Chapter 2

Diagnostics Terminology
Poked, prodded, and pictured

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Learning Outcomes

Level 1 Define word parts and basic medical terminology related to

Know diagnostic imaging, hematologic studies, and the metric system.

Level 2 Identify the various diagnostic procedures involved in imaging and

Comprehend blood and urine analysis.

Level 3 Relate medical terms and abbreviations to their specific diagnostic

Apply tests.

Level 4
Analyze diagnostic terms to determine their meanings and usage.
Analyze

Level 5 Combine your knowledge of medical diagnostic terms and the

Synthesize metric system to better understand health care–related processes.

Level 6 Gauge your understanding of medical diagnostic terminology and

Evaluate abbreviations through the interpretation of medical case studies.

Introduction
While not covered in many traditional medical terminology texts, there are numerous medical terms
and abbreviations associated with diagnostic testing. Our goal is to give you a solid understanding of
these medical terms and abbreviations while giving you a basic understanding of the diagnostic tests
or procedures.
Remember the cold that developed into pneumonia in Chapter 1? The pneumonia was most likely
diagnosed with a culture and sensitivity (C&S) test and a chest X-ray (CXR). It’s important to understand
the basics of what a culture and sensitivity test is or you might think they are checking the patient for
their knowledge of opera or how easily they get upset. Seriously, a good understanding of common
diagnostic terms and tools will not only help you in your medical profession but also in your personal
medical quality of life.
So now that you have visited your PCP, it is time to understand the battery of tests they can order
for you to help determine your diagnosis. Keep in mind, a diagnosis is not solely based on test numbers
and must be coupled with a good patient history and assessment, as each patient is inherently unique.
Just as in Chapter 1, the Medical Clipboards will provide you with a preview of the words to come
in each section. Some words, designated Key Terms, appear in bold within the text and many of these
are also listed in the chapter margins for easy reference. At the end of the chapter, you will find the Key
Terms and Abbreviations section, which has all the terms you should know from the chapter. Before
moving on, take a look at the Medical Clipboard on the next page. You may already be familiar with
some of the terms, or you may have heard them used before.

37
38 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

2.1 Imaging Terms and Abbreviations

Medical Clipboard 2-1

Use the provided checkboxes to check off any prefixes, combining forms, suffixes, or abbreviations you
already know. Continue to check them off as you study the chapter until you have learned them all.

Prefixes Placed in the beginning of a term to Suffixes The ending of a word that modifies
change its meaning its meaning and can be used to form a noun,
adjective, or verb
P Prefix Meaning
Contra- Against or not P Suffix Meaning
-al Pertaining to
Ultra- Beyond
-ical Pertaining to
Combining Forms Consist of a word root with -ior Pertaining to
a combining vowel (usually o) so you can add
other word parts -graph Instrument for recording
One who is skilled in
-grapher
P Combining form Meaning producing recordings
Anter/o Front -graphy Process of recording
Bronch/o Airway -logist One who studies
Lip/o Fat -logy Study of
Poster/o Back or behind -lucent To shine
Pharmaceut/o Drug -oma Tumor
Radi/o X-ray, radioactive -opaque Obscure
Son/o Sound
Abbreviations A shortened version of a word
Techn/o Skill
Tom/o Section P Abbreviation Meaning
AP Anteroposterior view
CT Computed tomography
CXR Chest X-ray
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
PA Posteroanterior view
PET Positron emission tomography
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 39

2.1a The Radiology Department

You have probably been sent to the radiology department at some
point in your life. You might think the term means the study of radios
but actually it is a branch of medicine that uses radiant forms of
energy or radioactive substances to diagnose and treat disease.

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Within the radiology department, there are many key people you
will encounter. A radiology technologist (or “rad tech,” for short) is
the professional who performs the imaging procedures we will soon
discuss. These individuals can specialize in various types of imaging
procedures such as X-ray, CT, and MRI, to list a few. These individuals can Radiology
cross-train in different specializations to enable themselves to do more than Medical profession
utilizing medical imaging
one type of imaging. A radiologist, on the other hand, is the physician who to treat and diagnose
specializes in interpreting the various images produced. Let’s discuss some conditions of the body
of the imaging procedures, beginning with the most common one: the X-ray.
Radiology technologist
Profession that assures
quality diagnostic
2.1b X-Rays imaging is produced

If you went to the hospital or your PCP’s office due to a bad ankle sprain or Radiologist
A medical doctor
possible broken bone, the chances are good they would order you an X-ray. An specializing in diagnosing
X-ray uses a ray of electrons that are projected toward a particular area of the and treating injuries and
patient. Placed opposite the X-ray machine is a film that produces an image diseases using medical
imaging
based on whether the electrons are absorbed or deflected, which depends on
the type of body tissue they hit. The actual film itself is called a radiograph
(radi/o = X-rays, -graph = instrument for recording).
Additional terms you may hear associated with X-rays are radiolucent
(radi/o = X-ray, -lucent = to shine) and radiopaque (radi/o = X-ray, -opaque =
obscure), used to describe the images. Radiolucent means X-rays can pass or
shine through the body easily and appear black on the X-ray image. So, when
the X-rays pass through the air in the lungs, it is radiolucent and appears black
in the image, as can be seen in Figure 2-1. However, denser tissue, such as
bone, is radiopaque. Radiopaque means the X-rays are absorbed or obscured
by a structure and do not reach the X-ray film, appearing white in the image,
as in the bones of the rib cage in Figure 2-1.
When getting an X-ray, there are certain positions you will be placed in
to get the desired image. The following are common X-ray positions based on
where the X-ray machine is placed in reference to the body.
40 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Figure 2-1 Image of a Chest X-Ray

“radiopaque = “radiolucent
bone or tissues” = air”

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• Anteroposterior view (AP) (anter/o = front, poster/o = back or

behind, -ior = pertaining to) is when the X-ray machine is placed
in front of the body, or at the anterior, and the film is placed at the
posterior, or back.

• Posteroanterior view (PA) (poster/o = back or behind, anter/o =

front, -ior = pertaining to) is when the X-ray machine is placed at
the posterior, or back, and the film is placed at the anterior, or front.

• Lateral view is when the X-ray machine is directed at a patient’s

side, and the detector is placed at the opposite side.

• Oblique view is an X-ray taken at a slight angle in order to gain an

image of a structure that would otherwise be obscured in an AP or
PA view.

Figure 2-2 Posteroanterior Chest X-Ray

PA CXR showing left-sided pneumonia.
Notice the black or radiolucent
areas where the X-rays passed easily
through the air in the lungs and the
white or radiopaque areas where
the X-rays hit bone (like the ribs);
now look at the white area indicating
secretions and fluid in the left lower
lung.

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 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 41

Learning Hint 2–1

If you take a close look at the CXR in Figure 2-2, you will notice an L on the right side
as you are looking at it. The L signifies that that side of the CXR is the patient’s left
side. Always keep in mind that your left and right will not always be the patient’s left
and right. You must always refer to the patient’s left and right.

2.1c Computed Tomography (CT) Scan Computed tomography

(CT)
The individual performing the computed tomography (CT) scan is a Utilizes X-rays and a
CT technologist. The word root tomos means “to cut”; a CT scan takes X-rays computer to create
images of the body
of thin sections or slices of the body that the computer reconstructs to give a
detailed 3-D images of bones, organs, and vessels. Please see Figure 2-3. CT technologist
An individual who
operates CT equipment
to produce an image
Figure 2-3 CT Scan of the Abdominal Region

This scan can provide more detailed images than a standard X-ray. A CT scan provides
physicians with cross-sectional slices of the body from different angles. To obtain
clear pictures of a structure surrounded by tissues of similar densities, contrast
medium is injected into the structure of interest to make it stand out on the scan.
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 42 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

2.1d Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

You may have heard the abbreviation MRI at one time or another; it is now a
Magnetic resonance fairly common scan. MRI stands for magnetic resonance imaging. The clinician
imaging
An imaging procedure who operates the machine is called an MRI technologist; they gather the images
that utilizes strong for the radiologist to read. An MRI machine is a diagnostic imaging tool used
magnetic fields to obtain to view structures made of soft tissue. These machines can develop detailed
detailed images of the
3D images of the body. For example, an MRI can be used to evaluate a torn
body
ligament, which is made of soft connective tissue that connects bone to bone
MRI technologist and would not show up on conventional X-rays. Also, while X-rays and CT scans
A radiology technologist use radiation to view inside your body, an MRI takes a different approach and
who specializes in
magnet resonance instead uses magnets and radio waves. See photos below, showing an MRI
imaging machine and an MRI image of a head.
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MRI image of the brain and an MRI machine

Clinical Application                  2–1
Precautions for MRI Testing
Since the MRI procedure is done with magnets, any metal objects—like jewelry and even
Contraindicated
objects the patient has inside their body, like a pacemaker or metal shavings in the eye—
When a certain
diagnostic test or are contraindicated (contra- = against or not), meaning this procedure should not be
procedure should not be done if metal objects are worn or placed within range of the MRI machine.
done
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 43

2.1e Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Scan
Positron emission tomography (tom/o = section; -graphy = process of
recording) or PET is a commonly used type of nuclear medicine scan.
Nuclear medicine uses radioactive material to diagnose and treat
disease. When radioactive material is injected into the patient for
imaging purposes, it is known as a tracer. PET scans not only provide
an image but also give physicians a look into how well or poorly

Getty Images
the body system or organ of interest is functioning. One common
use for this kind of imaging process is to detect the presence of
certain cancers.
PET scan of the brain
Nuclear medicine technologists are the individuals who prepare
the radioactive drugs, known as radiopharmaceuticals (radi/o = radioactive, Nuclear medicine
pharmaceut = drug, -ical = pertaining to), and administer them to patients. A medical specialty
that utilizes radioactive
While the majority of these professionals work in hospitals, some may find substances for diagnostic
employment at physician’s offices or imaging centers. and therapeutic
purposes

2.1f Ultrasound
This type of imaging practice utilizes sound waves to produce an image of the
patient’s anatomy. Sonography (son/o = sound, -graphy = process of recording) Sonography
(son-OG-rah-fee)
involves taking and interpreting images created by soundwaves as they are
The process of
returned to the transducer. The sound waves used are ultrasound (ultra- = recording a sonogram or
beyond), hence this procedure is called an ultrasound. Because the frequency ultrasound
of the sound waves is above the range of human hearing, the procedure is silent.
This type of imaging is performed by a sonographer (sono- = sound;
-grapher = one who records), also referred to as an ultrasound technologist.
Sonographers can work in specialized areas of care, such as in the hospital’s
vascular laboratory getting images of vessels or in obstetrics obtaining images
of fetal development during pregnancy.
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Ultrasound image of a fetus

44 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Clinical Application                  2–2
Interventional Radiology
Radiology is a large field with different subspecialties. For example, interventional radiology
uses a combination of imaging and minimally invasive, image-guided procedures. An
example of an interventional radiology procedure is when a physician places a stent (a
device that keeps a vessel open) in a patient’s coronary artery to ensure sufficient blood
gets to the heart muscle, with no obstruction, to prevent a heart attack.
iStock/Getty Images Plus

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2.1g Singular and Plural in
Medical Terminology
Just as with words in English, you can have singular and plural medical terms.
In English, it is simple to make a word plural; it usually involves adding an s
to the end of the word. It’s a little trickier with medical terms, as the plural
form is dictated by the ending of the singular term.
For example, in Chapter 1, your PCP needed to determine whether your
bad cold was actually something more. One way to do that would be to order
a CXR to get an image of your lungs. During this process, you would hear
certain terms used in either a singular or plural form. The doctor would
examine all sections of your lungs. The upper portion of one lung is called the
apex. If the upper portions of both lungs are involved, the term changes to its
plural form, apices. The rule for singular terms that end in -ex is to change
the suffix to -ices to make it plural.
Your airways would also need to be evaluated. Bronchus (bronch/o =
airway)—in this case referring to the right mainstem bronchus, which is the
large airway leading into the right lung—is the singular form. However, if
you were discussing several airways, the plural form is bronchi. For singular
medical terms ending in -us, the suffix changes to -i to make it plural.
Table 2-1 lists some common singular and plural word forms with examples.
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 45

Table 2-1 Singular and Plural Forms

Rules Singular examples Plural examples
Terms ending in -a become plural with Vertebra Vertebrae
the addition of an -e at the end of the Single bone in spinal column Several bones in spinal
word. column
Terms ending in -ix or -ex become Apex Apices
plural by removing either the -ix or -ex Upper portion of one lung Upper portions of both lungs
and adding -ices.
Terms ending in -us become plural by Bronchus Bronchi
removing the -us and adding an -i. Single airway Multiple airways
Terms that end in -x becomes plural by Meninx Meninges
removing the -x and adding a -ges. Any of the three membranes that Referring to more than one
cover the brain and spinal cord meninx
Terms ending in -y become plural by Biopsy Biopsies
removing the -y and One sampling of tissue Multiple samplings of tissue
adding -ies.
Terms ending in -ax become plural by Thorax Thoraces
removing the -x and adding -ces. One chest Several chests
Terms ending in -ma become plural Lipoma Lipomata
with the addition of -ta. One fatty tumor Several fatty tumors
(lip/o = fat, -oma = tumor)

Medical Checkup 2-1

1. Match each combining form to the correct meaning. d. PET scan
Anter/o a. side 4. Match each singular form to the correct plural form.
Poster/o b. front -ix a. -i
Later/o c. back -us b. -ices
2. Which of the following is produced using soundwaves -a c. -ies
and a transducer? -y d. -ae
a. Radiograph 5. Which scanning procedure does not expose you to
b. MRI scan radioactive energy or sound waves?
c. Sonogram a. X-ray
d. CT scan b. MRI
3. Which imaging technique would best show a soft c. CT scan
tissue abnormality in detail? d. Sonography
a. MRI
b. X-ray
c. Ultrasound
46 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

2.2 The Mathematical Language of Medicine:

The Metric System

Medical Clipboard 2-2

Please review the following metric abbreviations, as you will soon learn how they are used. The metric
system revolves around the number 10. If you don’t know what power of 10 means, don’t worry, it will
be explained shortly.

Abbreviations

P Prefix Math meaning Power of 10

Kilo- 1000 times 103

Hecto- 100 times 102

Deca- 10 times 101
Deci- One tenth 10−1
Centi- One hundredth 10−2
Milli- One thousandth 10−3
Micro- One millionth 10−6

P Metric base unit of measure Use

Gram Used for weight
Liter Used for volume
Meter Used for length

2.2a The Metric System

In the next section of this chapter, we will cover laboratory and diagnostic
tests. Many of the values will have units of measurement that you may or may
not be familiar with, such as deciliters, kilograms, or millimeters. These units
represent the “mathematical” language of medicine, called the metric system.
For example, fluids and medications are measured in milliliters (mL) and
drug dosages can be based on milligrams per kilogram. You may be thinking,
“Great, I am trying to learn one new language and now I have to learn another
one too?!” Well, don’t get worried, you will see that with practice, it is not as
hard as it may seem. Let’s begin with a brief history lesson.
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 47

There are two major measurement systems in existence,

the US Customary System (USCS) and the International
System of Units (SI), also known as the metric system. In the
United States, the primary measurement system used is the
US Customary System. This system is commonly known as
the English system, as it was derived from the British Imperial
System. This system is used for general measurements and has
different units used for volume, length, and weight. While the
English system is used in the US, the metric system is used
as the standard of measurement around the globe as well as

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in health care.
Let’s use volume as an example of how these two systems
differ. The USCS uses pints, quarts, gallons, pecks, and bushels
to measure volume, and many values or equivalencies must be memorized. By the way, what the heck
is a peck? The metric system is much easier in that it only has one main unit of measure for volume
called the liter; prefixes based on powers of 10 are placed before the unit to let you know just how many
liters you are dealing with.
To convert within the metric system, you will soon learn it is as easy as moving a decimal point—
versus doing all kinds of calculations to convert within the English system. First, let’s discuss the
“powers of 10” the metric system is based on.

The Powers of 10
Understanding exponents and how to use them will greatly assist you in using the metric system. So,
before we move forward, let’s quickly review what an exponent is and how it works, using an example.
Let’s use 54. Since exponents are also called powers, this example could also be expressed as “5 to the
4th power.” The number 5 is the base number, the 4 is the exponent. The exponent tells you how many
times to multiply the base number by itself. So, 54 is 5 × 5 × 5 × 5, which is 625.
Keep in mind that when the base number has an exponent of 0, it always equals 1. For example,
5 = 1. The metric system uses the powers of 10, meaning 10 is the base; Figure 2-4 gives some examples.
0

Figure 2-4 The Powers of 10

100 = 1*
101 = 10
102 = 10 × 10 = 100
103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1 000
104 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10 000
105 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 1 00 000
106 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 1 000 000
*Remember, any number to the 0 power = 1
48 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Clinical Application                  2–3
Scientific Notation
Another reason why powers of 10 are so helpful is they can be used in scientific notation,
which is often used in health care articles. For example, there are about 25 000 000 000
bloods cells floating around your bloodstream. If this had to be written out each time it
appeared in an article, it could become very cumbersome. We can take this large number
and express it in an abbreviated form called scientific notation. For scientific notation,
the rule is to move the decimal point so that you have only one number to the left of
the decimal point, then multiply by the appropriate power of 10 to express the number
of places you moved the decimal point. Therefore, 25 000 000 000 becomes 2.5 × 1010.
Keep in mind that for numbers larger than one, the decimal point, while not written, is
always at the end of the number.

Now that we’ve covered positive exponents, let’s take a look at negative
exponents. A negative exponent results in numbers that are less than 1. You
can think of them as fractions. Figure 2-5 lists some examples of powers of
10 with negative exponents.

Figure 2-5 Negative Exponents

10−1 = 1/10 = 0.1
10−2 = 1/10 × 1/10 = 0.01
10−3 = 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 = 0.001
10−4 = 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 = 0.0001
10−5 = 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 = 0.000 01
10−6 = 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 × 1/10 = 0.000 001

Clinical Application                  2–4
Scientific Notation for Numbers Less Than 1
Just like in the previous example, where we took a large number and expressed it in a
way that was more manageable to write, we can take a small number and do the same
thing. Again, keep in mind that each decimal movement is a power of 10.
Let’s say you are measuring the size of a microorganism and it is 0.000 000 5 meters.
This number would become 5.0 × 10-7, as moving the decimal to the right gives a nega-
tive value, showing the number is less than 1.
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 49

Learning Hint 2–2

When using scientific notation, if you are moving the decimal to the right, you will
need a negative exponent and the number is always less than one. If you are moving
the decimal to the left, the exponent should be positive and the number is always
greater than one.

2.2b Metric System Prefixes

There are three basic things you can measure. How heavy is something
(weight)? How much space does something occupy (volume)? What is the
distance between two points (length)? The metric system has only one base
unit for each of these measurement types: meter for length, liter for volume, Meter
and gram for weight (or mass). Metric unit measuring
length

Liter
Metric unit measuring
Learning Hint 2–3 volume
In the sciences there is a difference between mass and weight. Mass refers to the Gram
actual amount of matter in the object whereas weight is the force exerted on the Metric unit measuring
body by gravity. In space, or zero gravity, objects have mass but no weight; since weight (or mass)
health care is mostly confined to Earth, where there are gravitational forces, we will
use the term weight.

As stated before, the prefixes placed before the metric base units tell you the
power of 10 and therefore how much of the unit you have. See Table 2-2 for
prefixes, their abbreviations, and the associated powers of 10.

Table 2-2 Common Metric System Prefixes

Prefix Kilo- Hecto- Deca- No prefix Deci- Centi- Milli-
Numeric value 1 000 100 10 1 1/10 1/100 1/1 000

Abbreviation k h da m (meter), d c m
L (liter),
g (gram)
Power of 10 103 102 101 100 or 1 10−1 10−2 10−3

Looking at Table 2-2, you can see that a kilogram is 1000 grams and a
milliliter is 1/1000 of a liter. So, in looking at the chart, you can easily convert
any metric unit as shown in the following examples.
50 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Example 1
100 g = mg
Look at the chart. You are starting with grams (ie, with no prefix) and
you want to get to milligrams. The prefix milli- means 1/1000 or 10 to the
power of −3. This means you need to move your decimal point 3 to the right.
Starting with 100, we move the decimal 3 to the right and the answer is
100 000 milligrams.

Example 2
2 000 000 cg = kg
Looking at the chart, you are starting with centigrams and you want to
get to kilograms. The prefix centi- means 1/100 or 10 to the power of −2. The
prefix kilo- means 1000 or 10 to the power of 3. Looking at the chart you are
moving 5 powers of ten to the left, which means you need to move the decimal
point 5 to the left. The answer is 20 kilograms.

Example 3
500 mL = L
Looking at the chart, you are starting with milliliters and you want to
get to liters (ie, with no prefix). Looking at the chart milli and liters are three
powers of 10 apart. This means you need to move your decimal point 3 to the
left. The answer is 0.5 liters.

Clinical Application                  2–5
An Important English to Metric Conversion
Often a patient will be weighed using pounds as the unit. However, drug dosages are
often calculated in kilograms. For example, a drug might have a dose of 10 milligrams per
kilogram of body weight. To convert pounds to kilograms, you simply divide the pounds
by 2.2. So, a 200-pound patient would be approximately 90 kilograms. Since the dose
is 10 milligrams per kilogram, you would give 900 milligrams (90 × 10) of medication.

Table 2-3 lists the common metric units of measure that you will encounter
in health care.
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 51

Table 2-3 Common Medical Metric Units

Abbreviation Meaning
dL Deciliter

cm Centimeter

g Gram

mcg Microgram (micro- means 1/1 000 000 or 10 −6)

g/dL Grams per deciliter

kg Kilogram

L Liter

mL Milliliter

mm Millimeter

mEq Milliequivalent (used in the measurement of

compounds in biological fluids; one example is the
measurement of body electrolyte levels)

Medical Checkup 2-2

1. Which of the following metric base units is used for 4. Two liters is equal to how many milliliters?
volume? a. 1 000 mL
a. Gram b. 0.2 mL
b. Liter c. 0.002 mL
c. Meter d. 2 000 mL
2. Which of the following values appropriately reflects 5. Match the following prefixes with their correct numer-
3.5 × 1010? ical values.
a. 3.5 Hecto- a. 10
b. 35 000 000 000 Kilo- b. 1/100
c. 35 000 000 Milli- c. 1/1 000
d. 3 500 Deca- d. 1 000
3. Which of the following is the correct scientific nota- Centi- e. 100
tion for 100 000?
a. 1.0 × 103
b. 1.0 × 105
c. 1.0 × 1010
d. 1.0 × 106
 52 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

2.3 Laboratory Studies and Associated

Medical Terms and Abbreviations
While the goal of this textbook is to teach medical terminology and not
diagnostics or anatomy and physiology, students entering health care are often
overwhelmed reading medical records when they encounter terms related to
diagnostic testing and results. Therefore, this section will give you a basic
understanding of some of the more common diagnostic tests you will encounter
along with their medical
abbreviations. Please review
the terms and abbreviations
covered in this section to see
which ones you already know.
In addition, more diagnostic
tests will be covered in the
upcoming specialist chapters.
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 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 53

Medical Clipboard 2-3

Use the provided checkboxes to check off any prefixes, combining forms, suffixes, or abbreviations you
already know. Continue to check them off as you study the chapter until you have learned them all.

Prefixes Placed in the beginning of a term to

change its meaning
P Combining form Meaning
Neutr/o Neutral
Nucle/o Nucleus
P Prefix Meaning Phag/o Swallow
A- No, without Phleb/o Vein
An- No, without Phosphat/o Phosphate
Anti- Against Splen/o Spleen
Calc- Calcium Strept/o Chains
Hyper- Above, excessive Thromb/o Clot
Hypo- Below normal, deficient Tom/o To cut into or insert
Macro- Large Ur/o Urine
Mono- One Xanth/o Yellow
Poly- Many
Suffixes The ending of a word that modifies
Combining Forms Consist of a word root with its meaning and can be used to form a noun,
a combining vowel (usually o) so you can add adjective, or verb
other word parts
P Suffix Meaning
P Combining form Meaning -ase Enzyme, “to break down”
Amyl/o Starch -blast Immature
Bas/o Base -coccus Sphere
Bilirubin/o Bilirubin -crit Separate
Chlor Chloride -cyte Cell
Cyan/o Blue -emia Blood
Cyt/o Cells -globin Protein
Eosin/o Red or rosy coloration -logy Study of
Erythr/o Red -megaly Enlarged
Gluc/o Sugar
-meter Measure
Glyc/o Sugar or glucose
-osis Condition of
Hem/o Blood
-penia Deficiency
Hepat/o Liver
-phage Eat or swallow
Kal/o Potassium
-phil Attraction to
Leuk/o White
-poiesis Formation
Lip/o Fat
-poietin Substance that forms
Magnes/o Magnesium
-uria Urine
Morph/o Shaped
Natr/o Sodium
Continues
54 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Medical Clipboard 2-3

Continued

Abbreviations
word
A shortened version of a P Abbreviation Meaning
Hgb Hemoglobin
K Potassium ion
P
+
Abbreviation Meaning
A1c Glycated hemoglobin LDL Low-density lipoprotein
ALP Alkaline phosphatase Mg Magnesium
ALT Alanine aminotransferase Na +
Sodium ion
AST Aspartate aminotransferase PLT Platelets
Blood urea nitrogen; also PO4 Phosphate
BUN or SUN known as serum urea PT Prothrombin time
nitrogen RBC Red blood cells
C&S Culture and sensitivity sg Specific gravity
Ca Calcium UA Urine analysis, urinalysis
CBC Complete blood count UTI Urinary tract infection
Cl− Chloride WBC White blood cells
Comprehensive metabolic
CMP
panel
Differential leukocyte
Diff
count
Hematocrit (this abbreviation
should be avoided because
of the possibility of confu-
HCT
sion with hydrocortisone
and hydrochlorothiazide;
when in doubt, write it out)
HDL High-density lipoprotein

Hematology
2.3a Hematology Studies
(hee-mah-TOL-oh-gee) Since blood is involved in all aspects of our body, blood samples can be taken
A branch of medicine to learn so much about the health of a patient. Once a blood sample is drawn,
that studies the blood
it is then sent to the laboratory to be studied. The study of blood is known as
Phlebotomist hematology (hem/o = blood, -logy = study of). Often, a blood sample is obtained
(fleh-BOT-oh-mist)
by a person who specializes in collecting blood samples. This individual is
Someone who specializes
in collecting blood known as a phlebotomist (phleb/o = vein, tom/o = to cut into or insert). A
samples phlebotomist inserts needles into the vein to sample blood for analysis.
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 55

2.3b Complete Blood Count (CBC)

The blood in our body serves multiple purposes to keep the body functioning
properly. The liquid portion of blood is called plasma. Even though we can’t
see them with the naked eye, there are numerous cells and substances within
that plasma, and by analyzing them, we can learn about how well the body is
functioning. The specialized cells found in plasma are as follows:
• red blood cells (RBC), also known as erythrocytes (erythr/o = red,
-cyte = cell);

• white blood cells (WBC), also known as leukocytes (leuk/o = white,

-cyte = cell);

• and platelets, also known as thrombocytes (thromb/o = clot, -cyte =

cell).
One of the most commonly ordered tests is a complete blood count
(CBC). This test is very useful, as it examines many cellular components in
the blood. This blood test looks at the red blood cell count, white blood cell
count, hematocrit, and hemoglobin.

2.3c Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells (R BC), or
erythrocytes, are chiefly responsible
for carrying oxygen from the lungs
and transporting it to body tissue.
Erythrocytes are created in the
bone marrow. When the body is
triggered to produce more RBC,
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a hormone called erythropoietin Erythropoietin

(eh-RITH-roh-poy-et-in)
(erythr/o = red, -poietin = substance
Hormone produced
that forms) is secreted from the primarily by the
adrenal glands causing erythropoiesis (erythr/o = red, -poiesis = formation) kidneys to increase the
or formation of red blood cells. production of red blood
cells
When these new RBC first develop, they are immature. At this immature
stage, these cells are called erythroblasts (erythr/o = red, -blast = immature). Erythropoiesis
Once the cells mature, they become functioning erythrocytes and develop into (eh-RITH-roh-poe-
ee-sis)
the recognizable doughnut shape as shown. RBC make up the majority of blood Formation of red blood
cells found within the plasma, and this is what gives blood its reddish color. cells
Once blood has been collected from the patient, the lab measures the
Erythroblast
number of RBC. This is done by measuring the number of RBC contained in Immature red blood
a cubic millimeter (mm3) of blood. The normal number of RBC varies between cells
men and women.
56 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Clinical Application                  2–6
Jaundice
Once a red blood cell has aged and is unable to perform as it should (usually 120 days), it
is destroyed by cells called macrophages (macro- = large, -phage = eat or swallow). When
these RBC are destroyed, bilirubin is formed. Bilirubin has a yellowish-orange coloration that
can cause the patient’s skin
and the whites of the eyes to
become yellow in color. If
too much bilirubin builds up
in the blood, it is known as
hyperbilirubinemia (hyper-
= above, excessive; -emia
= blood condition) or jaun-
dice. This usually means the
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patient’s liver is unable to

excrete the bilirubin and its
buildup causes the yellowish
Comparison between normal skin coloration color known as xanthemia
versus jaundice (xanth/o = yellow, -emia =
blood).

2.3d Hematocrit
Another important value related to the number of red blood cells in plasma is
Hematocrit hematocrit (HCT) (hem/o = blood, -crit = separate). Just as the name implies,
(hee-MAT-oh-krit)
A blood test used to see the blood is separated so the red blood cells can be measured. To perform
how many blood cells are this test, a sample of blood is spun in a centrifuge (a machine that spins very
in the plasma fast) and the RBC, which are heavier, separate from the rest of the liquid
blood in the tube and settle at the bottom. The height of the RBC found at the
bottom of the tube is measured, giving the volume of RBC in 100 milliliters
(mL) of blood. Higher HCT values would mean the blood is thicker or more
viscous and therefore harder to circulate around the body. Photos in Section
2.3e show the layering and color differences in blood samples after they have
gone through a centrifuge.
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 57

2.3e Hemoglobin (Hgb)

An important protein found in RBC, allowing them to carry oxygen to tissues
Hemoglobin
in the body, is called hemoglobin (Hgb) (hem/o = blood, -globin = protein).
Protein in the blood
Hemoglobin levels are measured in grams per deciliter, or g/dL, to determine responsible for
if the individual has enough to properly carry oxygen throughout the body transporting oxygen

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Tubes of blood in a centrifuge Blood sample collected via a capillary tube shows the red
blood cells separated from the yellowish fluid,
called plasma.

Clinical Application                  2–7
Two Major Red Blood Cell Disorder Classifications
Anemia (a-, an- = no, without; -emia = blood condition)
is a blood disorder classification where the body is not
producing enough RBC; this greatly affects the ability
to carry oxygen. When hemoglobin is combined with
oxygen, it becomes bright red. Low oxygen levels will Cyanosis
(sigh-ah-NOH-sis)
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produce a darker colored blood and therefore give a A bluish coloration of

bluish appearance to the skin. This condition is called the skin and mucous
cyanosis (cyan/o = blue, -osis = condition of). membranes as a result of
Bluish coloration of lips as a Polycythemia (poly- = many, cyt/o = cells, -emia low oxygen levels
result of being cyanotic. = blood), on the other hand, is a classification of blood Polycythemia (paul-
disorders where there are too many red blood cells; this will increase the hematocrit ee-sigh-THEE-mee-ah)
and thicken the blood, often putting stress on the heart as it moves this thicker blood Caused by a disease
throughout the circulatory system. state where the body
produces too many red
blood cells
58 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

2.3f White Blood Cells (WBCs)

White blood cells’, or leukocytes’, primary job is to circulate in our bloodstream
and protect us by fighting infection. There are many different types of WBCs,
each with a different role, as there are many different types of infections and
diseases they must fight. When an infection is present, the patient’s WBC
count will be increased as the body produces more WBCs to fight the foreign
invader. The 5 main forms of WBCs can be divided into two main groups
known as mononuclear leukocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Again,
knowing the word parts can give you information about how the cells look
under the microscope.
Mononuclear leukocytes would have one (mono- = one) nuclei and
polymorphonuclear leukocytes would have many (poly- = many) different
shaped (morph/o = shaped) nuclei. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes are also
called granulocytes because the cells look like they have grains of sand in
them; mononuclear leukocytes are agranular (a- = without).

Clinical Application                  2–8
How Medical Terminology Can Help Your Studies
Knowing word parts can help you in your anatomy and physiology and microbiology
Basophil (BAY-soh-fill) classes. For example, the types of WBCs are called basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils,
A type of WBC that monocytes, and lymphocytes. The first three cell types are granulocytes, so they look
increases in number granular (like there are grains of sand in them) under the microscope; they all have the
in response to
inflammation and blood suffix -phil, which means “attraction to.” In this case, these cells are named after the kind of
disorders stain they are attracted to, allowing them to be seen better under a microscope. Basophils
are dyed blue by a basic stain; eosinophils are dyed red by an acidic stain called eosin.
Eosinophil
(ee-oh-SIN-oh-fill)
A type of WBC that
increases in number
in response to allergic 2.3g Differential Leukocyte Count (Diff)
reactions
The number of each of these types of WBCs increases in response to certain
conditions experienced by the body. A WBC count counts all the WBCs in the
body; a differential leukocyte count (Diff) determines the percentage of each
type of WBC in the patient’s blood to try to determine better what type of cell
is prevalent, giving an idea of what type of infection is present. For example,
Lymphocyte an increase in lymphocytes can indicate a viral infection while an increase in
(LIM-foh-sight) monocytes can indicate a long-standing or chronic infection. Neutrophils are
Immune system WBC
that is found in lymph phagocytic (phag/o = to swallow) cells that increase during bacterial infections
nodes to, in essence, gobble up the dead bacteria.
Neutrophil
(NEW-troh-fill)
A type of WBC that
increases in number in
response to bacterial
infections, inflammation,
and stress
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 59

Clinical Application                  2–9
White Blood Cell Disorders
If the body is experiencing a chronic infection and is unable to continue to produce
enough WBCs to fight the infection, a condition known as leukopenia (leuk/o = white, Leukopenia
-penia = deficiency) can occur. WBCs are vital for your survival. When diseases target (loo-koh-PEE-nee-ah)
these cells, if not stopped, it will eventually cause death in the individual. For example, Abnormally low count of
white blood cells
leukemia is a cancer of the white blood cell. This is a treatable cancer; there are many
different forms of leukemia. Leukemia
(loo-KEE-mee-ah)
A cancer of the blood

2.3h Platelets
Platelets (PLT), also known as thrombocytes (thromb/o = clot, -cyte = cell), are
required to assist the blood in clotting as shown in Figure 2-6. Interestingly,
while they are called cells, they are really cellular fragments that can range
in shape from oval to flattened or round. Most of these “cells” can be found
floating around in the bloodstream while a portion is stored in the spleen.
Testing the patient’s platelet count to determine how well the blood can clot is
particularly useful, especially if the patient is on anticoagulant (anti- = against)
therapy. If the patient has thrombocytopenia (thromb/o = clot, cyt/o = cell, Thrombocytopenia
-penia = deficiency), the sample of blood will contain less than the normal (throm-boh-sigh-toh-
PEE-nee-ah)
amount of platelets and the patient can be at risk of bleeding to death from a Less than normal number
simple cut. Additional blood testing can be done to see how long it takes for of platelets in the blood
the blood to clot; this is known as the prothrombin time (PT) or pro time. As
Prothrombin time
signified in the name, this is a timed test that measures how fast the blood A diagnostic test used to
clots. The normal range for clotting time is 10-14 seconds. determine the presence
of an excessive clotting
or bleeding disorder
Figure 2-6 Three Types of Blood Cells
This image shows three different types of cells. From left to right, there are platelets,
red blood cells, and white blood cells.

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60 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

We have covered a lot of ground with the CBC test, but it does give the physician
a wealth of diagnostic information. Please see Table 2-4 for a summary of the
CBC test.

Table 2-4 CBC Test Summary

Cell type/test Description Conditions
Erythrocyte or Transports oxygen Erythrocytosis (erythr/o = red, cyt/o
red blood cell throughout the = cells, -osis = condition of) is a
(RBC) body and collects condition where there is an increase
carbon dioxide for in the number of circulating RBC.
removal

For terminology referring to a low RBC

count, see anemia under hematocrit
in this table.
Leukocyte or Fights infection Leukopenia (leuk/o = white, -penia =
white blood cell deficiency) is a condition where there
(WBC) is a low WBC count.

Leukocytosis (leuk/o = white,

cyt/o = cells, -osis = condition of)
is a condition where there is a high
WBC count.
Platelet (PLT) Clots blood Thrombocytopenia (thromb/o = clot,
cyt/o = cells, -penia = deficiency) is a
condition characterized by not having
enough platelets.

Thrombocytosis (thromb/o = clot,

cyt/o = cells, -osis = condition of) is
a condition characterized by a high
platelet count.
Hematocrit The ratio of total An increase in hematocrit is termed
(HCT) blood cells to the polycythemia*; this raises the blood
total fluid volume of viscosity
blood
Hemoglobin The protein in the Anemia (a-, an- = no, without; -emia
(Hgb) red blood cell that = blood condition) is a condition
carries oxygen where either there is a low RBC count
throughout the or there is a decrease in hematocrit
body and hemoglobin levels.
*While, technically, polycythemia simply means many cells, since the red blood cell
is the major cellular component of blood, it has come to mean high levels of red
blood cells.
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 61

2.3i Lipid Profile

You may have heard of people getting their cholesterol checked. This laboratory
test is called a lipid profile, which is done by taking a sample of the patient’s
blood. Cholesterol is a waxy substance produced by your body. It assists in Cholesterol
making hormones and processing food. Cholesterol is produced by your own (koh-LES-ter-ol
A fatty, wax-like
body and is present in some foods you ingest. substance found in the
There is good and bad cholesterol, and it is important to know the difference. blood
Too much bad cholesterol can cause a buildup of waxy plaque in your vessels,
resulting in blockages of blood flow. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (lip/o = fat)
is the bad cholesterol. These fatty proteins are a contributor to the development
of plaque on the walls of your vessels. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) is the
good cholesterol. HDL removes LDL from the vessel walls and then finds its
way to the liver by way of the bloodstream. LDL is then excreted from the
body after it reaches the liver. So, too much LDL clogs the arteries and HDL
helps to clean them.

Learning Hint 2–4

Think of LDL as L for lousy cholesterol and HDL as H for helpful cholesterol.

Another value analyzed in a lipid profile is the patient’s triglycerides. Triglyceride

(tri-GLISS-er-ides)
Triglycerides are found in the cells of your adipose (fat) tissue and come from
A type of fat or lipid
the food you ingest. When triglycerides are at normal levels, energy is stored found in the blood
in your fat cells until it is needed. When triglycerides are present in excessive
amounts in the blood, this fatty substance will also deposit on the vessel walls, Adipose (ADD-ih-pohs)
Fat tissue
causing an increased risk for heart disease (see Table 2-5).

Table 2-5 Triglyceride Levels

Clinical rating Value range
Normal Less than 150 mg/dL*

Borderline high 150 to 199 mg/dL

High 200 to 499 mg/dL

Very high 500 mg/dL or above

*milligrams per deciliter

2.3j Culture and Sensitivity

A culture and sensitivity or C&S can be used to determine what type of
bacterial infection is present in the patient and what antibiotic will be most
efficient at treating the patient. For example, if you had pneumonia as in our
 62 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

example in Chapter 1, a sputum sample would be

taken and then sent to a lab where the sample would
be cultured, or grown, in a dish with different types
of antibiotics placed throughout. The antibiotic that
had the least amount of bacterial growth around
it would be the most effective antibiotic in treating
your particular infection. C&S studies can also be
done on any body fluid, such as blood, or even on
instruments, such as indwelling catheters (tubes), to
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see if a bacterial infection is present. Often, patients

with long-term urinary catheters will develop a UTI
or urinary tract infection.
Agar plate showing cultured or grown bacteria exposed
to different antibiotics to determine best one to use

2.3k Blood Sugar

Another blood test used to check the well-being of a patient is their blood glucose
(gluc/o = sugar) levels. This measures the level of sugar found in the bloodstream.
Glucose, or sugar, is needed to provide energy to your cells to maintain proper
Glucometer function. Patients can monitor their sugar at home by using a glucometer
(gloo-KOHM-eh-ter) (gluc/o = sugar, -meter = measure). This device samples a drop of blood from
A device used to monitor
blood sugar levels a very small needle or
lancet. This provides
Hypoglycemia the user with an
Below normal amount of
sugar in the blood instant reading of
their current blood
Hyperglycemia sugar levels.
(HI-po-gly-SEE-me-ah)
Excessive amount of A f ter fasting
sugar in the blood (not eating and only
drinking water) for 8
hours, a normal blood
sugar level should be
less than 100 mg/dL.
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If someone has low
sugar, it is known as
hypoglycemia (hypo- Glucometer testing blood sugar
= deficient or below
normal, glyc/o = sugar or glucose, -emia = blood condition). On the other
hand, if someone has high blood sugar, it is called hyperglycemia (hyper- =
above, excessive; glyc/o = sugar; -emia = blood condition).
Another test used to determine a patient’s glucose levels is called an A1c or
glycated hemoglobin. While our blood sugar levels are constantly changing,
this test gives practitioners a look at how well a patient controlled their sugar
over the past 3 months.
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 63

2.3l Electrolytes
Electrolyte levels can also be determined from a blood sample. Calcium, chloride,
phosphate, potassium, magnesium, and sodium are the various electrolytes
required by your body to function correctly. If you don’t have the right levels of
these electrolytes, possibly life-threatening complications may arise.
While the following terms related to electrolytes may seem complicated, you
can break them down into easier to remember word parts. First, all the words
start with either hyper- or hypo-. Hyper means above or excessive, and hypo means
below normal or deficient. If you look at the ending of the terms, you will see they
all end in -emia. The term emia means “blood condition.” So, the only difference
between these terms is the word root, which is associated with the different
electrolytes. Check out Table 2-6 for the different electrolytes and imbalances.

Table 2-6 Electrolytes and Imbalances

Electrolyte, chemical symbol, Normal ranges Imbalance
and word root (hyper- = above,
excessive; hypo- =
deficient or below
normal)
Calcium (Ca+2) (calc-) 4.5-5.4 mEq/L Hypercalcemia
Hypocalcemia
Chloride (Cl −) (chlor) 95-103 mEq/L Hyperchloremia
Hypochloremia
Magnesium (Mg +2) (magnes/o) 1.5-2.4 mg/dL Hypermagnesemia
Hypomagnesemia
Phosphate (PO4 −3) (phosphat/o) 3.0-4.5 mg/dL Hyperphosphatemia
Hypophosphatemia
Potassium (K+) (kal/o) 3.5-5.0 mEq/L Hyperkalemia
Hypokalemia
Sodium (Na+) (natr/o) 136-145 mEq/L Hypernatremia
Hyponatremia

2.3m Comprehensive Metabolic Panel

There are many different types of panels, or groups of blood tests, used to
check for certain body functions, such as liver and kidney function. However, Comprehensive
metabolic panel
one of the common panels ordered to obtain an overall picture of a patient’s A blood test used to
health is a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP). This type of blood work measure the patient’s
requires the patient to fast, meaning no food or drinks other than water, for electrolyte levels,
glucose level, fluid
a certain time period, such as 12 hours. This commonly used panel consists balance, and kidney and
of many different tests that examine the patient’s metabolism, blood sugar, liver function
proteins in the blood, electrolytes, and more, as listed in Table 2-7.
64 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Table 2-7 Comprehensive Metabolic Panel

Clinical test Testing explanation
Proteins Albumin is a small protein that serves many different purposes,
such as preventing fluid from leaking out of the bloodstream, and
transporting vitamins, hormones, and enzymes throughout the
body. Albumin is produced by the liver. Total protein measures
albumin and other proteins in the blood.
Glucose The amount of sugar in the blood. Glucose is needed to supply the
body with energy. However, a balance must be maintained. Too
much or too little glucose can adversely affect the body’s function.
Electrolytes Sodium is required for healthy nerve and muscle function.

Potassium is needed for cell metabolism and muscle function.

Chloride helps to maintain the amount of fluid in the body and

acid-base balance.

Calcium is needed for the proper functioning of the heart,

muscles, and nerves. Additionally, it is required in bone formation
and clotting blood.
Kidney tests Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), also known as serum urea nitrogen
(SUN), is a waste product produced by body metabolism. The
kidneys normally filter out this waste from the blood. If this level
gets too high, it indicates a kidney issue.

Creatinine is another waste product produced by the body; if not

properly filtered from the blood and excreted, it can become toxic.
Liver tests Also examined in the CMP are many different liver enzymes. They
are as follows:
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme found in the liver as
well as other tissues. If increased levels are present in the blood, it
is likely that bone or liver disease is present.

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) is an enzyme found in liver

cells. If the liver becomes damaged or inflamed, high levels of this
enzyme is an indicator.

Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme found in cells in

the heart and liver. High levels can indicate liver or heart disease.

Learning Hint 2–5

Looking at the terms in Table 2-7, such as alkaline phosphatase and aspartate amino-
transferase, you can see that they both end in -ase. This term means enzyme or “to
break down.” For example, lipase (lip/o = fatty) breaks down fats and amylase (amyl
= starch) breaks down starch.
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 65

2.3n Urine and Other Miscellaneous Tests

Urinalysis
Ur/o is the word root for urine. Urine is a waste product created by the kidneys Lipase (LIE-pace)
as the result of the body’s metabolism; its production and excretion is needed Any enzyme that breaks
down fats
to maintain a proper fluid and electrolyte balance. While urine contains many
dissolved substances, 95% of urine is water. The amount of urine produced is Amylase (AM-eh-lace)
approximately 1 liter a day. Enzyme that breaks
down starch into sugar
Besides taking images of the body or samples from the blood, another way
to help diagnose certain conditions is with a urine analysis (UA). Your kidneys
filter out waste products from your blood. Your physician can learn a lot of
information from your urine by looking at the concentration, color, and odor
of the sample. At least 10 milliliters (ml) are required for this test.
A urinalysis can test the urine’s specific gravity and pH. The specific gravity
(sg) indicates how well the kidneys can concentrate urine. Highly concentrated
urine will contain less water and more dissolved materials and be darker
yellow in color. Someone who is overhydrated will have a higher amount of
water and clearer or less concentrated urine. The urine pH is the level of urine
acidity. Some diseases can cause urine to become more acidic than normal.
Sometimes, urine can change from a clear fluid to a cloudy one; this ability
to change clarity is referred to as urine’s turbidity. Normal turbidity of urine
ranges from clear to slightly hazy. Should the patient’s urine become very
cloudy, it may mean something is wrong. For example, cloudy urine can mean
that there are bacteria present or other cells in the specimen. Urine should not
contain any bacteria, so if there are bacteria present, it may be an indicator of
a urinary tract infection. However, the cloudiness may also be caused by the
body processing fatty or greasy foods. A culture of the urine sample would
indicate if the cloudiness were due to bacteria.
Urine, like blood, can also be tested for the presence of sugar or glucose.
A urine glucose test is used to determine if the patient has diabetes. If sugar Glucosuria
is present in the urine, it is called glycosuria (glycos/o = sugar, -uria = urine) (gloo-koh-SUE-ree-ah)
or glucosuria (glucos/o = glucose or sugar, -uria = urine). The normal urine Excretion of sugar in the
glucose value is < 0.5 mg/dL; higher values would indicate diabetes. urine
Proteins are not normally found in a urine sample of healthy patients Proteinuria
because proteins are very large molecules that do not get through the kidney’s (pro-teen-YOUR-ee-uh)
filter and should therefore remain in the blood. If there are high levels of Excessive amount of
protein in the urine
proteins found in a urine specimen, it is called proteinuria (-uria = urine); this
may indicate that the patient has renal disease.
Urine odor can tip off a clinician as to whether a problem is occurring
with their patient. Urine should not have a strong odor. However, if the patient
has a urinary tract infection or is dehydrated, an odor can be present. You
may have even encountered some offensive odors if you have eaten certain
foods, like asparagus; this is entirely normal. Those with high levels of sugar
in their blood will also urinate glucose to the point where it smells sweet. This
is typically seen in diabetic patients.
Even urine color can be useful in reaching a diagnosis. See Table 2-8 for
the different color variations of urine and their meanings.
 66 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Table 2-8 Urine Color and Meaning

Urine color Potential meaning
Clear Overly hydrated
Pale straw/light yellow Normal
Darker amber/brown Dehydration
Milky/cloudy Excessive proteins or bacteria present
Brown/orange Liver disease (orange can also be medica-
tion induced)
Pink/red Blood/certain foods/cancer/medications/
infections
Blue/green Food dyes/medication/bacterial infections

Clinical Application                    2–10
Optimal Sampling Time
The best time to collect a urine sample for testing is in the morning,

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since it will be more likely to be concentrated and more likely to contain
abnormalities. Sometimes you will hear the term “void,” which can
mean to urinate.

Febrile Miscellaneous Common Tests

The state of having an
elevated temperature or Mono Test
fever
The mononucleosis test is a blood test used to detect the presence of a specific
Splenomegaly (splee- antibody produced by the body in response to the Epstein-Barr virus, which
noh-MEG-ah-lee)
Enlarged spleen is in the herpes family. This is a contagious disease spread typically through
saliva, which is why it was previously known as the “kissing disease.” Some
Hepatomegaly signs and symptoms that may present in an infected patient are: becoming
(hep-ah-toh-MEG-
ah-lee) febrile (having a fever), fatigue, and sore throat; in some cases, splenomegaly
Enlarged liver (splen/o = spleen, -megaly = enlarged) and hepatomegaly (hepat/o = liver,
-megaly = enlarged) may occur.

Strep Screen
A strep screen is done by swabbing the patient’s throat.
The results are provided within minutes. If positive, the
patient has an infection caused by group A streptococci—a
kind of bacteria. Remember, strept/o = chains and -coccus
= sphere, so these bacteria would present as a chain of
round spheres under the microscope.
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 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 67

Medical Checkup 2-3

1. Which of the following terms means blood? 5. Which of the following terms means excessive sugar
a. Erythr/o in the blood?
b. Hem/o a. Erythrocytosis
c. Phleb/o b. Anemia
d. Thromb/o c. Glucose
d. Hyperglycemia
2. Which of the following terms means enlarged?
a. -poises 6. Match the test to what it tests for.
b. -blast CBC a. Kidney
c. -megaly Pro time b. Clotting
d. -phage Lipid profile c. Liver
BUN d. Type and number of
3. Which of the following medical terms means too many
ALP blood cells
red blood cells?
e. Cholesterol
a. Hematocrit
b. Leukocytosis
c. Polycythemia
d. Leukemia
4. Which of the following terms mean deficiency?
a. -emia
b. -penia
c. -osis
d. -cytosis
68 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Chapter 2 Review
Review the following tables summarizing the key terms and abbreviations from this chapter. For each
term or abbreviation you feel you know, check the corresponding checkbox. You can study the rest
until all of them have been checked off.

Key Terms and Abbreviations

P Medical term Meaning

Adipose (ADD-ih-pohs) Fat tissue
Alanine (ALL-ah-neen) aminotransferase Enzyme found in liver cells; high levels indicate liver damage
Alkaline (AL-kuh-lin) phosphatase Enzyme found in the liver as well as other tissues; high levels
indicate likely bone or liver disease
Amylase (AM-eh-lace) Enzyme that breaks down starch into sugar
Anemia (ah-NEE-mee-ah) A lack of red blood cells
Anteroposterior view Used to describe an X-ray image taken when the X-ray
machine is placed at the anterior, or front, of the patient and
the film is located at the posterior, or back
Aspartate (ah-SPAR-tate) aminotransferase Enzyme found in cells in the heart and liver; high levels indi-
cate liver or heart disease
Basophil (BAY-soh-fill) A type of WBC that increases in number in response to
inflammation and blood disorders
Bilirubin Yellowish-orange substance formed when RBCs are destroyed
Blood urea (YOUR-ree-ah) nitrogen A blood test to determine the amount of urea nitrogen present
in the blood
Centrifuge A piece of equipment used to spin liquid samples very
quickly; can be used to separate blood into its components
Cholesterol (koh-LES-ter-ol) A fatty, wax-like substance found in the blood
Complete blood count A blood test ordered to measure many different components
of the blood
Comprehensive metabolic panel A blood test used to measure the patient’s electrolyte levels,
glucose level, fluid balance, and kidney and liver function
Computed tomography (toh-MOG- Utilizes X-rays and a computer to create images of the body
rah-fee) (CT)
Contraindicated When a certain diagnostic test or procedure should not be
done
Creatinine A waste product produced by metabolism; high levels indi-
cate kidney malfunction
CT technologist An individual who operates CT equipment to produce an
image
Cyanosis (sigh-ah-NOH-sis) A bluish coloration of the skin and mucous membranes
Differential leukocyte count A WBC count that measures the percentage of WBCs in the
blood
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 69

P Medical term Meaning

Electrolyte levels Measurement of charged minerals within the blood, such as
calcium and sodium, in milliequivalents per liter or milligrams
per deciliter
Eosinophil (ee-oh-SIN-oh-fill) A type of WBC that increases in number in response to
allergic reactions
Erythroblast Immature red blood cell
Erythrocyte (eh-RITH-roh-sight) Red blood cell
Erythrocytosis (eh-RITH-roh-SIGH-toe-sis) An abnormal or elevated number of red blood cells in the
blood
Erythropoiesis (eh-RITH-roh-poe-ee-sis) Formation of red blood cells
Erythropoietin (eh-RITH-roh-poy-et-in) Hormone produced primarily by the kidneys to increase the
production of red blood cells
Febrile The state of having an elevated temperature or fever
Glucometer (gloo-KOHM-eh-ter) A device used to monitor blood sugar levels
Glucose Sugar
Glucosuria (gloo-koh-SUE-ree-ah) Excretion of sugar in the urine
Glycated hemoglobin Hemoglobin bound with glucose
Glycosuria (gly-koh-SUE-ree-ah) Excretion of sugar in the urine
Gram Metric unit measuring weight (or mass)
Granulocyte (gran-YOU-low-site) A type of WBC that contains granules
Hematocrit (hee-MAT-oh-krit) A blood test used to see how many blood cells are in the
plasma
Hematology (hee-mah-TOL-oh-gee) A branch of medicine that studies the blood
Hemoglobin Protein in the blood responsible for transporting oxygen
Hepatomegaly (hep-ah-toh-MEG-ah-lee) Enlarged liver
High-density lipoprotein A waxy, fatty substance that is the “good” cholesterol that
helps clean the vessels of LDL
Hyperbilirubinemia Excessive amount of bilirubin in the blood
Hypercalcemia Excessive amount of calcium in the blood
Hyperchloremia Excessive amount of chloride in the blood
Hyperglycemia Excessive amount of sugar in the blood
Hyperkalemia Excessive amount of potassium in the blood
Hypermagnesemia Excessive amount of magnesium in the blood
Hypernatremia Excessive amount of sodium in the blood
Hyperphosphatemia Excessive amount of phosphate in the blood
Hypocalcemia Below normal amount of calcium in the blood
Hypochloremia Below normal amount of chloride in the blood
70 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

P Medical term Meaning

Hypoglycemia (HI-po-gly-SEE-me-ah) Below normal amount of sugar in the blood
Hypokalemia Below normal amount of potassium in the blood
Hypomagnesemia Below normal amount of magnesium in the blood
Hyponatremia Below normal amount of sodium in the blood
Hypophosphatemia Below normal amount of phosphate in the blood
Jaundice (JAWN-dis) Yellow coloration of the skin due to excessive levels of bili-
rubin in the blood
Lateral view Used to describe when the X-ray machine is directed at a
patient’s side, and the film or detector is placed at the oppo-
site side
Leukemia (loo-KEE-mee-ah) A cancer of the blood
Leukocyte (LOO-koh-sight) White blood cell
Leukocytosis High level of white blood cells in the blood
Leukopenia (loo-koh-PEE-nee-a) Abnormally low count of WBCs
Lipase (LIE-pace) Any enzyme that breaks down fats
Lipid profile A panel of blood tests used to look for abnormal levels of
lipids, or fats, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, in the
blood
Liter Metric unit measuring volume
Low-density lipoprotein A waxy, fatty substance that is the “bad” cholesterol that can
build up in vessels, causing blockages
Lymphocyte (LIM-foh-sight) Immune system cell that is found in lymph nodes
Macrophage (MACK-roh-fayj) A type of WBC that engulfs cellular debris
Magnetic resonance imaging An imaging procedure that utilizes strong magnetic fields to
obtain detailed images of the body
Meter Metric unit measuring length
Monocyte A type of WBC that can increase in number in the presence
of a severe or chronic infection
Mononuclear leukocytes A group of WBCs that have one nucleus
Mononucleosis test A blood test that is used to determine the presence of anti-
bodies that indicate mononucleosis
MRI technologist A radiology technologist who specializes in magnetic reso-
nance imaging
Neutrophil (NEW-troh-fill) A type of WBC that increases in number in response to bacte-
rial infections, inflammation, and stress
Nuclear medicine A medical specialty that utilizes radioactive substances for
diagnostic and therapeutic purposes
Nuclear medicine technologist An individual who prepares and administers radioactive drugs
for diagnostic imaging or therapeutic purposes
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 71

P Medical term Meaning

Oblique view Used to describe an X-ray taken at an angle
Phagocyte (FAG-oh-sight) A type of WBC that engulfs foreign debris from the body
Phlebotomist (fleh-BOT-oh-mist) Someone who specializes in collecting blood samples
Plasma The yellowish liquid portion of the blood that contains the
components of the blood
Polycythemia Caused by a disease state where the body produces too many
(paul-ee-sigh-THEE-mee-ah) red blood cells
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes A group of WBCs that contain many different shaped nuclei
Positron emission tomography A type of nuclear medicine imaging that uses a tracer to help
determine how the body metabolizes and functions
Posteroanterior view Used to describe an X-ray image taken when the X-ray machine
is placed at the posterior, or back, and the film is located at the
anterior, or front, of the patient
Proteinuria (pro-teen-YOUR-ee-uh) Excessive amount of protein in the urine
Prothrombin time A diagnostic test used to determine the presence of an exces-
sive clotting or bleeding disorder
Radiologist A medical doctor specializing in diagnosing and treating inju-
ries and diseases using medical imaging
Radiology Medical profession utilizing medical imaging to treat and
diagnose conditions of the body
Radiology technologist Profession that assures quality diagnostic imaging is produced
Radiopharmaceutical A radioactive substance used for diagnostic or therapeutic
purposes
Sonographer (soh-NOH-graf-er) The individual performing a sonogram or ultrasound
Sonography (son-OG-rah-fee) The process of recording a sonogram or ultrasound
Specific gravity of urine A test used to compare the density of urine to the density of
water to determine how well the kidneys can concentrate
urine
Splenomegaly (splee-noh-MEG-ah-lee) Enlarged spleen
Strep screen A swab test used to detect the presence of group A strepto-
cocci in the back of the throat
Thrombocyte (THROM-boh-sight) Clotting cell, also known as a platelet
Thrombocytopenia Less than normal number of platelets in the blood
(throm-boh-sigh-toh-PEE-nee-ah)
Thrombocytosis Excessive number of platelets found in the blood
(throm-boh-sigh-TOH-sis)
Triglyceride (tri-GLISS-er-ides) A type of fat or lipid found in the blood
Ultrasound Medical imaging that utilizes high-frequency sounds to
produce an image; also known as sonography
72 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

P Medical term Meaning

Urinary tract infection Infection of the urinary tract, which includes any part of the
urinary system, such as the bladder, urethra, and kidneys
Urine analysis, urinalysis Testing the urine for certain disorders
Urine odor Test used to detect certain conditions
Urine pH Testing the chemistry of the urine to determine whether it is
acidic or alkaline
Xanthemia (zan-THEE-mee-ah) A condition where the skin turns a yellow color
X-ray A two-dimensional radiologic image

Abbreviations
The following table contains the key medical abbreviations that appeared in this chapter. Please note that there
may be regional differences in what abbreviations are used and some of these abbreviations may not be used at
all health care facilities. Additionally, some abbreviations may conflict with other abbreviations that carry other
meanings (eg, pt for patient and PT for physical therapy). When in doubt, write out what you mean rather than
using an abbreviation that may introduce confusion.

P Medical abbreviation Meaning

A1c Glycated hemoglobin
ALP Alkaline phosphatase
ALT Alanine aminotransferase
AP Anteroposterior view
AST Aspartate aminotransferase
BUN or SUN Blood urea nitrogen; also known as serum urea nitrogen
c Centi-
C&S Culture and sensitivity
Ca Chemical symbol for calcium
CBC Complete blood (cell) count
Cl− Chemical symbol for chloride
CMP Comprehensive metabolic panel
CT Computed tomography
CXR Chest X-ray
d Deci-
da Deca-
Diff Differential leukocyte count
g Gram
h Hecto-
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 73

P Medical abbreviation Meaning

HCT Hematocrit (this abbreviation should be avoided because of the possibility of confu-
sion with hydrocortisone and hydrochlorothiazide; when in doubt, write it out)
HDL High-density lipoprotein
Hgb Hemoglobin
k Kilo-
K+ Potassium ion
L Liter
LDL Low-density lipoprotein
m Meter
m Milli-
Mg Chemical symbol for magnesium
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
Na+ Sodium ion
PA Posteroanterior view
PET Positron emission tomography
PLT Platelets
PO4 Phosphate
PT Prothrombin time
RBC Red blood cell
sg Specific gravity
UA Urine analysis, urinalysis
UTI Urinary tract infection
WBC White blood cell
 74 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

Medical Exam 2

Case No. 2.1

60-year-old Luis Salazar was working on his farm and
noticed some shortness of breath, a productive cough,
dizziness, and weakness. He has a personal history of
hepatomegaly and a strong family history of diabetes.
The physician orders the following image test.
Shutterstock

Patient X-Ray
1. Give the correct abbreviation for the type of image.
a. MRI
b. PET Scan
c. Ultrasound
d. CXR
2. The second image represents a(n) ____ view of the chest, or thorax.
a. AP
b. PA
c. lateral
d. superior
3. The darker areas on the image represent densities and are most likely .
a. radiolucent, air
b. radiopaque, air
c. radiolucent, bone
d. radiopaque, bone
4. The doctor determines that the lungs are clear and decides to get a more detailed image to assess the hepato-
megaly. The imaging chosen would be a(n) and would focus in on the .
a. X-ray, liver
b. MRI, kidney
c. CT, kidney
d. MRI, liver
5. The doctor also orders a glucose test, an A1c test, and electrolyte studies. The results are hyperglycemia, a high
A1c, and hypokalemia and hyponatremia. The results could best be described as .
a. high blood sugar, low chloride, and low potassium
b. low blood sugar, low potassium, and low sodium
c. high blood sugar, low potassium, and low magnesium
d. high blood sugar, low potassium, and low sodium
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 75

6. The units of measure for the electrolytes are .

a. mL
b. mcg
c. grams
d. mEq
7. An IV is ordered for Luis to infuse 0.5 liters of a solution containing potassium. How many milliliters of this solu-
tion should be administered?
a. 500 mL
b. 5 mL
c. 50 000 mL
d. 0.5 mL
8. Luis is given a glucometer for home use. This device will test his .
a. liver enzymes
b. cholesterol
c. blood sugar
d. triglycerides

Case No. 2.2

Lucy Johnson is 18 weeks pregnant when she notices
while doing her makeup that she has a yellowish tint
to the whites of her eyes. She hasn’t been feeling well
but had chalked it up to nausea that she’d heard often
comes with pregnancy. She calls her doctor, who tells
her to come in immediately for testing.
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1. What imaging test would be most appropriate to assess the health of the baby?
a. CT scan
b. X-ray
c. Sonography
d. Interventional radiography
2. The yellowish color in her eyes is found to be due to a buildup of bilirubin in her bloodstream. This condition is
known as and the technical medical term for the coloration of the blood is .
a. jaundice, cyanosis
b. jaundice, xanthemia
c. polycythemia, xanthemia
d. polycythemia, cyanosis
3. The doctor tells her the baby is fine, but she is concerned with the levels of fats in her bloodstream and how well
her kidneys are functioning. The test to check the levels of “fatty” substances in her blood is a .
a. CBC
b. lipid profile
c. liver enzyme
d. culture and sensitivity
 76 Chapter 2 Medical Terminology

4. The tests confirm hypercholesteremia and a high SUN. These results can best be described as .
a. high levels of cholesterol and high serum urine nodules
b. low levels of cholesterol and high serum urea nitrogen
c. high levels of cholesterol and high serum urea nitrogen
d. normal levels of cholesterol and high serum urea nitrogen
5. Lucy is given a strict diet with the goal of increasing her and decreasing her .
a. HDL, LDL
b. LDL, HDL
c. LDL, SUN
d. SUN, HDL

Case No. 2.3

Charles Rayford was diagnosed with chronic lung
disease at age 59 due to 40 pack years of smoking. He
quit smoking at age 59 but is now 70 and the disease has
progressed. He especially has a difficult time breathing
in the winter months and is more susceptible to pneu-
monias during this time. At a routine visit to his PCP,
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he complains of shortness of breath and a productive

cough; the physician notes perioral cyanosis. Charles
also states he has been getting up to urinate more often
at night. The doctor orders a CBC; it shows RBC poly-
cythemia, leukocytosis, and thrombocytopenia. In addition, he orders a urinalysis; it shows a UTI.

1. The doctor noted a color on Charles’s .

a. yellowish, lips
b. bluish, nose
c. bluish, lips
d. bluish, arms
2. What best describes the CBC results?
a. High levels of RBCs and WBCs
b. Low levels of RBCs and WBCs
c. High levels of RBCs and low levels of WBCs
d. Normal cellular counts
3. What two specialists would the PCP consider sending Charles to, given his current condition?
a. Cardiologist, urologist
b. Pulmonologist, sonographer
c. Dermatologist, pulmonologist
d. Pulmonologist, urologist
4. Leukocytosis might suggest he has .
a. diabetes
b. anemia
c. polycythemia
d. an infection
 Diagnostics Terminology Chapter 2 77

5. The physician is concerned about him bleeding to death because of what test result?
a. Leukocytosis
b. Polycythemia
c. UTI
d. Thrombocytopenia
6. A culture and sensitivity test is ordered on a sputum sample; it is found that Charles has streptococcal pneumonia.
An antibiotic is prescribed at 5 milligrams per kilograms. Charles weighs 165 pounds. How much antibiotic should
he get?
a. 75 mg
b. 375 mg
c. 1800 mg
d. 10 mg

Medical Checkup Answers

2-1 (1) b, c, a, (2) c, (3) a, (4) b, a, d, c, (5) b
2-2 (1) b, (2) b, (3) b, (4) d, (5) e, d, c, a, b
2-3 (1) b, (2) c, (3) c, (4) b, (5) d, (6) d, b, e, a, c