically inert.
•It is harder than silicon carbide.•
Its hardness in Moh’s scale is 9.5 to 9.7.
 Uses
•It is used for cutting steel.
•It is used for cutting tungsten carbide.
•It is used for grinding other hard materials.
Followings are the typical applications of abrasive:
Buffing: The buffing is polishing & smoothening a workpiece surface using an abrasives wheel or Buffing
products. Buffing removes roughcasting, pits, and solemn or slight scratches, on any type of metal.
Honing: Honing is an abrasive machining process that provides a sharp surface on a metal (example: Knife) by
scrubbing an abrasive grinding stone or grinding wheel.
Drilling: Drilling is a cutting method that uses a drill bit to cut a circular cross-section hole in solid (metal,
wood) materials.
Grinding: Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting tool. A Grinding
wheel is an abrasive tool with thousands of cutting points on its surface to achieve precise finishes.
Polishing: Polishing is a finishing process for smoothing a workpiece's surface using an abrasive wheel or a
leather strop. Mainly polishing refers to methods that use an abrasive that is glued to the polishing wheel.
Cutting: The cutting tool, as the name implies, is used in machining technology for cutting operations. A cutting
tool is a sharp-edged device to shear off the excess material layer from the workpiece to give it the perfect shape
and finishing.
Sharpening: Sharpening creates a sharp edge on a tool using abrasives of finishing or designed for cutting.
CEMENT, CERAMICS, LUBRICANTS AND ADHESIVES
CEMENT
Cement is a building material. It is applied in the form of a soft paste with sand and water and later its sets into
a hard mass. It is a mixture of calcareous material and argillaceous material. It is a mixture of silicates of
calcium and aluminium.
Portland cement
A paste of cement with water on setting and hardening gave a hard mass whose colour and hardness were
similar to those of stones from Portland in England. Thus, it derived the name Portland cement. Portland cement
is a mixture of silicates of calcium and aluminium.
Major constituents of cement
[Link] silicates(2CaO.SiO2)-28%[C2S]
[Link] silicates(3CaO.SiO2)-46%[C3S]
[Link] aluminates(3CaO.Al2O3)-10%[C3A]
[Link] calcium aluminoferrite(4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3)-9%[C4AF]
[Link] quantities of CaO and MgO-7%
Manufacture of cement by wet process
Raw materials required
[Link] materials – These materials supply lime Examples: Limestone, chalk, marble
[Link] materials – These materials supply silica Example: Clay
[Link] coal (fuel)
[Link]
Process
The cement is manufactured by wet process as follows.
[Link] limestone is crushed and powdered well.
[Link] clay is intimately mixed with water in wash mill.
[Link] powdered limestone and wet clay are mixed and made into a paste in a grinding mill. This paste is known
as slurry. The slurry contains 30 to 40% water.
[Link] slurry is fed into the top of the rotary kiln. The rotary kiln is made of steel plates lined with fire bricks.
[Link] kiln is heated by burning powdered coal which is injected at the lower end by an air blast.
[Link] the upper part of the kiln (drying zone) where the temperature is 400°C, the slurry loses all its water.
[Link] the charge enters the middle portion of the kiln (calcinations zone) where the temperature is about 900
– 1000°C, limestone decomposes to form CaO and CO2.
[Link] the charge enters lower portion of the kiln (burning zone) where the temperature is about 1400°C. Lime
and clay combines to form calcium silicates and aluminates called clinker
[Link] hot clinker is cooled and then grinded with 3 – 4% gypsum in a grinding mill. Gypsum retards the setting
of cement. In the absence of gypsum, cement sets rapidly.
[Link] cement coming out of the grinding mills is stored in concrete storage tanks and then packed in bags.
When water is added to cement, sudden setting of cement occurs (flash set). The hardening of cement by the
addition of water is known as setting of cement.
The setting and hardening of cement are mainly due to hydration and hydrolysis reactions of the different
constituents present in cement.
The dicalcium silicate (Ca2S), tricalcium silicate (Ca3S), tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al) and tetracalcium
aluminoferrite (C4AF) present in cement undergoes hydration.
2 Ca2Si + 4 H2O Ca3Si2.3H2O + Ca(OH)2 +Heat 58.6kJ
2 Ca3Si + 6 H2O Ca3Si2.3H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2+Heat176.3KJ
Ca3Al + 6 H2O Ca3Al.6H2O
Ca4AlF + 7 H2O Ca3Aa.6H2O + CaFH2O
Ceramics find wide application in engineering, medical and domestic usage. Ceramics are increasingly used in
motor parts
(e.g. ceramic disc brakes, ceramic balls, etc.).
Ceramic engine does not require cooling system. They withstand heat up to 3300°C. One of the main
applications of ceramics is white pottery.
Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic non-metallic materials that are processed at high temperature and subsequent cooling.
Examples: Ceramic wash basin, ceramic tiles, etc.
White pottery
They are ceramic materials of china clay which is in white colour after firing is called white wares. They consist
of a refractory body and glossy coating.
The raw materials used for manufacture of white pottery are given below.
1. China clay(kaolin)[Al(OH)4 SiO5]
2. Feldspar [KAlSiO2]
3. Flint (SiO2)/quartz.
Manufacture of white pottery
Step l Preparation of body ware
The raw materials are made into fine powder and mixed with water to form a paste.
The excess of water is removed by filtration.
The materials is prepared from the paste either by hand moulding or by using potter’s wheel.
It is dried and then fired in a ‘biscuit’ oven to get porous ware called ‘Bisque’.
Step-II Glaze
In order to make the porous ware (Bisque) into water-tight material , it is covered with glaze by melting it over
the surface of the body.
Slurry f glaze is prepared by mixing Feldspar, silica and boric oxide with water. Now the fired articles are
dipped in the slurry of glaze and again fired. Now a smooth, glossy and non-porous surface is formed on the
articles.
Step-III Decoration
To decorate the material, design are made on the material using pigments and fired again.
Iron oxide pigments red colour. Cobalt oxides give blue colour.
Uses of White ware
They are used for the preparation o
[Link] plugs
[Link] insulators
[Link] equipments
[Link], dishes, insulators sanitary wares etc.
 Glazing
Glazing is the process of giving a smooth, glossy, non-porous surface on the articles using glazes.
A glaze is a fine powder consisting of glass forming materials like lead silicates, borosilicates and others.
They are colourless glazing and colour glazing mixtures. Colourless glazing is done with glass forming
materials like lead silicate and borosilicate.
Colour glazing is done by mixing coloured metal pigments with glass forming materials.
Ex. Iron oxide for red and brown
Copper oxide for green
Cobalt oxide for blue

Purpose of glazing
[Link] get decorative effect.
[Link] make the surface impervious (non-porous) to liquids and water..
[Link] improve appearance of the article.
[Link] increase the durability of ceramic material.
[Link] get a smooth glossy appearance.
[Link] protect the surface from atmospheric action.
Methods of glazing
There are two methods of glazing
[Link] glazing
[Link] glazing
[Link] glazing
In salt glazing, common salt (sodium chloride) is used for getting glossy films over articles. The process
consists of throwing sodium chloride into furnace, when the article is in red-hot condition. At high temperature,
sodium chloride vapours reacts with silica in the article to form a smooth glossy and impervious film of ‘sodium
silicate’. This is known as salt glazing.
[Link] Glazing.
Slurry of glaze is prepared by mixing Feldspar, silica and boric oxide with water. Now the articles are dipped
into the slurry of glaze and then fired. Now a smooth, glossy and non-porous surface is formed on the articles.
This is known as Liquid Glazing.
 Glazing method (you tube)
 LUBRICANTS
Whenever a machine works, its moving, sliding or rolling parts rub against each other with the result of that a
friction is developed. This friction causes a lot of wear and tear of the concerned surfaces. Further due to
friction, large amount of energy is dissipated in the form of heat and thus causes loss in the efficiency of a
machine. Moreover, the heat produced due to friction causes damage to the moving parts.
The above ill effects can be minimized by applying a thin layer of certain substances known as lubricant in
between the moving parts.
The process of applying the lubricant in between the two moving or sliding surfaces is called as lubrication.
 Lubricant
Lubricant may be defined as the substance which reduces the friction between the two moving surfaces or parts
of a machine.
Characteristics of a lubricant
[Link] should have enough viscosity and oiliness.
[Link] should have flash and fire points higher than the operating temperature of the machine.
[Link] should be chemically inert.
[Link] should not come out of the surface under pressure.
[Link] should not evaporate easily.
[Link] should stick on the surface.
[Link] should leave low carbon residue.
[Link] should not form emulsion with water.
[Link] should have cloud and pour points lower than the operating temperature of the machine.
[Link] volatility of the lubricating oil should be low.
[Link] should possess a higher resistance towards oxidation and corrosion.
 Classification of lubricants
[Link] lubricants
[Link]-solid lubricants
[Link] lubricants
Solid lubricants
The most widely used solid lubricants are graphite and molybdenum sulphide. Solid lubricants are used in the
following areas.
(a)For heavy machinery working as a crude job at very high loads.
(b)When the operating temperature or load is very high.
(c)Where a liquid or semi-solid lubricant film cannot be maintained.
 [Link]
Graphite is an allotrope of carbon. Graphite has a layered structure of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are
joined together by strong covalent bonds. The adjacent layers are held together by the weak Vanderwall’s force.
Thus, they form a network of hexagons. Graphite is soapy to touch, noninflammable and not oxidized in air
below 375°[Link] is used as a lubricant in the form of powder or as suspension in oil or water. It fills the cavities
and prevents the friction.
It is used for lubricating the joints or railways [Link] can be used as a dry powder or as a colloidal
dispersion.
A dispersion of graphite in water is called aqua dag and that in oil is called oil dag.
Uses
 It is used as a lubricant in IC engines, air compressors, lathes, foodstuff industry, railway track joints,
general machine job works, etc.
 Semi-solid lubricant
Example: Grease and Vaseline
Grease
It is a mixture of mineral oil and soap. It is used for heavy load and low speed machines. It is mainly used in
bearing and gears.
Grease is a semisolid lubricant obtained by thickening of lubricating oil by the addition of a metallic soap. The
thickener is usually sodium, calcium, and lithium or aluminium soap.
Greases are manufactured by saponification of fats with alkali followed by adding hot lubricant oil under severe
agitation. Their properties depend on both the base used for saponification and the fatty acid present in the oil.
 Liquid lubricants
Vegetable oils
They are commonly used liquid lubricants. Examples: Castor oil, coconut oil, etc.
They are classified as drying and semi-drying oils. They are easily oxidized by atmosphere.
Vegetable oils are extracted from various types of seeds, fruits, nuts, and grains. The most consumed oils are
olive, sunflower, palm, canola, coconut, safflower, corn, peanut, cottonseed, palm-kernel, and soybean. In
general, vegetable oils are used to cook food and also as crude oil to add flavor.
Animal oils
They are oils of animal origin. They are mainly animal fats. Examples: Tallow oil, whale oil.
They are very costly. Hence, they find little use as lubricants. They are also easily oxidized by atmosphere.
Mineral oil
Hydrocarbons with higher molecular mass obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum are used as
lubricants. They are obtained from the paraffin residue.
Examples: Paraffin oil, lubricating oil, etc.
Blended oils
They are mixture of vegetable oils and petroleum products. They show improved properties. Different oils are
suitably mixed depending on the requirement. They are synthetic lubricants.
 An adhesive is a substance that binds two surfaces together, usually permanently, and resists separation.
Adhesives are also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste.
 Adhesives are made from a variety of materials, including gelatin, epoxy, resin, and polyethylene. They
can be composed of natural or synthetic polymers, oligomers, fillers, and additives
 Requirements of a good adhesive
 [Link] should have high tackiness.
 [Link] should form a strong bond.
 [Link] should have low viscosity.
 [Link] bonding should be rapid.
 [Link] should be highly durable.
  [Link] should have negligible creep under stress.
 [Link] should be water repellant.
 [Link] should be resistant to insects and fungi.
Classification of adhesives
 Adhesives are classified into two types.
 a. Natural adhesives
 [Link] adhesives
 .Natural adhesive
Starch
Starch adhesives are obtained by heating a starch suspension in water at 150oC.
The characteristics of starch adhesives are,
[Link] are very cheap.
[Link] spread quickly and dry quickly.
[Link] do not give any foul smell.
[Link] can be applied in cold as well as hot conditions.
[Link] have low resistance to moisture and low adhesive strength.
Uses
They are used in making envelopes, stamps, note books, binding books, etc.
Shellac
Shellac is one the oldest adhesive. It has to be applied in hot condition. The bond developed has good
strength, good hardness and low thermal conductivity.
Uses
It is used for making belts, conveyer belts, etc.
Asphalt
It is the residue obtained during the fractional distillation of petroleum. Uses
[Link] is used for water-proofing of roofs.
[Link] is used for road making.
Synthetic adhesives
Thermoplastic synthetic resins
Thermoplastic synthetic resins form soluble, fusible and poor water resistance adhesives. They get
softened on heating.
 Examples: Cellulose nitrate, PVC, etc.
1. Cellulose nitrate
Cellulose nitrate is used as a raw material for solvent adhesives. Cellulose nitrate mixed with alcohol is
well known as ‘colloidon’. The adhesive film developed by cellulose nitrate is tough. But, the adhesive film is
inflammable and affected by strong acids and strong alkalies.
Uses
It is used in cloth and foot-wear industry.
The principal uses of cellulose nitrate is for the production of lacquers and coatings, explosives, and
celluloid. In terms of lacquers and coatings, nitrocellulose dissolves readily in organic solvents, which upon
evaporation leave a colorless, transparent, flexible film.
 The major products include smokeless gun powder, waterproof fuses in pyrotechnics, inks, adhesives,
varnishes, resins, lacquer coatings, embedding sections in microscopy, photography, and plastics.
2)PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)
PVC forms hard adhesive films, resistant to atmospheric conditions and chemicals.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC or Vinyl) is a high-strength thermoplastic material. It is widely used in applications
such as pipes, medical devices, and wire & cable insulation...the list is endless. It is the world's third-most
widely produced synthetic plastic polymer.
Uses
[Link] is used for bonding metals, glass, etc.
[Link] is used in sealing of food materials etc.
  Thermosetting synthetic resins
 Thermosetting synthetic resins have good adhesive properties by forming a network of three
dimensional cross-linked structures. The bonding obtained is moisture resistant, heat resistant and fungi
proof.
 Examples: Phenol-formaldehyde resins, urea-formaldehyde resins, etc.
 1)Phenol-formaldehyde resin
 This is pressure sensitive type of adhesive. The adherend surfaces after being coated with this adhesive
are subjected to curing by heat and pressure. It is available as solid or liquid form. The bonded film
obtained is hard, highly resistant to the action of water, fungi, insects, etc.
 Uses
 [Link] is used for making water-proof plywoods, laminates, etc.
 [Link] is used for bonding articles in aircraft and ship building.
 [Link] is used for bonding wood and metal.
 [Link] is used for bonding plywood and wooden surfaces.
 2)Urea-formaldehyde resin
 It is a transparent, syrupy compound used in the form of aqueous solution or spray dried powders. The
addition of water to this resin helps in forming continuous film with cross linkages and rapid setting
properties. The bonded film obtained is resistant to temperature, moisture, etc. It deteriorates by the
action of acids and alkalies.
 Uses (Refer-phenol formaldehyde-uses are same)
 [Link] is used for bonding plywood and wooden surfaces.
 [Link] is used for bonding articles in aircraft and ship building.
 [Link] is used for making water-proof plywoods, laminates, etc.
 [Link] is used for bonding wood and metal
POLYMERS
PLASTICS
The name plastics or plastic materials in general is given to organic materials of high molecular mass, which
can be moulded into any desired form when subjected to heat and pressure in presence of catalysts.
Polymer resin is the basic binding material, which forms the major part of plastics. In the recent years, plastics
have attained greater importance in every walk of life due to their unique properties.
Now, plastics substitute all engineering materials like wood, metal, glass, etc. because of their special
advantages over other conventional materials.
Plastics
Plastics are organic polymer materials of high molecular mass, which can be moulded into different shapes by
using heat and pressure.
Polymerization
Polymerization is the process of converting small, low molecular weight organic molecules into long, high
molecular weight organic molecules either by addition reaction or by condensation reaction. The small
molecules are called monomers and the products are called polymers.
There are two types of polymerization.
[Link] polymerization
[Link] polymerization
[Link] polymerization
In this type of polymerization, polymers are formed by simple addition reaction between small molecules
containing double or triple bonds.
Example: Formation of polyethylene or polythene.

Polyethylene, also known as polythene, is a thermoplastic polymer that is the most commonly used plastic in
the world:
Properties
Polyethylene is lightweight, inexpensive, impact-resistant, durable, waterproof, and chemically stable. It is also
an electrical insulator and functions as an effective microbial barrier
How is Polyethylene Made?
Polyethylene is made via the polymerization process. Hydrocarbon fuels are distilled into lighter groups called
monomers, which are then brought into contact with a catalyst to start the polymerization process. Coordination
polymerization, which involves metal chlorides and oxides, is most common, but polyethylene can also be
produced using the radical polymerization process.
Polyethylene is available in many types, grades, and formulations with different properties. The most common
types of polyethylene can be broken up into branched versions, linear versions, and cross-linked polyethylenes.
Popular branched versions include low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and linear low-density polyethylene
(LLDPE), while popular linear versions include high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and ultra-high-molecular-
weight polyethylene (UHMWPE).
LDPE
This semi-rigid, flexible thermoplastic has good weatherability, high-impact strength, and excellent electrical
insulating properties. LDPE’s unique flow properties make it ideal for making shopping bags and plastic films.
Even though low-density polyethylene is highly ductile, it has a very low tensile strength, as evidenced by its
stretchiness. Like HDPE, this material has poor heat-resistance — in fact, it’s highly flammable — which limits
its usage in high-temperature applications.
LLDPE
This type of polyethylene is flexible with good stress, crack, impact, and chemical resistance. It also has a high
impact strength. LLDPE is structurally similar to LDPE and can even replace it in some applications, but
LLDPE has a few key advantages. LLDPE’s properties can be altered by adjusting the polymer formula, and it’s
less labor-intensive to produce than LDPE. This polyethylene is primarily used to make different kinds of film.
HDPE
In contrast to LDPE and LLDPE, high-density polyethylene has a linear structure and little to no branching. It’s
flexible but still rigid, weather-resistant, and holds up in the presence of low temperatures. HDPE has good UV
resistance and is sometimes used in outdoor furniture. It also has a higher tensile strength than other forms of
polyethylene. HDPE is frequently used in plastic milk cartons, garbage bins, cutting boards, and even laundry
detergent bottles. However, it’s prone to stress cracking and has poor heat-resistance.
UHMWPE
This is an extremely dense type of polyethylene — even denser than HDPE. This material can be spun into
threads stronger than steel, and it’s frequently used to create bulletproof vests and other high-performance
equipment. It has excellent mechanical properties and is mostly inert, making it suitable for use in the most
corrosive environments.
XLPE
High-density cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) is a cross-linked polyethylene designed specifically for critical
applications like chemical storage pipework systems and insulation for high-voltage electrical cables. It’s
hydrolysis-resistant and potable water-approved with excellent abrasion resistance and electrical properties.
The eight most common types of synthetic organic polymers, which are commonly found in households are:
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polystyrene (PS)
Nylon,
Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene)
Thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU)
[Link] polymerization
In this type of polymerization, polymers are formed by the reaction between small molecules with elimination
of molecules like H2O, H2S, NH3, etc.
Formation of Bakelite

(Phenol-formaldehyde resin)
Bakelite is formed by the condensation reaction between phenol and formaldehyde. This polymer is known as
novolac. Water is eliminated as by product.
Types of plastics
Plastics are classified into two types.
[Link]
[Link] plastics
1. Thermoplastics
They are the resins which soften on heating and set on cooling. Thus, they can be remoulded any number of
times and used.
Example: Polythene, PVC, nylon, etc.
[Link] plastics
They are the resins which set on heating and cannot be resoftened. Hence, their scrap cannot be reused.
Example: Bakelite (Phenol-formaldehyde resin), urea-formaldehyde resin, etc.
 Bakelite is a thermosetting plastic that was the first synthetic plastic to be used commercially. It's made
from a condensation reaction of phenol and formaldehyde, and is known for its resistance to heat,
electricity, and chemicals

Sl. Property Thermoplastics Thermosetting

plastics

No.

1 Action of heat They soften on They set on

heating and set on heating and cannot
cooling every time be resoftened

2 Type of bonding The polymer The polymer

between adjacent chains are held chains are linked
polymer chains together by weak by strong chemical
force called bonds
Vander Waal’s
force of
(covalent bonds)

attraction

3 Solubility They are They are

soluble in insoluble
organic solvents in organic
solvents

4
Expansion due to They expand very Their expansion is
heating much on heating only marginally on
heating

5 Type of They are formed They are

by formed by
polymerization
condensation
polymerization
addition
 polymerization

6 Type of moulding
They are They are
processed by processed by
injection moulding compression
moulding

7 Scrap recovery Scrap can be Scrap cannot be

reused reused

Thermosetting Thermoplastic

The resin is in a polymeric structure,

The monomers will exist in fibrous form and will not with individual monomer chains that are
bond before heating with high temperatures. not chemically bonded.
Molecular Form:
The monomers will form a strong bond that cannot As a result, the process of reusing and
be broken after heating. altering the shape with the use of heat is
relatively straightforward.

10,000 - 1,000,000 would be the average

Number of molecules The number of molecules in a thermosetting resin
number of molecules present in
in ingredients: will be at least over 10,000
thermoplastic

High: thermosetting will not be able to return to its

original state after molding. Low: thermoplastic needs to go through
Heat resistance: a liquefaction process before use, so
Therefore, plastic will affect product quality if its heat resistance is almost non-existent.
heat resistance is too low

This plastic line is exceptionally effective against

heat and oxidation. Meanwhile, thermoplastic will need to
Durability: incorporate some additives and modern
Therefore, it is often used for products heavily technology to increase durability.
exposed to outdoor conditions and harsh climates.

Physical properties are softness and

flexibility. Because of this, flexibility
Mechanical properties: Physical properties are hard and quite brittle.
will also be higher than thermosetting
plastics.

Thermosetting plastics cannot be recycled or Thermoplastics are easily molded or

Casting ability: reheated because their chemical properties are recycled. Therefore, the ability to reuse
changed after the manufacturing process. is better.
Mechanical properties of plastics
[Link] or cold flow
Creep is a time dependent continuous deformation of plastics under load. Plastics undergo a change in shape
when a load is applied continuously. Creep is due to the displacement of molecules in a polymer structure.
because of this property, plastics cannot be used as load bearing materials
.[Link] to weight ratio
The stress to strain ratio of a plastic is higher than that of the lightest metals namely Al or Mg. Plastics have
good strength when compared to the light weight metals like aluminium, magnesium, etc. Hence, they replace
metals like aluminium and magnesium in many fields. Therefore plastics are mainly used for rocket and space
ship constructions.
[Link] stability
Plastics either degrade or soften at high temperatures. Hence, they cannot be used at high temperatures.
[Link] temperature
Softening temperature refers to the particular temperature at which a plastic changes from elastic stage to fluid
stage. Temperature below which a polymer is hard and above which it is soft is known as ‘Glass transition
temperature (Tg).
 [Link] properties
Some of the plastics are transparent like glass. Hence, they can be substituted for glass in optical instruments.
[Link] properties
Plastics are good insulators as they are poor conductors of electricity. So, they are mainly used for electrical
insulation purposes.
[Link]
Hardness is defined as the resistance of the plastics to penetration, scratching etc. Hardness of plastics can be
determined by penetration tests. Thermosetting plastics are hard in nature when compared to thermoplastics.
[Link] strength
When subjected to suddenly applied load or stress, plastics undergo rupture at a particular load or stress. Impact
strength of plastics is measured by tests in which a pendulum is allowed to attack the specimen. Plastics have
better impact strength when compared to glass. Hence, they are replacing glasses in many places.
[Link] resistance
The resistance to tearing is an important property when plastic films are used as packing material. It is measured
by using a falling pendulum with a striking edge.
Advantages of plastics over other traditional materials (Like wood, metals, glass, etc.)
[Link] are available in attractive colours.
[Link] do not undergo corrosion.
[Link] are not affected by insects.
[Link] are light in weight.
[Link] are cheap.
[Link] can be moulded into any shape easily.
[Link] are chemically inert.
[Link] have good abrasion resistance.
[Link] are good insulators of heat and electricity.
Reinforced plastics or filled plastics
The plastics polymers compounded with fillers are called as reinforced or filled plastics. Physical and
mechanical properties of plastics are improved by compounding them with suitable materials. These materials
are called fillers and main types of fillers used are silicate materials. Such types of plastics which are reinforced
with fillers are called ‘Reinforced plastics or filled plastics’.
Most commonly used fillers are
Wood flour, saw dust, ground cork, asbestos, marble flour, china clay, paper pulp, corn husk, mica, pumice
powder, carbon, cotton fibres, boron fibres, graphite, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, alumina, glass fibres,
metallic oxides like ZnO, PbO, etc. and metallic powders like Al, Cu, Pb, etc.
Advantages of filled plastics
Fillers modify properties of basic polymer. They improve thermal stability, mechanical strength, hardness,
desired finish and water resistance. Specific fillers are added to give special characters.
[Link] have improved hardness.
[Link] are resistant to heat and corrosion.
[Link] are impervious to X-rays.
[Link] are water resistant.
[Link] have high opacity.
[Link] have high mechanical and tensile strength.
[Link] production cost is low.
Applications of filled plastics
[Link] of china clay increases the electrical insulation property of PVC.
[Link] textiles, for making shutters, filled polymer is used with nylon as polymer.
[Link] electrical and electronic industries, filled polymers are used for making exhaust fans, computer tapes,
insulators, wire and cable insulation, switch gear parts, etc.(using polypropylene, PET, nylon and SAN as base
polymers).
[Link] consumer goods like doors, windows, hinges, chairs, camera housing, etc. (polypropylene, ABS are used as
base polymers).
[Link] defense, for making nose cones, pistol grips and ripple bullets, filled polymers like polystyrene, nylon, etc.
are used.
[Link] are used in automobiles for making door handles and engine cooling fans.
Biomaterials (Polymers in medicine and surgery)
Biomaterials are the materials that can be implanted in the body to provide special prosthetic functions and used
in diagnostic, surgical and therapeutic applications without causing adverse effect on blood and other tissues.
Use of polymers as biomaterials is increasing day-by-day, since, many polymers have diverse properties which
are more similar to the certain organs of the body. Their appeal and acceptability is mainly due to their
versatility and the fact that they are tailor- made or modified at will, suits specific body functions.
Polymers used for medical application should be biocompatible. It should possess the following characteristics.
[Link] should have purity and reproducibility.
[Link] should have optimum physical and chemical properties.
[Link] should be fabricated into any desired shape without being degraded.
[Link] should be sterilized easily.
[Link] that come in contact with blood and tissues should not damage cellular elements of blood,
enzymes and proteins.
[Link] should not produce toxic and allergic reactions.
[Link] should not deplete electrolytes present in the body.
Biomedical uses of polymers
The mostly used polymers in medical applications are silicone rubber and polyurethane. Polymers used in
specific medical applications in medicine are given below.

Sl. No. Polymer Applications

1 Polyurethane Heart valves, blood filters, artificial hearts,

vascular tubes, etc.

2 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Disposable syringes, etc.

3 Polypropylene Heart valves, blood filters, etc.

4 Polyethylene Disposable syringes, etc.

RUBBER
Rubber is a natural elastic polymer of isoprene (C5H8). It is obtained from the milk of rubber called ‘Latex’.
Preparation of natural rubber from Latex
[Link] is the rubber milk containing about 30% to 45% rubber.
[Link] rubber milk is diluted with water and allowed to stand for some time.
[Link] clear liquid from the top is treated with acetic acid or formic acid to coagulate the rubber.
[Link] coagulated rubber is thoroughly washed with water and then passed through rollers to get sheets of
rubber.
[Link] sheets are finally dried either in air or in smoke. This rubber is called ‘smoked rubber’.
[Link] the coagulation of rubber milk with acetic or formic acid, retardants like sodium bisulphite (NaHSO 3)
are added to prevent oxidation of rubber.
This is called ‘Creep rubber’. Thus natural rubber is obtained from latex.
Defects of natural rubber
The natural rubber obtained from latex cannot be used in industries because it has the following defects.
[Link] becomes soft and sticky during summer.
[Link] becomes hard and brittle during winter.
[Link] swells up in oils.
[Link] flows plastically due to prolonged stress.
[Link] easily affect natural rubber.
Compounding of rubber
Natural rubber is compounded with certain substances to increase the quality of rubber.
[Link] agents or hardeners
They are compounded with natural rubber to give strength to the rubber.
Example: Carbon powder, zinc oxide, calcium carbonate etc.
[Link]
They are added to make the rubber more soft and elastic. Example: Vegetable oils, stearic acid, paraffin oil, etc.
[Link]-oxidants
They are added to prevent destruction of rubber due to aerial oxidation. Example: β-naphthol, phenol.
4. Vulcanization is process of heating the natural rubber with sulphur at 140°C in CO2 atmosphere. By
vulcanization, the hardness of rubber is improved.
Example: sulphur.
[Link] (Colouring matter)
They are added to give different colours to rubber.
Example: Metallic oxides
Zinc oxide - White Lead chromate - Yellow
Chromium oxide - Green
Carbon black - Black
6.A elerators
They are added to speed up the vulcanization reaction of rubber. Example: Benzothiozole
[Link]
Fillers are added to increase the quantity without affecting the quality. The production cost is reduced.
Example: Textile wastes, asbestos, mica, gypsum, talc, etc.
Properties of vulcanized rubber
[Link] rubber has very little electrical and thermal conductivity.
Hence, it is mainly used for electrical insulation purposes.
[Link] has high elasticity and tensile strength.
[Link] chemicals and oils do not affect it.
[Link] is also not affected by atmosphere.
Reclaimed rubber
Rubber prepared from waste rubber articles such as worn out tyres, tubes, gaskets, hoses, foot wears and other
rubber wastes is called reclaimed rubber.
Reclaimed rubber
Rubber prepared from waste rubber articles such as worn out tyres, tubes, gaskets, hoses, foot wears and other
rubber wastes is called reclaimed rubber.
The process of reclamation of rubber is carried out as follows.
[Link] waste rubber is cut into small pieces and powdered by using a cracker.
[Link] iron impurities, if any present, is removed by using electromagnetic separator.
[Link] purified waste rubber is digested with caustic soda solution at 200°C under pressure for 8 to 15 hours in
‘steam jacked autoclaves’. This process hydrolyses the fibre present in the waste rubber.
[Link] the removal of fibre, reclaiming agents like petroleum or coal tar based oils and softeners are added.
[Link] gets removed as sodium sulphide and rubber gets devulcanized.
[Link] rubber is thoroughly washed with water spray and dried in hot air driers.
[Link], the reclaimed rubber is mixed with small portions of reinforcing agents like clay, carbon black, etc
Properties of reclaimed rubber
[Link] rubber has less tensile strength, low elasticity and possesses very low wear resistance when
compared to natural rubber.
[Link], it is much cheaper and has uniform composition.
[Link] has better ageing property.
[Link] is quite easy for fabrication.
Uses of reclaimed rubber
[Link] is used for the manufacture of tyres, tubes, etc.,
2. It is used for the manufacture of shoes, automobile floor mats, etc.,
[Link] is used for the manufacture of hoses.
[Link] is used for the manufacture of battery containers.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Each class of basic engineering materials like metals, high polymers and ceramics has its own outstanding and
distinct characteristics as well as laminates. However very stringent requirements of supersonic aircraft, gas
turbines and high temperature reactors have forced to develop a new class of materials called “composites”.
The composite materials are generally made by placing the dissimilar materials together in such a manner that
they work as a single mechanical unit.
The properties of new materials so produced are different in kind and scale from those of any constituents.
Thus, it has become possible to incorporate or alter properties, more than that, introduces a combination of
properties like high strength and stiffness at elevated temperatures.
Metals for instance, lose their strength at elevated temperatures. High polymeric materials in general can
withstand still lower temperatures.
Ceramics, due to their brittleness are unsatisfactory structural materials. This led to the exploration of
combination of metals and polymers with ceramics resulting in composites having required properties which
seems to be the hope for the future.
Composite material
A composite material contains two phases namely
[Link] phase
[Link] phase.
Matrix phase:
A continuous body constituent which encloses the composite and gives a bulk form is called matrix phase.
The matrix acts as a medium which protects and binds the dispersed phase. The matrix phase may be metals,
ceramics or polymers.
Dispersed phase:
The substance which is dispersed in the matrix phase is called the dispersed phase. It constitutes the internal
structure of the composite.
Advantageous properties of composite materials over metals and polymers
The important advantages of composite materials over metals and polymers are given below.
[Link] specific strength.
[Link] specific gravity.
[Link] specific stiffness.
[Link] electrical conductivity.
[Link] corrosion and oxidation resistance.
[Link] impact and thermal shock resistance.
[Link] be fabricated easily.
General applications of composite materials
[Link] fabrication of roof and floors.
[Link] aeronautical applications like components of rockets, aircrafts, helicopters, etc.
[Link] valves, pump parts, spray nozzles, etc.
[Link] communication antennae, electronic circuit boards, etc.
[Link] marine applications like propellers, shaft, hulls and other ship parts.
[Link] automobile industries, turbine engines, etc.