To help you prepare for your test in three hours, here is a concise summary focusing on the core
concepts of Momentum and Impulse, based on your study materials.
---
### **1. Linear Momentum ($\vec{p}$): "Inertia in Motion"**
Momentum describes how difficult it is to stop a moving object. It is a **vector quantity**,
meaning it has both a magnitude and a direction.
*
**Formula:** $\vec{p} = m\vec{v}$ (mass × velocity).
*
**Units:** $kg \cdot m/s$ or $N \cdot s$.
*
**Direction:** Always the same as the velocity vector.
*
**Concept Check:** A heavier object or a faster object will always have more momentum than a
lighter or slower one.
---
### **2. Impulse ($\vec{J}$): Changing Momentum**
Impulse is the measure of how a force acting over a period of time changes an object's motion.
*
**Formula:** $\vec{J} = \vec{F}_{net} \Delta t$.
*
**Impulse-Momentum Theorem:** The impulse applied to an object is exactly equal to its
change in momentum: $\vec{J} = \Delta \vec{p} = m\vec{v}_f - m\vec{v}_i$.
*
**Real-World Tip:** To reduce the **force** of an impact (like in car airbags or jumping and
bending your knees), you must increase the **time** ($\Delta t$) over which the momentum
change occurs.
---
### **3. Conservation of Momentum**
In an **isolated system** (where no external forces like friction act), the total momentum before
a collision is equal to the total momentum after.
*
**Conservation Law:** $m_1\vec{v}_{1i} + m_2\vec{v}_{2i} = m_1\vec{v}_{1f} +
m_2\vec{v}_{2f}$.
* **Internal Forces:** Forces between colliding objects are "internal." They change individual
momenta but never the system's total momentum.
---
### **4. Types of Collisions**
You must be able to distinguish between these based on what happens to **Kinetic Energy
(KE)**:
| Feature | **Elastic Collision** | **Inelastic Collision** | **Perfectly Inelastic** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Momentum** | Conserved
| Conserved
| Conserved
|
| **Kinetic Energy** | <br>**Conserved**
| <br>**Lost** (as heat/sound)
| <br>**Max Energy Loss**
|
| **Behavior** | Objects bounce perfectly | Objects bounce/deform | Objects **stick together**
*
**Calculation Note for "Sticking" Collisions:** Since they move together after hitting, use
$m_1v_{1i} + m_2v_{2i} = (m_1 + m_2)V_{final}$.
---
### **5. Center of Mass (CM)**
The Center of Mass is the unique point where the total mass of a system can be considered
concentrated.
*
**CM Motion:** If no external forces act on a system, the velocity of the center of mass **never
changes**, even if the objects inside the system collide or explode.
### **Quick Test Tips:**
1.
**Watch your signs (+/-):** Since momentum is a vector, an object bouncing back has a negative
velocity relative to its start.
2.
**Units:** Ensure mass is in **kg** and velocity is in **m/s** before calculating.
3.
**Graphing:** The area under a **Force vs. Time** graph is equal to the **Impulse**.
Physics: Momentum & Impulse
1. Linear Momentum
Linear momentum (
p) is a vector quantity that measures an object's inertia in motion. It is defined as the
product of an object's mass (
m) and its velocity (
v).
● Formula:
● p=mv
● p=mv
● Units: kg m/s (or N s)
● Direction: Momentum has the same direction as the velocity of the object.
Momentum quantifies how difficult it is to stop a moving object. A heavier or faster
object has more momentum and is thus harder to stop.
2. Impulse
Impulse (
J) is a measure of the effect of a force acting over a period of time. It is defined as the
product of the average force (
Favg
F
avg
) exerted on an object and the time interval (
Δt
Δt) over which it acts.
● Formula:
● J=FavgΔt
● J=F
● avg
●
● Δt
The Impulse-Momentum Theorem
The impulse delivered to an object is equal to the change in its momentum (
Δp
Δp). This is a fundamental theorem connecting force, time, and motion.
● Formula:
● J=Δp
● J=Δp
● Combined Formula:
● FavgΔt=Δp=pf−pi=mvf−mvi
● F
● avg
●
● Δt=Δp=p
● f
●
● −p
● i
●
● =mv
● f
●
● −mv
● i
●
●
Real-world application: Crumple zones and airbags in cars increase the time (
Δt
Δt) of impact during a crash. This reduces the average force (
Favg
F
avg
) experienced by the occupants, as the change in momentum (
Δp
Δp) is fixed (from highway speed to zero).
Calculus Supplement: Impulse with Variable Force
When the force is not constant, impulse is calculated by integrating the force function
F(t)
F(t) over the time interval from
ti
t
i
to
tf
t
f
. Geometrically, this represents the area under the force-time curve.
● Formula:
● J=∫titfF(t)dt
● J=∫
● t
● i
●
● t
● f
●
●
● F(t)dt
● Newton's Second Law (original form):
● F=dpdt
● F=
● dt
● dp
●
●
3. Conservation of Linear Momentum
The Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum states that if the net external force on an
isolated system of particles is zero (
ΣFext=0
ΣF
ext
=0), the total linear momentum (
P) of the system remains constant.
● Formula:
● Pinitial=Pfinal
● P
● initial
●
● =P
● final
●
●
● For a system of particles:
● Σmivi,initial=Σmivi,final
● Σm
● i
●
● v
● i,initial
●
● =Σm
● i
●
● v
● i,final
●
●
Important Note: During collisions, the internal forces between the colliding objects are
often much larger than external forces (like friction or gravity). Therefore, for the brief
duration of a collision, we can often treat the system as isolated and apply momentum
conservation.
4. Collisions
While momentum is always conserved in an isolated system, kinetic energy (
K) is not always conserved during collisions. Kinetic energy can be transformed into
heat, sound, or deformation.
Types of Collisions:
1. Elastic Collision:
● Both total momentum AND total kinetic energy are conserved.
● Objects bounce perfectly off each other.
● Example: Billiard balls (approximately), atomic particles.
● Kinitial=Kfinal
● K
● initial
●
● =K
● final
●
●
2. Inelastic Collision:
● Total momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not.
● Some kinetic energy is lost to heat, sound, or deformation.
● Example: A rubber ball hitting a floor.
● Kinitial>Kfinal
● K
● initial
●
● >K
● final
●
●
3. Perfectly Inelastic Collision:
● Total momentum is conserved.
● Maximum possible kinetic energy is lost.
● The objects stick together and move with a common final velocity.
● Example: Two clay balls colliding, a train car coupling with another.
4. Explosion/Recoil:
● Objects begin together (often at rest) and push apart.
● Kinetic energy is gained from stored potential energy (chemical, spring).
● Kfinal>Kinitial
● K
● final
●
● >K
● initial
●
●
1D Collisions:
For a collision between two objects (
m1,m2
m
1
,m
2
) with initial velocities (
v1i,v2i
v
1i
,v
2i
) and final velocities (
v1f,v2f
v
1f
,v
2f
):
● Momentum Conservation:
● m1v1i+m2v2i=m1v1f+m2v2f
● m
● 1
●
● v
● 1i
●
● +m
● 2
●
● v
● 2i
●
● =m
● 1
●
● v
● 1f
●
● +m
● 2
●
● v
● 2f
●
●
● Kinetic Energy Conservation (Elastic):
● 12m1v1i2+12m2v2i2=12m1v1f2+12m2v2f2
● 2
● 1
●
● m
● 1
●
● v
● 1i
● 2
●
● +
● 2
● 1
●
● m
● 2
●
● v
● 2i
● 2
●
● =
● 2
● 1
●
● m
● 1
●
● v
● 1f
● 2
●
● +
● 2
● 1
●
● m
● 2
●
● v
● 2f
● 2
●
●
Example Calculation: Elastic Collision
Two masses,
m1=4
m
1
=4 kg and
m2=6
m
2
=6 kg, move toward each other.
m1
m
1
moves at
v1i=+2
v
1i
=+2 m/s (East) and
m2
m
2
moves at
v2i=−1
v
2i
=−1 m/s (West). If they undergo an elastic collision, what are their final velocities?
1. Momentum Conservation:
2. m1v1i+m2v2i=m1v1f+m2v2f
3. m
4. 1
5.
6. v
7. 1i
8.
9. +m
10.2
11.
12.v
13.2i
14.
15.=m
16.1
17.
18.v
19.1f
20.
21.+m
22.2
23.
24.v
25.2f
26.
27.
28.(4 kg)(+2 m/s)+(6 kg)(−1 m/s)=(4 kg)v1f+(6 kg)v2f
29.(4 kg)(+2 m/s)+(6 kg)(−1 m/s)=(4 kg)v
30.1f
31.
32.+(6 kg)v
33.2f
34.
35.
36.8−6=4v1f+6v2f
37.8−6=4v
38.1f
39.
40.+6v
41.2f
42.
43.
44.2=4v1f+6v2f
45.2=4v
46.1f
47.
48.+6v
49.2f
50.
51. Divide by 2:
52.1=2v1f+3v2f
53.1=2v
54.1f
55.
56.+3v
57.2f
58.
59. (Equation 1)
60.Kinetic Energy Conservation:
61.12m1v1i2+12m2v2i2=12m1v1f2+12m2v2f2
62.2
63.1
64.
65.m
66.1
67.
68.v
69.1i
70.2
71.
72.+
73.2
74.1
75.
76.m
77.2
78.
79.v
80.2i
81.2
82.
83.=
84.2
85.1
86.
87.m
88.1
89.
90.v
91.1f
92.2
93.
94.+
95.2
96.1
97.
98.m
99.2
100.
101. v
102. 2f
103. 2
104.
105. Multiply by 2:
106. m1v1i2+m2v2i2=m1v1f2+m2v2f2
107. m
108. 1
109.
110. v
111. 1i
112. 2
113.
114. +m
115. 2
116.
117. v
118. 2i
119. 2
120.
121. =m
122. 1
123.
124. v
125. 1f
126. 2
127.
128. +m
129. 2
130.
131. v
132. 2f
133. 2
134.
135.
136. (4 kg)(+2 m/s)2+(6 kg)(−1 m/s)2=(4 kg)v1f2+(6 kg)v2f2
137. (4 kg)(+2 m/s)
138. 2
139. +(6 kg)(−1 m/s)
140. 2
141. =(4 kg)v
142. 1f
143. 2
144.
145. +(6 kg)v
146. 2f
147. 2
148.
149.
150. 4(4)+6(1)=4v1f2+6v2f2
151. 4(4)+6(1)=4v
152. 1f
153. 2
154.
155. +6v
156. 2f
157. 2
158.
159.
160. 16+6=4v1f2+6v2f2
161. 16+6=4v
162. 1f
163. 2
164.
165. +6v
166. 2f
167. 2
168.
169.
170. 22=4v1f2+6v2f2
171. 22=4v
172. 1f
173. 2
174.
175. +6v
176. 2f
177. 2
178.
179. Divide by 2:
180. 11=2v1f2+3v2f2
181. 11=2v
182. 1f
183. 2
184.
185. +3v
186. 2f
187. 2
188.
189. (Equation 2) Alternative approach using relative velocities for elastic
collisions:
190. v1i−v2i=−(v1f−v2f)
191. v
192. 1i
193.
194. −v
195. 2i
196.
197. =−(v
198. 1f
199.
200. −v
201. 2f
202.
203. )
204. v1i−v2i=v2f−v1f
205. v
206. 1i
207.
208. −v
209. 2i
210.
211. =v
212. 2f
213.
214. −v
215. 1f
216.
217.
218. +2 m/s−(−1 m/s)=v2f−v1f
219. +2 m/s−(−1 m/s)=v
220. 2f
221.
222. −v
223. 1f
224.
225.
226. 3=v2f−v1f
227. 3=v
228. 2f
229.
230. −v
231. 1f
232.
233. (Equation 3)
234. Solving the System of Equations: From Equation 3,
235. v2f=v1f+3
236. v
237. 2f
238.
239. =v
240. 1f
241.
242. +3. Substitute this into Equation 1:
243. 1=2v1f+3(v1f+3)
244. 1=2v
245. 1f
246.
247. +3(v
248. 1f
249.
250. +3)
251. 1=2v1f+3v1f+9
252. 1=2v
253. 1f
254.
255. +3v
256. 1f
257.
258. +9
259. 1=5v1f+9
260. 1=5v
261. 1f
262.
263. +9
264. −8=5v1f
265. −8=5v
266. 1f
267.
268.
269. v1f=−85=−1.6
270. v
271. 1f
272.
273. =−
274. 5
275. 8
276.
277. =−1.6 m/s Now find
278. v2f
279. v
280. 2f
281.
282. using Equation 3:
283. v2f=v1f+3=−1.6 m/s+3 m/s=+1.4
284. v
285. 2f
286.
287. =v
288. 1f
289.
290. +3=−1.6 m/s+3 m/s=+1.4 m/s Result:
291. v1f=−1.6
292. v
293. 1f
294.
295. =−1.6 m/s (West) and
296. v2f=+1.4
297. v
298. 2f
299.
300. =+1.4 m/s (East).
2D Glancing Collisions:
In two dimensions, momentum must be conserved independently in the x and y
directions.
● x-direction:
● Σpix=Σpfx
● Σp
● ix
●
● =Σp
● fx
●
●
● y-direction:
● Σpiy=Σpfy
● Σp
● iy
●
● =Σp
● fy
●
●
5. Center of Mass (CM)
The Center of Mass is the average position of all the mass in a system. It's the point
where the system would balance.
Discrete Center of Mass Formula:
For a system of individual particles:
● Formula:
● xcm=ΣmixiMtotal
● x
● cm
●
● =
● M
● total
●
● Σm
● i
●
● x
● i
●
●
●
● ycm=ΣmiyiMtotal
● y
● cm
●
● =
● M
● total
●
● Σm
● i
●
● y
● i
●
●
●
● zcm=ΣmiziMtotal
● z
● cm
●
● =
● M
● total
●
● Σm
● i
●
● z
● i
●
●
● where
● Mtotal=Σmi
● M
● total
●
● =Σm
● i
●
● .
Continuous Center of Mass Formula:
For a continuous object, we integrate over the mass distribution.
dm
dm represents an infinitesimal mass element.
● Formula:
● xcm=1Mtotal∫xdm
● x
● cm
●
● =
● M
● total
●
● 1
●
● ∫xdm
● ycm=1Mtotal∫ydm
● y
● cm
●
● =
● M
● total
●
● 1
●
● ∫ydm
● zcm=1Mtotal∫zdm
● z
● cm
●
● =
● M
● total
●
● 1
●
● ∫zdm
To use this,
dm
dm must be expressed in terms of spatial coordinates using density (e.g., linear density
λ=dmdx
λ=
dx
dm
, so
dm=λdx
dm=λdx).
Motion of the Center of Mass:
The center of mass of a system moves as if all the system's mass were concentrated at
that point and all external forces were applied there.
ΣFext=Mtotalacm
ΣF
ext
=M
total
a
cm
The velocity of the center of mass is:
Vcm=ΣmiviMtotal=PtotalMtotal
V
cm
=
M
total
Σm
i
=
M
total
total
If the net external force is zero, the total momentum (
Ptotal
P
total
) is conserved, meaning the velocity of the center of mass (
Vcm
V
cm
) is constant.
Example: Center of Mass of a Non-Uniform Rod
Consider a thin rod of length
L
L with a linear density
λ(x)=λ0(1+xL)
λ(x)=λ
0
(1+
L
x
). Find its center of mass.
1. Total Mass:
2. Mtotal=∫dm=∫0Lλ(x)dx=∫0Lλ0(1+xL)dx
3. M
4. total
5.
6. =∫dm=∫
7. 0
8. L
9.
10.λ(x)dx=∫
11.0
12.L
13.
14.λ
15.0
16.
17.(1+
18.L
19.x
20.
21.)dx
22.Mtotal=λ0[x+x22L]0L=λ0(L+L22L−0)=λ0(L+L2)=32λ0L
23.M
24.total
25.
26.=λ
27.0
28.
29.[x+
30.2L
31.x
32.2
33.
34.]
35.0
36.L
37.
38.=λ
39.0
40.
41.(L+
42.2L
43.L
44.2
45.
46.−0)=λ
47.0
48.
49.(L+
50.2
51.L
52.
53.)=
54.2
55.3
56.
57.λ
58.0
59.
60.L
61.Center of Mass Position:
62.xcm=1Mtotal∫xdm=1Mtotal∫0Lxλ(x)dx
63.x
64.cm
65.
66.=
67.M
68.total
69.
70.1
71.
72.∫xdm=
73.M
74.total
75.
76.1
77.
78.∫
79.0
80.L
81.
82.xλ(x)dx
83.xcm=132λ0L∫0Lxλ0(1+xL)dx
84.x
85.cm
86.
87.=
88.2
89.3
90.
91.λ
92.0
93.
94.L
95.1
96.
97.∫
98.0
99.L
100.
101. xλ
102. 0
103.
104. (1+
105. L
106. x
107.
108. )dx
109. xcm=23λ0L∫0Lλ0(x+x2L)dx
110. x
111. cm
112.
113. =
114. 3λ
115. 0
116.
117. L
118. 2
119.
120. ∫
121. 0
122. L
123.
124. λ
125. 0
126.
127. (x+
128. L
129. x
130. 2
131.
132. )dx
133. xcm=23L[x22+x33L]0L
134. x
135. cm
136.
137. =
138. 3L
139. 2
140.
141. [
142. 2
143. x
144. 2
145.
146. +
147. 3L
148. x
149. 3
150.
151. ]
152. 0
153. L
154.
155.
156. xcm=23L(L22+L33L−0)=23L(L22+L23)
157. x
158. cm
159.
160. =
161. 3L
162. 2
163.
164. (
165. 2
166. L
167. 2
168.
169. +
170. 3L
171. L
172. 3
173.
174. −0)=
175. 3L
176. 2
177.
178. (
179. 2
180. L
181. 2
182.
183. +
184. 3
185. L
186. 2
187.
188. )
189. xcm=23L(3L2+2L26)=23L(5L26)=10L218L=5L9
190. x
191. cm
192.
193. =
194. 3L
195. 2
196.
197. (
198. 6
199. 3L
200. 2
201. +2L
202. 2
203.
204. )=
205. 3L
206. 2
207.
208. (
209. 6
210. 5L
211. 2
212.
213. )=
214. 18L
215. 10L
216. 2
217.
218. =
219. 9
220. 5L
221.
222. Result: The center of mass is located at
223. xcm=5L9
224. x
225. cm
226.
227. =
228. 9
229. 5L
230.
231. from the end where
232. x=0
233. x=0.
Here is a brief explanation for each of the multiple-choice questions from your practice set:
Part I: Multiple Choice Questions
1. Kinetic Energy in terms of $p$ and $m$ (Correct: A): Kinetic energy is $KE =
\frac{1}{2}mv^2$ and momentum is $p = mv$. By substituting $v = p/m$ into the energy
formula, you get $KE = \frac{1}{2}m(p/m)^2 = p^2/2m$.
2. Quadrupled Quantities (Correct: B): Momentum is directly proportional to velocity ($p
= mv$). If velocity quadruples ($4v$), the momentum also quadruples. (Note: Kinetic
energy would increase by $4^2$ or 16 times).
3. Net Force after 5.0s (Correct: B): Force is the derivative of momentum, or $F = ma$.
First, find acceleration by taking the derivative of velocity $v = 4t^2$, which is $a = 8t$.
At $t = 5s$, $a = 40 \text{ m/s}^2$. Then $F = (2.0 \text{ kg})(40 \text{ m/s}^2) = 80 \text{
N}$.
4. Apparent Weight at 5.0s (Correct: D): Apparent weight is $N = m(g + a)$. Find
acceleration $a$ by deriving $v = 4t + 0.8t^2$ to get $a = 4 + 1.6t$. At $t = 5s$, $a = 12
\text{ m/s}^2$. Thus, $N = 90(10 + 12) = 90(22) = 1980 \text{ N}$. (Note: Based on the
calculation, the answer is A, but ensure your key matches).
5. Change in Momentum of a Ball (Correct: C): Change in momentum is $\Delta p =
m(v_f - v_i)$. Taking up as positive: $\Delta p = 3.0(3 - (-7)) = 3.0(10) = 30 \text{
kg}\cdot\text{m/s}$.
6. Magnitude of Change in Momentum (Correct: C): $\Delta p = m(v_f - v_i)$. $\Delta p
= 0.50(-3.6 - 6.4) = 0.50(-10) = -5.0 \text{ kg}\cdot\text{m/s}$. The magnitude is $5.0
\text{ kg}\cdot\text{m/s}$.
7. Average Force acting on the Puck (Correct: A): Force is Impulse/time. $F = \Delta p /
t = 5.0 / 0.050 = 100 \text{ N}$.
8. Magnitude of Impulse (Correct: C): Impulse is change in momentum. $\Delta p =
0.25(11 - (-9)) = 0.25(20) = 5.0 \text{ kg}\cdot\text{m/s}$.
9. Duration of Net Force (Correct: A): $F\Delta t = \Delta p$. $\Delta t = \Delta p / F =
240 / 60 = 4 \text{ s}$.
10.Maximum Force to Split Wood (Correct: B): Snapping the hand back increases the
change in velocity (and thus the change in momentum), which results in a larger
impulse and force delivered to the wood.
11.Carpenter Throwing Hammer (Correct: D): Because the system starts at rest, total
momentum must remain zero. Therefore, the carpenter and hammer must have equal
and opposite momentum to cancel each other out.
12.Student Velocity after Throw (Correct: B): Conservation of momentum: $0 = m_s v_s
+ m_b v_b$. $0 = (40)v_s + (3)(8) \implies 40v_s = -24 \implies v_s = -0.6 \text{ m/s}$.
The negative sign indicates the opposite direction.
13.Gravel Dumped into Truck (Correct: B): The mass of the system increases. To
conserve horizontal momentum ($p = mv$), the velocity must decrease.
14.Heavier Object with Same KE (Correct: A): Using $p = \sqrt{2mKE}$, if $KE$ is
constant, momentum $p$ is proportional to $\sqrt{m}$. The larger mass ($m_1$) will
have more momentum.
15.Lighter Object with Same Momentum (Correct: B): Using $KE = p^2/2m$, if $p$ is
constant, $KE$ is inversely proportional to mass. The smaller mass ($m_2$) will have
more kinetic energy.
16.Perfectly Inelastic Collision (Correct: A): $m_1v_1 + m_2v_2 = (m_1 + m_2)V$.
$(2)(3) + (1)(-3) = (3)V \implies 6 - 3 = 3V \implies V = 1.0 \text{ m/s}$ to the right.
17.Speed of Explosion Piece (Correct: C): Momentum is conserved: $0 = m_A v_A +
m_B v_B$. $0 = (2m_B)v + (m_B)v_B \implies v_B = -2v$. The speed is $2v$.
18.Area under Force vs. Time (Correct: D): By definition, the integral of force over time is
Impulse.
19.Perfectly Inelastic Definition (Correct: C): It is defined by the objects sticking
together, which results in the maximum loss of kinetic energy while still conserving
momentum.
20.Impulse from Wall at Angle (Correct: C): Only the velocity component perpendicular
to the wall changes ($v \cos\theta$ to $-v \cos\theta$). The change is $v \cos\theta - (-v
\cos\theta) = 2v \cos\theta$. Multiply by mass to get $2mv \cos\theta$.
21.Velocity of Center of Mass (Correct: D): In an isolated system, no external forces act.
Newton's First Law for systems states the velocity of the center of mass remains
constant.
22.Terminal Velocity Momentum Change (Correct: C): At terminal velocity, the net force
is zero ($a = 0$). Since $F_{net} = \Delta p / \Delta t$, the rate of change of momentum
becomes zero.
23.Bounce vs. Stick Impulse (Correct: A): Bouncing (Object A) involves a larger change
in velocity ($v$ to $-v$) than sticking (Object B, $v$ to $0$), so Object A experiences a
greater impulse.
24.Momentum at Maximum Compression (Correct: C): At maximum compression, the
block momentarily stops moving to change direction, so its velocity and momentum are
zero.
25.Ballistic Pendulum (Correct: C): Momentum is conserved during the rapid collision
before the pendulum moves significantly; mechanical energy is conserved as the
system swings upward after the collision is over.