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 BASIC
ELECTRONIC TEST
INSTRUMENTS
By RUFUS P. TURNER

This book fills the need for an accurate

up-to-date treatise on the test instruments in
television, radio, and the general electronics
field. The rapid, divergent expansion of test-
ing methods, and their vital importance, have
made a thorough knowledge of test instru-
ments essential to almost any electronics
technician. This knowledge is imparted by
Mr. Turner in a clear, nonmathematical,
down-to-earth manner which eliminates all
frills and unnecessary theory. A wide, com-
prehensive list of instruments is treated:
their basic principles, their operation and
construction, and their practical applications
are discussed in a manner calculated to be
most helpful to the technician, the radio
and TV service man, the hobbyist, and the
engineer. The instruments covered herein
are of major importance in radio and TV
servicing, audio-amplifier testing and repair,
high-fidelity systems, radio and TV research
and development, industrial electronics main-
tenance and design, and to experimenters
and radio amateurs. Modern production
methods have made it possible for the pro-
fessional or nonprofessional to construct,
purchase ready-made or in kit form, vitally-
needed equipment at a cost within his means;
this book provides the know-how for capital-
izing on these opportunities and ensuring
optimum benefit from them. It will enable
the reader to choose easily and intelligently,
from the mass of equipment available on
the market, those instruments which will
prove of greatest help and profit to him, and
to put them to the best possible use.
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2022 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

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Basic Electronic Test Instruments
Their Operation and Use
Basic Electronic

Test Instruments

THEIR OPERATION AND USE

By Rufus P. Turner
Registered Professional Engineer

Technical Division

Holt, Rinehart and Winston

New York
 08567 —0113

January, 1962

Copyright 1953, by Rufus P. Turner

Printed in the United States of America
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 52-5782
To Mother
 Preface

This book succeeds my earlier work Radio Test Instruments, which

was concerned chiefly with how to build test equipment. It is an elemen-
tary practical manual addressed to the service technician, experimenter,
amateur, and student.
Since the original publication of Radio Test Instruments, instrument
kits have become established in the electronic market, have received wide
acceptance, and have for the most part rendered uneconomical the design
and construction of shop-built equipment unless the latter serves some
special purpose. The present book accordingly has abandoned the con-
structional viewpoint, except in the case of special-purpose instruments.
Due cognizance is paid on its pages to selected kit items which have
been tested by the author, and to commercial ready-made instruments
which are of interest to the electronic technician.
The purpose of this book is to acquaint the technician with the
instruments of his art, their operating principles and their use, and to
make explanations in language that he can understand. The profuse use
of pictorial illustrations, and of frequent illustrative examples where
calculations are involved, is intended to enhance this understanding.
The reader is assumed to have obtained a ground knowledge of general
radio and electronic theory from other sources; therefore no space is
devoted to fundamental theory. ”
I am indebted to the editors of Radio & Television News, Radio-
Electronics, Radio Service Dealer, Radio & Television Maintenance, and
QST for permission to use material from articles previously published
under my name in their magazines. Grateful acknowledgement is made
also of the permission given by the following companies to describe in this
book certain instruments manufactured by them, and of their cooperation
in supplying photographs and circuit diagrams: Allen D. Du Mont Labo-
ratories, Inc., General Radio Co., Heath Company, Jackson Electrical
vii
viii PREFACE

Instrument Co., James Millen Mfg. Co., Radio Corporation of America,

Simpson Electric Co., Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., and Technology
Instrument Corp. I am also indebted to Joseph Odenbach for his skill in
preparing the finished drawings for the illustrations used in the book. My
wife, Mary Hayes Turner, aided in ways too numerous to mention and
sacrificed many days of companionship while the book was in preparation.
Rurus P. TURNER
Los Angeles, California
November, 1952
 ABBREVIATIONS

alternating current megacycles

alternating current-— megohms
direct current millihenrys
audio frequency millivolts
amplitude modulated milliwatts
ampere microamperes
automatic volume microfarads
control micromicrofarads
cycles per second microhenrys
code (continuous wave) power factor
decibels phase modulated
decibels above one resistance capacitance
milliwatt phase angle
direct current radio frequency
degrees root mean square
double-pole-double- seconds
throw single-pole-single-throw
Federal Communica- tuned radio frequency
tions Commission television
frequency modulated ultrahigh frequency
transconductance of United Transformer
tube Corporation
henrys volts
intermediate frequency very high frequency
kilocycles volt-ohm-milliammeter
kilovolts vacuum-tube voltmeter
milliamperes’ watts
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 Table of Contents

Ue Simple Meters for Current and Voltage

Operating Principle of Simple Meters, 1. Multipliers and

Shunts, 2. Measuring Internal Resistance of Meters, 5.
Meter Resistor Specifications, 8. Ohms-per-Volt Rating, 10.
Resistance Rating of Current Meters, 11. Multirange Volt-
meters, 11. Multirange Current Meters, 13. D-C Volt-Mil-
liammeter, 14. Very-High-Resistance D-C Voltmeter, 15.
Meter Rectifiers for A-C, 15. Crystal Meters, 19. A-C/D-C
Multimeter, 20. Calibration of Simple Meters, 21.

2. Ohmmeters and Volt-Ohm-Milliammeters 28

Ohmmeter Operating Principle, 28. Use of Voltmeter with-
out Setting Zero, 29. Series-connected vs. Shunt-connected
Ohmmeter, 30. Potentiometer-Type Ohmmeter, 31. Meas-
uring Resistance with Current Meter, 31. Simple Volt-Ohm-
meter, 32. Ohmmeter Calibration, 34. Volt-Ohm-Milliam-
meter, 34. Typical Commercial VOM, 35. Calibration of
VOM’s, 40. Multimeter Operating Instructions, 41.

3. Vacuum-Tube Voltmeters 44a

Features of the VIVM, 44. VITVM Types, 45. Battery-
operated Diode VTVM, 52. A-C Operation of a Diode
VTVM, 54. Center-Zero D-C VT VM, 54. Resistance Meas-
urement with VIVM, 56. Commercial Kit-Type VITVM,
57. Accessories for VTVM’s, 59. Audio VT VM-Millivolt-
meter, 62. Calibration Procedure for VITVM’s, 65. Ac-
curacy of VTVM’s, 66. VITVM Operating Instructions, 66.
xi
xii CONTENTS

4. Power Measurements and Power Meters 69

Voltmeter-Ammeter Method, 69. Basic Wattmeter, 69.
Checking Power Drain of Electronic Equipment, 70. Simple
Checking of A-F Power,70. Audio Output Power Meter, 71.
Checking R-F Power, 73. Photoelectric R-F Wattmeter, 75.
Decibel Power-Level Scales, 75.

5. Impedance Meters and Measurements 78

Scope of Instrumentation, 78. Bridge-Type Impedance
Meter, 78. Impedance Measurement by Voltmeter-Ammeter
Method, 80. A-F Impedance Measurement with Simple
T-Network, 81. R-F Impedance Measurement with Simple
T-Network, 82.

6. Capacitor Checkers 85
Simple Capacitor Checker, 85. Compact Capacitor Bridge,
88. Commercial Kit-Type Capacitance-Resistance Bridge,
89. Substitution Method for Small Capacitances, 91. Ca-
pacitance Checking with Grid-Dip Oscillator, 92. Meter
Checking of Capacitance, 92.

7. Inductance Checkers 94
Inductance Bridge Assembled from Laboratory Parts, 94.
Coil Checker with Capacitors as Standards, 96. Resonant
L Meter, 98. Checking Inductance with Grid-Dip Oscilla-
tor, 100. Combination Inductance Bridge, 101. Q Meter
for Coil Testing, 102.

8. Special-Purpose Bridges and Accessories 109

Precision Resistance Bridge, 109. Skeleton-Type L-C-R
Bridge, 111. Rheostat-Type Skeleton R-C-L Bridge, 116.
Kit-Type Impedance Bridge, 119. Bridge Oscillator, 124.
High-Gain Null Detector, 125. Null Detector with Peaked
Amplifier, 127. Sharply-tuned Bridge Amplifier, 128. Os-
cilloscope as Null Detector, 129.

9. Oscilloscopes and Applications 133

Basic Oscilloscope, 133. Kit-Type General-Purpose Oscil-
loscope, 134. Commercial Television Oscilloscope, 137.
 CONTENTS xiti

Electronic Switch, 141. Servicing Radio Receivers with

Oscilloscope, 145. Television-Recetver Checking with Oscil-
loscope, 149. Checking Transmitter Modulation with Oscil-
loscope, 153. Frequency Checking with Oscilloscope, 155.
Phase Checking with Oscilloscope, 155. Voltage Calibration
of Oscilloscope Screen, 156. Oscilloscope Voltage Calibra-
tor, 156.

10. R-F Test Oscillators and Signal Generators 160

General-Purpose Service Test Oscillator, 160. Frequency-
modulated Signal Generators, 161. Combination Signal
Generator, 163. Television Sweep-Signal Generator, 166.
TV-FM Marker Generator, 168. Visual Alignment with
Signal Generator, 170. TV Linearity-Pattern Generator,
170. External Modulator for Signal Generators, 172.
Audio Extractor for Signal Generators, 173. Calibration of
Signal Generators, 174.

11. Audio Test Oscillators 177

Simple Single-Frequency Audio Oscillators, 177. Principle
of the RC-tuned Variable-Frequency Oscillator, 179. Kit-
Type Audio Signal Generator, 180. Calibration of Audio
Oscillators, 182.

12. Frequency-Measuring Devices for Radio Frequencies 186

Wide-Range Absorption Wavemeters, 186. Grid-Dip Oscil-
lator, 188. Lecher Frame for Frequency Measurements, 189.
Self-excited Dual-Frequency Standard, 190. Crystal-Type
Secondary-Frequency Standard, 192. Heterodyne Frequency
Meter, 194.

13. Frequency-Measuring Devices for Audio Frequencies 198

Bridge-Type A-F Meter, 198. Electronic A-F Meter, 200.
Frequency Checking with Oscilloscope, 203.

14. Audio-Amplifier Testing Devices 205

A-F Signal Tracers, 205. Distortion Meter, 208. Wave
Analyzer, 214. Square-Wave Generator, 219. Use of Square
xiv CONTENTS

Waves in Audio-Amplifier Testing, 220. Intermodulation

Measurements, 222. Checking Frequency Response, 224.
Checking Gain, 225. Checking Power Output, 225. Com-
mercial A-F Microvolter, 236.

15. R-F Signal Tracers 229

High-Gain R-F Signal Tracer, 229. Kit-Type Signal Tracer
and Substitution Speaker, 230. Professional Channel Ana-
lyzer, 232. Signal Injectors for Rapid Troubleshooting,
2a0%

16. Tube Characteristics and Tube Testers 237

Static Characteristics, 237. Dynamic Characteristics, 239.

Emission Testing, 240. Transconductance Testing, 241.
Power-Output Testing, 241. Commercial Tube Tester, 244.

Index 247
Basic Electronic Test Instruments
Their Operation and Use
 Semple Meters
for Current and Voltage

1.1. Operating Principle of Simple Meters

Several types of indicating meters are in present general use for dis-
playing current and voltage values. These include the following: pivot-
type moving-coil, suspension-type moving-coil, electrostatic, dynamometer,
and movable-iron types.
The double-pivoted moving-coil type commonly is known as the
d’Arsonval movement (after Jacques Arséne d’Arsonval, French physicist,
who in 1882 made the first reflecting galvanometer containing a moving
coil) . It is characterized by a coil of numerous turns of wire wound on a
thin rectangular frarhe, or made self-supporting, and mounted on jeweled
bearings between the curved pole pieces of a strong permanent magnet.
Electrical connection is made to the ends of the coil through a pair of
spiral hairsprings, one attached to each coil pivot. Direct current (d-c)
flowing through the coil sets up a magnetic field which reacts with the
field of the permanent magnet and causes the coil to rotate against the
returning force of the hairsprings. The arc through which the coil turns
is proportional to the strength of the current. Thus, a lightweight pointer
may be attached to the moving coil and its deflection over a calibrated
scale made to indicate current strength.
The d’Arsonval movement is convenient to use in electronic instru-
ments, since it is sensitive, comparatively rugged, easily transported with-
out damage, and adapted readily for indicating current and voltage values
higher than its basic range.
The basic d’Arsonval movements employed in electronic instruments
are the d-c milliammeter and d-c microammeter. In addition to indicating
1
2 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

current values, these basic meters also will indicate d-c millivolts directly.
They may be used for alternating-current (a-c) measurements by first
rectifying the [Link] then applying the resulting d-c to the meter.
Figure 1-1 shows how a multiplier resistor may be connected in series with
the basic current meter to convert the latter into a voltmeter. Figure 1-2
shows how a shunt resistor may be connected in parallel with the basic
meter to convert the latter into a current meter (microammeter, milliam-
meter, or ammeter) with a higher range.

/D-C MILLIAMMETER D-C MILLIAMMETER

py or MICROAMMETER or MICROAMMETER

|
A
1
MULTIPLIER
RESISTOR

SHUNT
RESISTOR

+ - + ~
Fic. 1-1 D-C Voltmeter Circuit, FIG. 1-2 Direct Current Meter,
Showing Connection Showing Connection
of Multiplier of Shunt

1.2 Multipliers and Shunts

Required multiplier and shunt-resistance values are calculated, by
means of Ohm’s law, in the following manner:
For a Multiplier
Divide the desired full-scale voltage deflection by the present full-
scale current deflection of the milliammeter or microammeter.

R=E/I, (1A)
where R is the required multiplier resistance (ohms) ,
E, the desired full-scale voltage deflection of meter after addition
of multiplier (volts) , and
I, the present full-scale current deflection (amperes).
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: What value of multiplier resistance will be
required to convert a 0-200 d-c microammeter into a 0-150 d-c voltmeter?
ANSWER: R = 150/0.0002 = 750,000 ohms.

For a Shunt
(1) First, determine the internal resistance (rm) of the meter to be
used. The approximate value of this resistance may be found in the meter
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 3

manufacturer’s catalogue. Internal-resistance values for a number of mil-

liammeters and microammeters used in electronic work also are given in
the list in Table 1-1. For exact values, measure the meter resistance
according to the instructions given in Section 1.3 of this chapter. (2) Note
the factor (n) by which the present full-scale value of the meter is to be
multiplied. (3) Divide the meter resistance by n — 1.
R=1,/(n — 1), (1B)
where R is the required shunt resistance (ohms) ,
Ym, the internal resistance of the milliammeter or microammeter
(ohms) , and
n, the scale multiplication factor.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: What value of shunt resistance will be

required to convert a 0-1 d-c milliammeter (internal resistance of the
meter, 105 ohms) into a 0-150 d-c milliammeter?
ANSWER: ‘The factor n is 150, and r,, = 105.

ji Sella tata ae ere (10)

bis. le Moe

For a Multiplier to Increase the Range of an Existing Voltmeter

When an existing voltmeter scale is to be multiplied n times, multiply
the total voltmeter resistance (sum of the internal resistance r,, of the
basic meter and the resistance of the present multiplier) by m — 1 to deter-
mine the value of additional multiplier resistance required.
R= Ry,(n — 1), (1D)

where R is the required additional multiplier resistance (ohms) ,

Ry», the total present resistance of the voltmeter (ohms), and
n, the scale multiplication factor.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: A certain 0-100 d-c voltmeter uses a 0—500

d-c microammeter (250 ohms internal resistance of meter) plus a
200,000-ohm multiplier. What value of additional multiplier resistance
will be required to convert this instrument into a 0-500 d-c voltmeter?
ANSWER: ‘The total voltmeter resistance is 200,000 + 250 = 200,250
ohms. The present scale is to be multiplied by 5.
R = (200,250) (mn — 1) = 200,250 (4) = 801,000 ohms.
For highest precision in the selection of multipliers, the internal
resistance of the milliammeter or microammeter must be subtracted from
the multiplier resistance value obtained with Equation (1A). In the case
of very high multiplier values, however, this operation may be of neg-
 4

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 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 5

ligible consequence. It is a good rule to make the subtraction whenever

the calculated multiplier resistance is not more than 100 times the meter
resistance.
Table 1-2 lists calculated resistance values of multipliers for the
twelve most commonly used full-scale voltage ranges from $ volt (v) to
5,000 v. A complete set of multiplier values is given for each of the com-
mon current meters from 0-50 microamperes (ya) to 0-10 milliamperes
(ma).

(A)
VARIABLE RESISTOR
METHOD

S.P.S.T. SWITCH VARIABLE RESISTANCE

STANDARD MILLIAMMETER
Ss or MICROAMMETER
MILLIVOLT -
POTENTIOMETER
+

——— eS AmMeERY

(B)
POTENTIOMETER METHOD

Fic. 1-3 D-C Circuits for Measuring Internal Resistance of Current Meters

1.3. Measuring Internal Resistance of Meters

Several methods are available for measuring the internal resistance
of a d-c milliammeter or microammeter. Figure 1-3 shows two representa-
tive circuits.

Variable Resistor Method

The simple circuit shown in Figure 1-3 (A) utilizes a calibrated var-
iable resistor, R. The source of steady d-c voltage, B, may be a fresh 14-v
dry cell. M is the meter under test.
To make the measurement: (1) Close switch S$ and adjust variable
resistor R carefully for exact full-scale deflection of meter M. Record as
R1 this resistance setting of the variable resistor. (2) Readjust R until
the meter reads exactly 4 the full-scale deflection. Record as R2 this set-
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 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 7

ting of the variable resistor. (3) The internal resistance of the meter then
is calculated by means of the relationship R,, = R2 —2R1.
This method of measurement is based upon the fact that the setting
of the variable resistor for half-scale deflection would be exactly twice the
resistance required for full-scale deflection zf the meter had no resistance
whatever. But since the meter does have some internal resistance, the
second setting of the variable resistor will be some value more than two
times the first setting. The meter resistance therefore is the difference
between the second setting and twice the first setting. To see how this
works out, consider a meter with 100 ohms internal resistance which
requires an RJ setting of 1,000 ohms for full-scale deflection. The total
circuit resistance is 1,100 ohms. For half-scale deflection, the total circuit
resistance must be increased to 2,200 ohms. The meter resistance will
remain constant at 100 ohms; so the external resistance must be increased
to 2,100 ohms (more than twice R/) for the required total circuit resist-
ance. The meter resistance then is 2,100 — 2 (1,000), or 100 ohms.
The accuracy of this method depends upon the precision with which
the meter indicates the half-scale current value, and the accuracy of read-
ing of the two variable resistor settings. For best results, the variable
resistor should be a laboratory-type resistance decade box. If the latter
is not available, however, a volume control-type rheostat may be used,
and its resistance values at the two test settings measured (with switch S
opened) with a resistance bridge or accurately calibrated ohmmeter.

Potentiometer Method
Highest accuracy is obtained by measuring the full-scale current
through the meter under test, measuring the voltage drop across the meter,
and determining the corresponding meter resistance from Ohm’s law by
dividing the measured voltage by the measured current. Special instru-
ments required for applying this method are a precision milliammeter
or microammeter capable of indicating closely the full-scale current of
the meter under test, and a laboratory-type millivolt potentiometer.
Figure 1-3 (B) shows the test circuit. The battery may be a fresh 1}-v
dry cell. The variable resistance, employed to adjust the circuit current
for full-scale deflection of thé meter under test, can be a volume control-
type rheostat.

TEST PROCEDURE: (1) Close the spst switch and adjust the variable
resistor carefully for exact full-scale deflection of the meter under test.
(2) At this point, read the current value indicated by the standard meter
and record this value as J. (3) While maintaining a constant meter cur-
rent at the full-scale value, measure the voltage drop (expressed in volts)
across the meter under test, by means of the potentiometer, and record
8 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

this value as E. (4) Determine the meter resistance from the relationship
R» = E/I.

1.4 Meter Resistor Specifications

While any accurate resistor having the proper ohmic value might be
employed as a meter shunt or multiplier, stability of characteristics dic-
tates the use of resistors designed especially for the purpose. Important
characteristics which meter resistors should possess are permanence of
resistance over a long period of time, and negligible resistance change

Fic. 1-4 Precision Wire-wound Instrument Resistors

due to temperature variation and applied voltage. Additionally, the

resistor must be noninductive if alternating as well as direct currents are
to be measured; otherwise reactive effects will introduce a frequency error
in a-c measurements.
The most satisfactory meter resistors‘ are of the wire-wound type.
Ordinary carbon or composition resistors are used only in cases of extreme
economy or when required resistance values are so high that wire-wound
units either are unobtainable or would be unwieldy to wind. Of the
numerous wire materials, Manganin (an alloy of copper, nickel, and
iron-manganese) is the most suitable for precision instrument resistors.
Manganin has a negligible temperature coefficient of resistance which is
almost 400 times better than that of copper at normal room temperature.
Moreover, Manganin in conjunction with copper (as in the wiring of
resistors in instrument circuits) has a negligible thermoelectric effect.
Advance (a nickel-chromium alloy) is another wire material used occa-
sionally in place of Manganin, but not with as entirely satisfactory results.
Figure 1-4 shows a group of precision wire-wound instrument re-
sistors. Units of this type commonly are available commercially with
accuracies of 1%, 4%, 4%, and 5%.
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 9

In emergencies, or when odd values of resistance must be obtained,

small variable resistors of the type employed as rheostats and potentiom-
eters in radio and electronic circuits may be used. Whenever possible,
these controls should be wire-wound. After they are set to the required
resistance values, their shafts should be locked against further rotation,
with mechanical shaft locks or with a drop of sealing wax.
The amount of power that a meter resistor must handle depends
upon the resistance and also upon the full-scale current deflection of the

_ RESISTANCE
—~ WIRE SHUNT

CURRENT-——
METER

SHUNT
TWISTED FROM
TWO LENGTHS ~~
OF
i RESISTANCE WIRE
\- CURRENT
METER

(A)
FIG. 1-5 Simple Methods of Making Current-Meter Shunts

meter. In most high-sensitivity circuits employed in electronic instru-

ments, the power rating of multiplier resistors will not need to exceed
1 watt (w). J
Shunt resistors often are lower in resistance than are multipliers.
For that reason, some shunts (those used in conjunction with low-
resistance meters) are made of a short piece of resistance wire cut to the
proper length. Figure 1-5 shows two simple methods of making a single-
wire shunt. In Figure 1-5 (A), a straight length of resistance wire has
been cut to give the required resistance, and then has been attached to
a pair of heavy spade lugs fastened to the two terminal screws of the
meter. For compactness, a longer piece of wire, when needed, might be
bent, looped, or coiled in the space between the meter terminals. In
Figure 1-5(B), a length of resistance wire is attached securely to each
meter terminal and the two ends twisted tightly together to adjust the
resistance until the meter, in a calibration circuit, indicates the proper
current value. After this adjustment is completed, a drop of solder is
applied to the outer end of the twisted section, and the excess “twist”
clipped off to prevent unraveling.
10 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

1.5 Ohms-per-Volt Rating

It is desirable in all electronic testing that the resistance of a volt-
meter be much higher than the resistance of the circuit under test. This
minimizes power drawn from the circuit by the instrument, and increases
the accuracy of the voltage indication.
A high value of voltmeter resistance is obtained only through the use
of a high-resistance multiplier. But the higher the multiplier resistance,
the less the current that is available to actuate the indicating meter. This
means that a sensitive basic current meter ee is required in a high-
resistance voltmeter.
When rating instruments, it is insufficient to state only the total
resistance of a voltmeter, since instruments employing different basic
meters will have different resistances for the same voltage range. More
information is conveyed by the ratio of multiplier resistance to voltage
deflection. This expression in ohms per voltis accepted universally as
the standard rating for voltmeters, and is referred to as voltmeter
sensitivity.
Table 1-3 is presented in illustration of the greater sensitivity
afforded by the lower-range current meters in voltmeter circuits. Listed
here are five meter and resistor combinations for the same 0-100-v range.

TABLE 1-3
O—100 Volts

Meter Multiplier Sensitivity in

Range Resistance ‘ Ohms per Volt

0-50 pa 2 megohms . 20,000

0-100 ya 1 megohm 10,000
0-200 pa 4 megohm 5,000
0-500 pa 200,000 ohms 2,000
0-1 ma 100,000 ohms 1,000
Oal@ ina 10,000 ohms 100

Direct-current voltmeters with a sensitivity of 1,000 ohms per volt

have only limited usefulness in modern electronic testing. Those rated
at less than 1,000 ohms per volt never are used, although they are entirely
satisfactory for the usual run of straight electrical testing. Commercial
voltmeters intended for electronic service are rated at 20,000, 10,000, or
5,000 ohms per volt, the first exceeding all others at present in serviceabil-
ity and demand.
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 11

1.6 Resistance Rating of Current Meters

In use, a current meter (microammeter, milliammeter, or ammeter) is
connected in series with the circuit under test. The voliage drop across
this instrument accordingly must be kept as low as practicable, in order
to maintain normal operation of the circuit. This means that resistance
considerations for a current meter are the opposite of those for the volt-
meter. A current meter must have the lowest possible resistance consistent
with its range.
Table 1-4 lists the resistance yalues for shunts required to convert
each of six current meters (from 0-50 ya to 0-10 ma) to 0-100 milliam-
meters. Also listed are the corresponding voltage drops, in millivolts,
introduced by the converted meters. In each case, the total instrument
resistance will be equal very closely to the shunt resistance.

TABLE 1-4
O0—100 Milliamperes

Meter Shunt Voltage Drop

Range (Ohms) (Mv)
0-50 pa 0.57 57
0-100 pa 0.600 60
0-200 pa 1.320 132
0-500 pa 0.980 aie)
0-1 ma 1.060 105
0-10 ma Pap a 200

Based om approximate internal-resistance values of

Weston Model 301 current meters.

1.7 Multirange Voltmeters

A single multiplier resistor in series with a milliammeter or micro-
ammeter provides only one voltmeter range. For example, a 2-megohm
(meg) series resistor converts a 0-50 d-c microammeter into a 0-100 d-c
voltmeter with 20,000 ohms-per‘volt sensitivity. To increase the usefulness
of a voltmeter, several multipliers with appropriate resistance values may
be provided for separate voltage ranges. ‘Thus 1,000-, 10,000-, 100,000-, and
1,000,000-ohm multipliers may be connected in a circuit with a 0-1 d-c
milliammeter, as shown in Figure 1-6, to obtain a voltmeter having ranges
of 0-1, 0-10, 0-100, and 0-1,000, respectively, with 1,000 ohms-per-volt
sensitivity on each range.
Three methods are in wide use for changing ranges in multirange
12 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

voltmeters. These are shown in Figure 1-6. A rotary switch for selecting
the multiplier desired is shown in Figure 1-6 (A). When space is insufh-
cient to accommodate a selector switch, the arrangement shown in Figure
1-6(B) is employed. Here, each multiplier resistor is connected to a
separate pin jack for plug-in connection of the positive test lead. This
arrangement has the disadvantage that the test lead must be removed
from a jack to change meter range, and a dangerous electric shock might

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90,000 9000 4000
900,000 Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms

1000 V.

ROTARY SWITCH~~
(Cc)
Fic. 1-6 Multirange D-C Voltmeter Circuits

be suffered if the voltage is not shut off before handling the plug-in lead
tip. In the third circuit, shown in Figure 1-6 (C), the multiplier resistors
are connected in a series “string.” It is seen from a study of the diagram
that the total resistance included in the circuit in any position of the
selector switch is equal to the multiplier value for that voltage, as given in
the two preceding circuits. This arrangement may be used also with pin
jacks instead of the rotary switch. The series-connected multiplier scheme
has two disadvantages. One is the need of odd values of resistance in each
except the lowest-voltage multiplier. The other is the fact that several
voltage ranges are put out of commission when one resistor burns open.
The chart in Table 1-2 may be used to select multiplier resistance
values for the multirange voltmeter circuits given in Figures 1-6 (A) and
1-6 (B) . If the milliammeter or microammeter to be used has a basic cur-
g
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 13

rent range other than one of those listed in the first column of Table 1-2,
multiplier resistance values must be calculated by means of Equation
(1A) in Section 1.2 of this chapter.
In the circuits in Figures 1-6(A) and 1-6 (B), the internal-resistance
value (R,,) of the milliammeter must be subtracted from the specified
multiplier resistance value (R) in each case where R/R,» is 100 or less.
This will give the true multiplier resistance required for highest accuracy.
In the circuit in Figure 1-6 (C), it is necessary to subtract R,, only from
the 1,000-ohm multiplier.

Xs ROTARY Specified shunt values are

SWITCH based on an internal meter
0.105 Ohms \ resistance (Rm) value of
le \ 105 ohms. If Rm is less than
Ae Ohms 105 ohms, enough additional
resistance must be inserted
at point "X" in the circuit to
41.67 Ohms
total 105 ohms with the
resistance of the meter used.

+ _

Fic. 1-7 Multirange Direct Current Meter

1.8 Multirange Current Meters

The simplest circuit for a multirange direct current meter is shown
in Figure 1-7. Here, shunt resistors are switched successively in parallel
with a 0-1 d-c milliammeter to convert its basic range to 0-10 ma,
0-100 ma, and 0-1,000 ma (0-1 ampere). When the switch is set to its
l-ma position, all shunts automatically are removed from the circuit, and
the basic 1-ma range of the meter employed.
The shunt-resistance values given in the diagram are based on an
internal milliammeter resistance (R,,) of 105 ohms. If a particular meter
used in this circuit has some lower R,, value, enough additional series
resistance must be inserted at point X in the circuit to make a total of 105
ohms with R,,. The circuit may be adapted readily to any basic current
meter other than the 0-1 milliammeter by calculating the required shunts
by means of Equation (1B) in Section 1.2 of this chapter.
The rotary switch must have low contact resistance and high current-
carrying capacity, since its contacts are in series with low-resistance shunts.
14 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

1.9 D-C Volt-Milliammeter

Functions of the multirange d-c voltmeter and multirange direct-
current meter are combined in the volt-milliammeter circuit shown in
Figure 1-8.
This multimeter provides voltage ranges of 0-1, 0-10, 0-100 and
0-1,000 v; and current ranges of 0-50 ya, 0-1, 0-10, and 0-100 ma, and
0-1 amp. Voltmeter sensitivity is 20,000 ohms per volt on each voltage
range. The d-c voltage drop is 57 millivolts (mv) on each current range.

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3 oO Xm
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(°) (°)

FIG. 1-8 D-C Volt-Milliammeter

The multiplier and shunt resistors are switched into the circuit by
means of the two-pole, nine-position, nonshorting rotary selector switch,
$1-S2. The multiplier- and shunt-resistance values are based upon an
internal meter resistance (R,,) of 1,140 ohms. If the microammeter
employed by the reader has a lower R, value, enough additional
resistance must be inserted at point X in the circuit to total 1,140 ohms
with the resistance of the meter used. If the microammeter has more than
1,140 ohms internal resistance, the multiplier and shunt values must be
recalculated, according to instructions given in Section 1.2 of this chapter.
Note that the l-v multiplier has been corrected by subtracting the
1,140-ohm resistance value of the meter from the calculated multiplier
value of 20,000 ohms.
When the selector switch is in the voltage positions, its upper pole
(SZ) connects the various multipliers successively into the circuit in series
with the microammeter and the positive input terminal, while the lower
8
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 15

pole ($2) travels on open contacts. With the switch in the current posi-
tions, its lower pole connects the various shunts into the circuit in parallel
with the microammeter, while the upper pole travels on contacts which
are connected together and to the positive terminal of the meter. In the
50-ya position of the switch, the microammeter is connected directly to
the two input terminals. A high-grade selector switch having high-current,
low-resistance contacts must be used, since low-resistance shunts are in
series with switch contacts in the current positions.

1.10 Very-High-Resistance D-C Voitmeter

The very high sensitivity of 100,000 ohms per volt may be obtained
by employing a 0-10 d-c microammeter as the basis of a d-c voltmeter.
Figure 1-9 is the circuit diagram of an instrument of this type.

oo
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Gy0-10 D-C
Sv o “4 2 2 o MICROAMPERES
fo)
S o€&
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a =
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3 e D re) iS a 6 fe) 2000 Ohms )
MARION MODEL 53

01 O O O O O O O O
V 1V. 10 V. 50V. 100 250 500 1000
v. V. v. Vv.
5 0
400,000 OHMS PER VOLT

+ os
(e) (e)

FIc. 1-9 Very-High-Resistance D-C Voltmeter

The indicating meter is a Marion Model 53 panel-type microam-

meter having an internal resistance of approximately 2,000 ohms. The
single-pole, eight-position rotary selector switch, S, must have ceramic
insulation to prevent leakage when the high-resistance multipliers are
switched into the circuit.
The unusually high resistance of this voltmeter permits accurate
voltage measurements in a number of high-resistance electronic circuits
where only vacuum-tube voltmeters (VI'VM) ordinarily may be used.

1.11 Meter Rectifiers for A-C

The meters described up to this point are for d-c use only. However,
as mentioned in Section 1.1 of this chapter, a d-c milliammeter or
microammeter can be adapted for a-c measurement by first rectifying the
alternating current. Small-sized meter rectifiers are available for the pur-
16 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

pose. These rectifiers are of the metallic type and usually consist of one
or more copper oxide sections, although special selenium rectifiers have
been used to a limited extent and crystal rectifiers are finding increasing
application in meter rectification.

~< See! A SAS Pee pew x : ="

4 a 40 a
A-C M AaG
INPUT INPUT a
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Snes =i)

(A) (B)
SINGLE-SECTION VY WAVE DOUBLE-SECTION ‘% WAVE

A | A
‘<= ~<--- ~<--~-’
(jus
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=a
(Cc) D)
FULL BRIDGE FULL-WAVE HALF BRIDGE FULL-WAVE

Fic. 1-10 Rectifier Circuits for A-C Meters

Figure 1-10 shows several meter rectifier circuits. In each of these cir-
cuits, M is a d-c milliammeter or microammeter. The triangular portion of
the rectifier symbol denotes the anode, and the straight line the cathode.
The arrows indicate the direction of electron flow for the two different
polarities of applied voltage. Deflection of the meter is proportional to
the average value of the applied alternating current.
The circuits in Figures 1-10 (A) and 1-10(B) utilize only the positive
half-cycles of applied a-c to deflect the meter, hence are half-wave rectifier
arrangements. In Figure 1-10 (A), a single pulse of direct current passes
"
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 17

through the meter and rectifier, in the direction of the arrow, each time
a-c input terminal J goes positive. The metallic rectifier is not a true valve
in the sense that the diode vacuum tube is; so a small reverse current flows
through the meter when terminal J is negative. However, this reverse
current in a good rectifier is negligible when compared with the large
forward current, and usually may be ignored. Figure 1-10(B) shows a
half-wave circuit in which a separate reverse-connected rectifier section
provides a low-resistance bypass path for the negative half-cycle of a-c,
thereby preventing any movement of the meter except on positive half-
cycles. The extra rectifier section (B) also protects the normal series
rectifier (A) by removing the peak inverse voltage that otherwise might
damage section A. When a-c input terminal J is positive in this circuit,
direct current delivered by rectifier A flows through the meter in the
direction indicated by the solid arrows. Rectifier B is reverse-connected
for this polarity and can pass only negligible current. To all practical
intents and purposes, section B may be considered as not working at all
on this half-cycle. When terminal 2 is positive, current flows readily
through rectifier B in the direction indicated by the dotted arrows,
instead of going through the meter.
The circuits in Figures 1-10(C) and 1-10(D) are full-wave rectifiers
utilizing both halves of the a-c cycle. Both are bridge circuits. Circuit
1-10(C) employs a rectifier section in each bridge arm and has approxi-
mately 14 times the d-c output of circuit 1-10 (D), which has resistors in
two arms of the bridge. In Figure 1-10 (C), when a-c input terminal J is
positive, current flows through rectifier D, meter M, and rectifier A in
the direction of the solid arrows. When terminal 2 is positive, current
flows through rectifier C, meter M, and rectifier B in the direction of the
dotted arrows. Note that current passes through the meter in the same
direction during each half-cycle of a-c. Action of circuit 1-10 (D) is similar.
In this arrangement, when a-c input terminal / is positive, current flows
through resistor R2, meter M, and rectifier A in the direction of the solid
arrows. When terminal 2 is positive, current flows through resistor RJ,
meter M, and rectifier B in the direction of the dotted arrows. Here again,
current flows through the meter in the same direction during each a-c
half-cycle. 2
The bridge rectifier circuits have the advantage that they supply
higher d-c output for a given a-c input than do the half-wave circuits.
The latter, however, are simpler and less expensive. The circuit in Figure
1-10 (A) is somewhat less desirable than the others because the d-c return
path for the rectifier and meter must be supplied by the circuit under test.
This is not always possible, especially when the rectifier-meter circuit
must be protected from d-c components by means of a blocking capacitor.
It is difficult also to use this circuit for a-c voltage measurements at high
18 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

levels, since the multiplier resistance then becomes comparable to the

reverse resistance of the rectifier and rectification effects cease—the same
amount of current flowing in both directions through the rectifier. Since
the d-c return path is supplied by the circuit under test, the resistance of
this path will alter the instrument calibration unless it is negligible by
comparison with the meter circuit resistance.
The current-voltage characteristics of metallic rectifiers are such that
the rectifier resistance varies with current flow, increasing nonlinearly as
the current decreases toward zero. This causes the low-voltage or low-
current scales of rectifier-type meters to be crowded at their low ends.
At high current and voltage levels, the scales become very nearly linear.
Because of rectifier resistance, the d-c deflection of the meter in a rectifier
circuit will be less than the applied a-c. This means that multipliers for a
rectifier-type voltmeter will have resistance values somewhat lower than
those for a corresponding d-c voltmeter using the same basic current
meter. Another important consideration is that special low-voltage or
low-current scales must be drawn for the meter because of the low-current
nonlinearity of the rectifier.
The scale of a rectifier-type meter usually is calibrated to read the
root mean square (rms) value of a sine wave. Since the d-c output of the
rectifier is proportional to the average a-c, appreciable error can be intro-
duced by departures of the a-c waveform from true sinusoidal. ‘The extent
of the error depends upon the amplitudes and the phase of harmonics
present.
Conventional meter rectifiers are subject also to frequency errors
and temperature errors. The frequency error is caused by the internal
shunting capacitance of the rectifier plates, or discs, and amounts in some
units to as much as 0.5% per 1,000 cycles (cps) up to 20,000 cps.1 The fre-
quency error causes the reading of the rectifier-type meter to decrease for
a given a-c input voltage, as the frequency increases. Crystal-diode recti-
fiers, because of their negligible capacitance, exhibit better frequency
response and can be used up to several hundred megacycles (germanium)
and several thousand megacycles (silicon). The change of rectifier resist-
ance with temperature varies with rectifiers of different manufacture and
occasionally between rectifiers of the same make. This change sometimes
is neutralized by a change in the opposite direction due to the tempera-
ture coefficient of wiring, meter, and other circuit components. Combined
frequency, temperature, and waveform errors limit the practical accuracy
of rectifier-type meters to approximately 5% of full scale.
Insertion of a multiplier resistor in series with one of the a-c input
leads in the circuits shown in Figure 1-10 gives an a-c voltmeter. The
1 Weston Electrical Instrument Corp., Bulletin A-7-A (Newark, N.J.: Weston Elec-
trical Instrument Corp.) , p. 24.
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 19

rectifier-type voltmeter has the lowest current drain of the various classes
of a-c voltmeters. In commercial voltmeters of the rectifier type, the d-c
indicating meter rarely exceeds 1-ma full-scale rating. Meters employing
copper oxide rectifiers usually are restricted to use in the audio-frequency
(a-f) spectrum.

1.12 Crystal Meters

Germanium crystal diodes may be used in each of the circuits given
in Figure 1-10. The maximum operating frequency of the germanium
diode, owing to its low shunt capacitance of 1 micromicrofarad (yyf) or
less, is several hundred megacycles (mc). A crystal meter accordingly may
be used at radio frequencies, as well as at power-line and audio fre-
quencies.
When crystal diodes are used, the circuits shown in Figures 1-10 (B),
(C), and (D) will be the most satisfactory. In Figures 1-10(C) and
1-10 (D) , the diodes must be matched closely in electrical characteristics
to obtain highest efficiency (ratio of average d-c output voltage to peak
a-c input voltage) . The simple series, half-wave circuit in Figure 1-10 (A)
is suitable only when a low-resistance voltage source, such as a trans-
former winding or tuned-circuit coil, is connected permanently between
the two a-c input terminals.
In conventional meter applications, inexpensive general-purpose
germanium diodes may be employed. These include Types 1N34, 1N34-A,
1N43, IN44, 1N45, 1N46, 1N51, 1N69, CK705, and CK707. When higher
d-c meter current for a given a-c input voltage is required, high-conduction
Types 1N56 and 1N56-A are recommended. Also available is a matched
duo-diode Type 1N35, which is adaptable particularly to the circuits in
Figures 1-10(B), (C), and (D).
Special germanium diodes with high back-resistance ratings are avail-
able. These include Types 1N54, 1N54-A, and 1N65. High back-resistance
diodes are recommended especially for use in the simple series circuit of
Figure 1-10(A) when high-resistance multiplier resistors are required.
This will keep the back resistance of the rectifier high compared with the
multiplier resistance. For further increase of back resistance, two high
back-resistance diodes may be ,connected in series. The higher forward
resistance, due to the series connection, usually will be of no consequence.
Silicon crystal diodes are available for operation at frequencies
between 3,000 and 30,000 mc and higher. However, these units are used
as rectifiers in test instruments only at microwave frequencies where
germanium diodes cease to be efficient, and even then at low voltage
levels, since their burnout point is lower than that of germanium diodes.
The various statements in Section 1.11 of this chapter regarding
practical operation of rectifier-type meters apply equally well to crystal
20 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

meters, except that crystal diodes can be operated at higher frequencies

than can other nontube-type meter rectifiers.

1.13 A-C/D-C Multimeter

Figure 1-11 is the circuit diagram of a multimeter with a-c and d-c
voltage and d-c current ranges. This circuit has been simplified so that the
same settings of the range switch can be used for both a-c and d-c voltages.

D-C VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS

D-C
MILLIAMMETER
or
O 100 O O O O O O MICROAMMETER
ae We 100 1000 {MA. 10 100 1AMP /
V. V. D-C MA. MA. D-C /
S19 D-C D-C !
RANGE SWITCH ; ae S3 0 D-C
S2.0 Ome i] ©

© O © O © O © O r ! Ae

CHANGE-_ | GANGED
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SWITCH \ =
R5 SRE SRT SRB RQ SRIOLSRM SRI aa iOS
S4 9 A-C
A-C VOLTAGE D-c
MULTIPLIERS SHUNTS
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(e) one
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ah INPUT

Fic. 1-11 A-C/D-C Multimeter

The range switch is a two-pole, eight-position, nonshorting, rotary

selector switch. Its two poles, SJ and $2, are connected together and rotate
in step. Pole S/ selects d-c voltage multipliers RJ, R2, R3, and R4, while
pole S2 selects a-c voltage multipliers R5, R6, R7, and R8. In the cur-
rent positions of the range switch, pole S2 selects the current shunts (R9,
R10, R11, R12), while pole S2 travels over contacts which are connected
together and to the positive terminal of the milliammeter or micro-
ammeter.
The A-C/D-C changeover switch, $3-S4, is a double-pole, double-
throw toggle switch. When this switch is thrown to its D-C position, the
upper pole (S3) connects the positive terminal of the meter to the d-c
multipliers or shunts, depending upon the position of the range switch.
At the same time, the lower pole (S4) disconnects the shunt section of
the rectifier from the negative input terminal. The circuit through the
®
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 21

a-c multipliers and rectifier thus is broken completely, and only the d-c
components are in the circuit. When the change-over switch is in its A-C
position, the upper pole (S3) connects the positive terminal of the meter
to the rectifier output, while the lower pole (S4) connects the shunt sec-
tion of the rectifier to the negative input terminal. In this instance, the
circuit through the d-c multipliers and shunts is broken, and only the
a-c multipliers and rectifier are in the meter circuit.
The d-c multipliers and shunts may be calculated, for a given milli-
ammeter or microammeter, according to the instructions in Section 1.2
of this chapter. There is no simple formula for calculating the a-c mul-
tiplier resistance values, since these values will be governed by resistance
and current characteristics of the rectifier. Each a-c multiplier will have
a resistance value somewhat lower than that of the d-c multiplier for the
corresponding voltage range. In the higher-voltage ranges the a-c and d-c
multipliers will be closer in value than they are in low-voltage ranges.
Unless recommended multiplier values are supplied by the rectifier manu-
facturer, they must be worked out experimentally by applying accurately
known a-c voltages (corresponding to each full-scale voltage setting of the
range switch) and by adjusting the multiplier resistance, in each case, for
full-scale deflection of the meter.
In the higher-voltage ranges (i.e., above about 10 v rms), the deflec-
tion of the milliammeter will be approximately proportional to the
applied rms voltage value, although the response will not be exactly
linear. In the low-voltage ranges, the scale becomes quite nonlinear,
approaching square-law response near its zero end. This means that a
special scale must be drawn for the low-voltage range. However, a single
second scale may in some instances be provided for the higher-voltage
ranges, since the higher multiplier resistance values used in these ranges
tend to mask resistance variation within the rectifier.

1.14 Calibration of Simple Meters

When highest accuracy is not required, calibration of shop-
constructed d-c voltmeters may be dispensed with, provided high-grade
meters and multipliers are employed in the construction. ‘Thus a volt-
meter composed of a 0-1 d-c anilliammeter and 100,000-ohm precision
resistor might be presumed to indicate 100 v at the I-ma scale point,
50 v at 0.5 ma, 25 v at 0.25 ma, etc. The expected error would be the total
error indicated by the guaranteed accuracy figures for the meter and mul-
tiplier. A milliammeter with a 2% accuracy and multiplier with 1%
accuracy thus might be expected to yield a d-c voltmeter with a maximum
error of 3%. No such assumptions should be made in the case of a shunted
current meter, since an unsuspected amount of resistance can be intro-
duced in series with a shunt merely by the mechanical attachment of the
22 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

shunt resistor to other circuit components. Nor can the performance of

a rectifier-type a-c meter be presumed without calibration, since the scale
shape will not correspond to that of the indicating milliammeter.
For highest accuracy each voltmeter or current meter, whether a-c
or d-c, must be calibrated individually. Moreover, the entire calibration
procedure should be repeated at intervals (the frequency of which must
be directly proportional to the amount of use the instrument receives) ,
in order to detect any variation from the original calibration. The fol-
lowing paragraphs explain calibration procedures.

Current Meters
Figure 1-12 shows a calibration circuit for current meters of either a-c
or d-c type. Current through the standard meter and the meter under test
is continuously variable by means of the two rheostats, RJ and R2. RI
serves as a protective limiting resistor and is set initially to give full-scale
meter current when R2 is set for maximum current (minimum resist-
ance). Once set in this manner, RJ need not be touched again during
the calibration of a particular meter, all adjustments being made by
varying R2. This arrangement prevents accidental overloading of the
meters.

STANDARD METER
METER UNDER TEST

LIMITING CURRENT-ADJUSTING
RESISTOR RESISTOR

Fic. 1-12 Calibration Circuit for a Current Meter

For best stability and safety, the rheostats should be wire-wound. For
use with microammeters and milliammeters up to 10 ma full scale, they
may be volume control-type units. Above 10 ma full scale, it is advisable
to use power-type rheostats, the power rating depending upon the full-
scale current of the milliammeter or ammeter under test. Both rheostats
can have the same resistance rating.
The calibrating voltage source may be a single dry cell for direct
current values up to 100 ma, or a 2-6-v storage battery for values in
excess of 100 ma. For a-c calibrations, the voltage source can be a low-
Q
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 23

voltage secondary winding of a transformer operated from the a-c power

line, when the power frequency is satisfactory, or must be a suitable
power generator (oscillator or alternator) when some other frequency
is desired.
The scales of the standard meter should permit reading of all test-
current values in the upper quarter of each scale. This will insure
maximum accuracy.
It is imperative to check as many scale points of the meter under test
as practicable. The calibration procedure is simple: Set rheostat R2 care-
fully for deflection of the meter under test to the desired scale point. Then
read the true current value from the standard meter. The points obtained
in this manner may be used to plot a calibration curve or in the drawing
of a special scale card for the meter.

Voltmeters
Figure 1-13 shows two circuits for voltmeter calibration. The circuit
of Figure 1-13 (A) may be used with either alternating current or direct
current, while that of Figure 1-13 (B) is for alternating current only.

LIMITING VOLTAGE -ADJUSTING POTENTIOMETER

RESISTOR @
STANDARD
VOLT
(A) A-c METER VOLTMETER
or D-C UNDER TEST

STANDARD A-C VOLTMETER

VARIAC A-C VOLTMETER UNDER, TEST
‘ \

(8)

TO A-C -
POWER LINE * TRANSFORMER

Fic. 1-13 Calibration Circuits for Voltmeters

In Figure 1-13(A), RI and R2 are wire-wound rheostat-potentiom-

eters of the volume-control type. Both the standard voltmeter and the
meter under test should have high sensitivities, not lower than 1,000 ohms
per volt, although it is not necessary that each have the same sensitivity.
This prevents excessive current flow through the resistors. The scales of
24 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

the standard meter should permit reading of all test-voltage values in the
upper quarter of each scale. RJ serves as a protective limiting resistor
which is set initially for exact full-scale deflection of the meters when R2
is set for maximum voltage. After this initial adjustment, RJ need not
be touched again during the calibration of a particular meter, all voltage
adjustments being made by varying potentiometer R2. This arrange-
ment prevents accidental overload of the meters. Batteries may be used
for the d-c calibration voltage; a transformer or oscillator for a-c voltage.
To guard against electric shock, due to accidental grounding, do not use
the power line directly without an isolation transformer. The circuit in
Figure 1-13(A) should not be used above 50-v input. At higher voltages,
an adjustable power supply having exceptional filtration may be used for
d-c, or the circuit given in Figure 1-13(B) for a-c.
A Variac and transformer provide adjustable a-c calibration voltage
in Figure 1-13 (B). The transformer’s secondary winding must be able
to supply the maximum calibrating voltage at some point near maximum
setting of the Variac. If some frequency other than that of the power line
is required, the transformer must be operated from an alternator or
audio power generator. At high frequencies it may be necessary to dis-
pense with the Variac and to control the voltage by means of the output ©
attenuator in the generator.
It is advisable to check as many points as practicable on the scale
of the meter under test. Set the calibration voltage carefully by means
of potentiometer R2 in Figure 1-13(A) or the Variac in Figure 1-13 (B)
to deflect the meter under test to the desired scale point. Then read the
true voltage value from the standard meter. The points obtained in this
manner may be used to plot a calibration curve or in the drawing of a
special scale card for the meter.

D-C Calibration by Potentiometer Method

When a millivolt potentiometer is available, high-precision calibra-
tion of a d-c voltmeter may be obtained by reference to a certified standard
cell. The measuring circuit is shown in block diagram in Figure 1-14.
In this setup, output of the d-c power supply is adjusted to give a
desired deflection of the voltmeter under test. This voltage then is
stepped down through the volt box (which is a precision-type voltage
divider) to a value low enough to be handled by the potentiometer. The
potentiometer then is adjusted to null. The true calibration voltage then
may be determined by means of the following equation.
E =em, (1E)

where E is the calibration voltage (volts) ,

 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 25

e, the voltage indicated by the potentiometer dials (volts), and

m, the volt-box multiplication factor.
Two classes of potentiometer are in present use. One reads in Inter-
national (U.S.) volts; the other in Absolute volts. Since test meters
ordinarily indicate International volts, a conversion will be necessary if
the potentiometer is Absolute reading. International volts = 0.99966
Absolute volts. Absolute volts = 1.00034 International volts.

VOLTMETER STANDARD CELL

UNDER TEST~..

GALVANOMETER
+0
VARIABLE
D-C POWER
SUPPLY

POTENTIOMETER

Fic. 1-14 Potentiometer and Volt-Box Setup for D-C Voltmeter Calibration

Direct current may be checked by using the potentiometer method

to measure the voltage drop across a precision resistor connected in series
with the current meter under test. The volt box will not be required
unless this voltage drop exceeds the maximum voltage which can be
handled directly by the potentiometer. The calibration current may be
determined by means of the following equation.
I=em/R, (1F)
where J is the calibration current (amperes) ,
e, the voltage indicated by the potentiometer dials (volts) ,
m, the volt-box multiplication factor, and
R, the resistance of the precision resistor.

If the volt box is not used, simply eliminate the term m from the
numerator of the fraction.

R-F Calibration
The circuits in Figures 1-12 and 1-13(A) may be used at radio fre-
quencies (r-f) up to about | mc, provided all connecting leads between
the r-f signal generator (source of calibrating voltage), resistors, and
meters are kept both short and rigid. Above 1 mc, the need for elaborate
shielding between components to prevent leakage precludes use of the
variable resistors shown in the circuits. At high frequencies it is advisable
26 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

to adjust the calibrating voltage by means of the output control in the

signal generator or r-f power source. A suitable r-f amplifier may be
required for high voltages and currents.

Panel-mounted Meters
When a meter is to be used normally while mounted on a panel of
steel or other magnetic material, it should be calibrated in place on that
panel. This is necessary because the metal panel effectively shunts the
magnetic gap inside the meter and changes the deflection for a given
voltage or current.

Mounting Position
A meter should be calibrated in the position in which it normally
will be used. The distribution of weight of the pivots of the movable coil
on their bearings then will be the same during calibration and use. Meters
ordinarily are mounted horizontally, vertically, or at angles.

Voltage Hazard
More than ordinary care and caution must be exercised when cali-
brating meters with high voltage, either a-c or d-c. To avoid completing
a circuit through your body, observe the rule of keeping one hand in your
pocket. It is difficult to say how high a voltage must be to be dangerous,
since fatal shocks have been reported at voltages of 100 and lower. Make
a practice of respecting all voltages and of observing every safety rule.

Review Questions
ap

1. Calculate the value of multiplier resistor required to convert a

0-50 d-c microammeter into a 0-2,500 d-c voltmeter.
2. What will be the ohms-per-volt rating of the voltmeter in
Exercise 1? i
3. If a 0-1 d-c milliammeter has an internal resistance of 105 ohms,
what value of multiplier resistor will convert this meter to read 0-1,000 v
d-c?
4, What full-scale voltage will be indicated by a 0-500 d-c microam-
meter (internal resistance = 250 ohms) if no multiplier is used?
5. Calculate the value of shunt resistor required to convert a 0-1 d-c
milliammeter (internal resistance = 105 ohms) into a 0-10 d-c ammeter.
6. An existing 0-200 d-c voltmeter has a sensitivity of 1,000 ohms
per volt. This means that the total resistance of the voltmeter is 200,000
 SIMPLE METERS FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 27

ohms. What value of additional multiplier resistance will be required

for a full-scale reading of 1,000 w?

References

General Electric Co., Germanium Diodes Handbook. Syracuse, N.Y.:

General Electric Co., Electronics Dept.
Henney, Keith (ed.), The Radio Engineering Handbook (3d ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1941, pp. 179-186, 192-195,
210.
Rider, John F., The Meter at Work. New York: John F. Rider, Inc., 1940.
Terman, F. E., Measurements in Radio Engineering (1st ed.) . New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1935, pp. 1-18.
———, Radio Engineers’ Handbook (l\st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., 1943, pp. 43-46, 924-929.
Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., Bulletins EC-20F and EC-36C. New
York: Sylvania Electric Products, Inc.
Weston Electrical Instrument Corp., Bulletin A-7-A. Newark, N.J.:
Weston Electrical Instrument Corp.
 2
Ohmmeters and

Volt-Ohm-Milliammeters

2.1 Ohmmeter Operating Principle

Two general types of ohmmeter are in wide use, the vacuum-tube
type and the simple, tubeless circuit. The tubeless type will be described
in this chapter.
The basic circuit of the simple ohmmeter is shown in Figure 2-1. It
is a series connection of a d-c voltmeter (M), battery (B), rheostat (R),
and a pair of terminals (X-X). The battery voltage is somewhat higher
than that required for full-scale deflection of the voltmeter. When
terminals X-X are short-circuited temporarily, the voltmeter deflection
may be set exactly to full scale by adjustment of rheostat R. Full-scale
deflection thus corresponds to zero resistance between terminals X-X.
When the terminals are open-circuited, the meter remains at zero voltage,
this point corresponding to infinite resistance. When some finite value
of resistance is connected between the terminals, this resistance is added
to the multiplier resistance of the voltmeter and acts to increase the range
of the voltmeter. The deflection consequently reaches some point between
zero volts and full scale and is proportional to the added resistance value.
Because of this action, the meter scale may be graduated in resistance
values, with zero ohms at full scale and infinite ohms at voltmeter zero.
In order to standardize the ohmmeter before making a resistance measure-
ment, it is necessary only to short-circuit terminals X-X and adjust
rheostat R for full-scale (zero ohms) deflection. The ohmmeter scale may
be multiplied, to accommodate higher resistance values than those read
on the basic scale, by increasing the battery voltage and the voltmeter
range.
28 .
 OHMMETERS AND VOLT—OHM—MILLIAMMETERS 29

Any d-c voltmeter may be used to measure resistance in the manner

just described. When the meter has no direct-reading ohms scale, the
following equation may be used to determine the unknown resistance in
terms of the voltmeter reading.

|a ee A (2A)

where R is the unknown resistance (ohms) ,

r, the total voltmeter resistance in ohms (internal resistance of
meter plus the multiplier resistance),
E, the full-scale deflection of the voltmeter (volts) , and
e, the voltmeter reading with the unknown resistance in the circuit
(volts) .

When no information is available regarding the resistance of the volt-

meter, the value r may be determined by multiplying the voltmeter sen-
sitivity (in ohms per volt) by the full-scale voltage of the meter.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: A 2.5-v d-c voltmeter having a sensitivity of
20,000 ohms per volt is set to full scale with a battery and rheostat. A
resistor of unknown value then is inserted into the circuit and a reading
of 0.4 v is obtained. What is the resistor value?
In this case, r = 20,000 (2.5) = 50,000 ohms.
E=2.5y.
e = 0.4v.
2.5(50,000) 125,000
R= 50,000 — 50,000 =
0.4
312,500 — 50,000 = 262,500 ohms.

2.2 Use of Voltmeter without Setting Zero

When time saving and simplicity are factors to be considered, a
voltmeter can be used for resistance measurement without first setting the
meter to full scale (zero ohms). This eliminates the rheostat and its
adjustment but has the disadvantage that the range of resistance values
afforded is not as great as with the other method.
Choose a battery voltage as close as possible (but not exceeding) the
full-scale reading of the voltage range to be used. Read the battery voltage
carefully with the voltmeter. Then connect the unknown resistance in
series with the battery and voltmeter and take a second voltage reading.
The unknown resistance is calculated from these two readings and the
voltmeter resistance, thus:

IR Ss SS, (2B)
é
30 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

where R is the unknown resistance value (ohms) ,

E, the initial reading with the battery only (volts) ,
e, the second reading with the unknown resistance in the circuit
(volts) , and
r, the total voltmeter resistance in ohms (internal resistance of
meter plus multiplier resistance). This value may be deter-
mined by multiplying the meter sensitivity, in ohms per volt,
by the full-scale voltage of the meter.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: A test battery gives a reading of 6 v on the
0-10-v scale of a 1,000 ohms-per-volt d-c voltmeter. When an unknown
resistance is connected in series with the battery and meter, the reading
drops to 24 v. What is the unknown resistance value?
Here, E = 6, e = 2.5. The voltmeter resistance is found by multiplying
the meter sensitivity by the full-scale deflection of the meter: r = 1,000 (10)
= 10,000.
6(10,000 60,000
Rie oa — 10,000 = — 10,000 =

24,000 — 10,000 = 14,000 ohms.

2.3 Series-connected vs. Shunt-connected Ohmmeter
Because of its configuration, the circuit shown in Figure 2-1 is
termed a series-connected ohmmeter. This type of instrument is character-
ized by its resistance scale reading from right (zero) to left (infinite).

X D-C VOLTMETER
CONNECT
UNKNOWN
RESISTANCE
HERE
X
B

|
at ‘

HIGH-RESISTANCE
R D-C VOLTMETER
FIG. 2-1 Basic Ohmmeter Circuit FIG. 2-2 Potentiometer-Type
Ohmmeter

The series-connected circuit has been the basis of a number of portable

ohmmeters used in electronic maintenance and repair. The shunt-con-
nected ohmmeter, not shown here, was intended primarily for checking
low values of resistance (1 to 500 ohms) and may be found in conjunc-
8
 OHMMETERS AND VOLT—OHM—MILLIAMMETERS 31

tion with the series circuit in several early-model testers. The shunt
circuit has been abandoned almost entirely in modern instruments, since
in this circuit the steady battery drain is exhaustive if the instrument
remains switched on when not in use. There also is some inconvenience in
transferring the attention from the right-left scale of the series circuit to
the left-right scale of the shunt circuit when both are incorporated in the
same instrument.

2.4 Potentiometer-Type Ohmmeter

A troublesome feature of the simple series-connected ohmmeter is
the overall crowding of its scale. This condition is relieved by the poten-
tiometer-type ohmmeter circuit (Figure 2-2) .
In this circuit, the unknown resistance (connected to terminals X-X)
is in series with a standard resistance, R,. Current from the battery flows
through these two resistances, setting up a voltage drop across each one.
A high-resistance d-c voltmeter is deflected by the voltage drop across
the standard resistor. A simple potentiometer or voltage divider thus is
formed by R, and the unknown resistance.
The meter is set initially to full scale by means of rheostat R,, with
terminals X-X temporarily short-circuited. When a resistance then is con-
nected to the terminals, the deflection of the meter will be some value
less than full scale, and will be proportional to the unknown resistance.
The meter scale therefore may be graduated directly in ohms.
In order to change the resistance range, the battery voltage, standard
resistance, and voltmeter multiplier usually are switched simultaneously.
On some ranges, additional resistances also are switched into one battery
lead or in series with the rheostat. The same zero-set rheostat is used on
all ranges.
Each scale of the potentiometer-type ohmmeter is relatively wide-
spaced in its low-resistance section and somewhat crowded at high resist-
ances. Resistance values may be read accurately by selecting the scale in
which deflection for a given resistance occurs in the more open region.
When the circuit components and battery voltages are chosen properly,
the point representing 1/100 to 1/200 of maximum-scale resistance will
fall near the center of the scale.,

2.5 Measuring Resistance with Current Meter

When no other instruments are available, resistance may be deter-
mined from the current flowing through the unknown resistance upon
application of an accurately known voltage (Figure 2-3) . The meter may
be a microammeter, milliammeter, or ammeter, its range being dependent
upon the expected resistance value and the battery voltage. The unknown
32 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

resistance is calculated from Ohm’s law by means of the following

equation.

R =— — kn, (2C)

where R is the unknown resistance (ohms) ,

E, the applied voltage (volts) ,
I, the indicated current (amperes) , and
R,, the internal resistance of the current meter (ohms) .
This method of measurement, while useful in emergencies, requires
extraordinary care, since a short-circuit in the resistor under test or an
accidental touching together of the resistor leads can cause the meter to
be overloaded and damaged. Moreover, the applied voltage under condi-
tions of current drain in the test must be known quite accurately.

UNKNOWN RESISTANCE

ACCURATELY -KNOWN CURRENT

VOLTAGE METER

SWITCH

FIG. 2-3 Current-Meter Circuit for Resistance Measurements

The current-meter method is employed by skilled industrial techni-

cians for measuring dielectric resistance of capacitors of the nonelectrolytic
type, and of insulating materials. Direct-current potentials as high as
1,000 v are applied to the test specimen and to a sensitive, laboratory-type
d-c microammeter in series. Hundreds of thousands of megohms at high
operating voltages may be measured in this manner. However, the utmost
care and alertness are necessary to prevent burnout of the delicate
microammeter.

2.6 Simple Volt-Ohmmeter

It is convenient to combine ohmmeter and voltmeter functions in a
single instrument. Volt-ohmmeters afford quick measurements of circuit
voltages and continuity. These instruments can be made quite elaborate
and versatile. However, where requirements are not stringent, a simple
meter with voltage ranges up to 1,000 v and a single resistance range is
useful. Figures 2-4 and 2-5 illustrate an instrument of this type which is
small enough to be carried in a coat pocket.
 OHMMETERS AND VOLT—OHM—MILLIAMMETERS 33

The basic meter used in the circuit (Figure 2-5) is a 2-inch-diameter

0-1 d-c milliammeter. Voltmeter sensitivity accordingly is 1,000 ohms per
volt. The internal resistance of the meter (55 ohms) has been subtracted

FIG. 2-4 Simple Volt-Ohmmeter

R1 R2 R3 -R4 R5 R6 4000 Ohms

WIREWOUND

g ° Q ‘e)
See oe ey oe ase RA
L— SOS SOs BOs oS = ZERO-SET
D ‘ so: fas} wo

az
() O

AW
10

WA
O O

100
O

250
O

500
peers
1000OHMS R8
V. V. V. V. 500
VOLTS -OHMS are Ohms
+
— ©

FIG. 2-5 Circuit of the Simple Volt-Ohmmeter

from the calculated values (1,000 and 10,000 ohms, respectively) of mul-
tiplier resistors RJ and R2. If the meter used by an individual builder has
some other R,, value than 55 ohms, this value must be subtracted from
the calculated values of the J- and 10-v multipliers.
34 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

The single resistance range is 0-100,000 ohms. With switch S in its

OHMS position and with the VOLTS-OHMS input terminals temporarily
short-circuited, the meter is set to zero by adjustment of rheostat R7. The
protective limiting resistor, R8, in series with the rheostat prevents severe
overloading of the milliammeter if R7 is set for greater than full-scale
deflection.

2.7 Ohmmeter Calibration

The best calibration of an ohmmeter is obtained by checking a large
number of scale points with precision resistors. The ohmmeter first is set
carefully to zero; then each resistor is connected successively to the input
terminals, and the corresponding meter readings are noted. Short, heavy
leads should be used with all resistors having values of 100 ohms and
lower.
The largest possible number of scale points should be checked.
Several laboratory-type decade resistance boxés connected in series will
afford a succession of resistance values up to several tens of thousands
in l-ohm steps. An alternative method of obtaining a number of resist-
ance values, especially high resistances beyond the range of conventional
decade boxes, consists of setting a rheostat or potentiometer to various
desired test values as indicated by an accurate resistance bridge. After
each setting, the variable resistor is transferred carefully to the ohmmeter
for reading.
The ohmmeter must be provided with fresh batteries before a calibra-
tion is undertaken. The zero setting should be checked frequently during
the process.
One ohmmeter may be calibrated against another by the simple
process of comparing their separate readings for the same resistors. If the
accuracy of one of the ohmmeters is known to be good, the test resistors
need not be precision units. But for ease of comparison of the scales,
integral rather than fractional values of resistance should be chosen (e.g.,
2 ohms instead of 21 ohms).

2.8 Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter
Modern circuit testers combine the functions of the a-c and d-c
voltmeter; d-c microammeter, milliammeter, and ammeter; and ohm-
meter in a single instrument. A few such instruments include also the
a-c current function. The various functions and ranges are selected by
means of panel switches.
The operating principle of the combination test meter combines the
operating principles of the several separate test circuits for voltmeters,
current meters, and ohmmeters such as those described up to this point
in Chapters | and 2.
 OHMMETERS AND VOLT—OHM—MILLIAMMETERS 35

Usually it is not feasible economically to construct a volt-ohm-

milliammeter (VOM) of good accuracy in the home or small shop. For
this reason, the circuit of a commercial instrument will be described in
the next section, instead of devoting space to constructional data.

2-9. Typical Commercial VOM

Figures 2-6 to 2-15, inclusive, illustrate the Simpson Model 260 VOM.1
This instrument provides a-c and d-c voltage ranges of 2.5, 10, 50,
250, 1,000, and 5,000 v; direct current ranges of 100 pa, 10, 100, and 500 ma,

ol
s 3
et
+

a
H
F
3
8

FIG. 2-6 Commercial Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter

Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.

and 10 amp; and resistance ranges of 0-2,000 and 0-200,000 ohms, and
0-20 meg. In addition, the a-c voltage ranges may be used for audio
measurements (or for the measurement of a-c in the presence of a d-c
component) through a self-contained blocking capacitor. Accessory to the
a-c voltage scales are decibel (db) ranges covering —12 to +55 db, based
on a zero level of 1.732 v or 6 milliwatts (mw) in 500 ohms, and useful
for volume-level measurements.
Voltmeter sensitivity is 20,000 ohms per volt d-c and 1,000 ohms per
volt a-c. On each of the current ranges, the voltage drop across the instru-
ment is 250 my at full-scale deflection. Accuracy on all ranges is 3% of
full scale for d-c; 5% for a-c.

1 Simpson Electric Company, Chicago, Ill.

36 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

The complete circuit diagram is shown in Figure 2-7. Note here that
the range switch has four sections or decks for selecting the various ranges
and functions. The only other hand-operated controls are the three-
position OUTPUT-AC-DC switch and the ZERO OHMS rheostat.

50 uA, 20002.,100 <=)

()

RQ RIS RZ R15 R14 R& R12 R10

R1- 4138 Ohms

R2- 410 Ohms
R3- 21,850 Ohms
R4- 117,700 Ohms
R5-— 4975 Ohms
R6—- 7500 Ohms
R7-— 40,000 Ohms
3 R8— 800,000 Ohms
R9- 750,000 Ohms
R10-48,000 Ohms
SELECTOR R44—(Two) 3000 Ohms
h VYo4
\
SWITCH POSITIONS R12-150,000 Ohms
R13- 200,000 Ohms
D-C,A-C R14-4 MEG.
R15-15 MEG.
OUTPUT R16—-14.5 Ohms
SWITCH R17-0.475 Ohm
R18-— 22.5 Ohms
R19-2 Ohms
R X 10,000 R20-80 MEG.
Ret D-C,A-C OUTPUT R21 -4 MEG.
R22-0.025 Ohm
SWITCH POSITIONS R23-RECT., Series
1, O=C 2, A-G 3, OUTPUT Calibrated
O Oo © R24-RECT., Shunt
5000 V. 10 Switches shown in 50V. D-C position Calibrated
R25-10,000 Ohm
NEG. POS. D-C A-C AMP. Potentiometer

FIG. 2-7. Complete Circuit of the VOM

Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.

Figures 2-8 to 2-15 inclusive are simplified circuits, dissected from

the complete circuit, to show the internal connections resulting from the
various settings of the range selector switch and OUTPUT-AC-DC switch.
Figure 2-8 is the d-c voltmeter circuit. Note that the multiplier
resistors are connected in series in the same manner as the explanatory
circuit Figure 1-8. For the 5,000-v d-c range, external connections are made
to the jack terminals labeled NEG and 5,000 V.D.C., and the range
switch is set to its 1,000-v position.
Figure 2-9 shows the a-c voltmeter circuit. A two-section copper oxide
rectifier, similar to the one shown in Figure 1-12 (B) and described in
¥
 OHMMETERS AND VOLT—OHM—MILLIAMMETERS 37

Section 1.11 of Chapter 1, is used. R23 and R24, respectively, are series and
shunt calibration resistors employed to match an individual rectifier to
the printed a-c voltmeter scale. These resistors are labeled here with the
same numbers as the components in the complete circuit, Figure 2-7. They

800,000 150,000 48,000

15 Meg. 4 Meg. Ohms Ohms Ohms ae

O=5O5D= Om uA
(2000 Ohms)

5000 V. POS. NEG.

Fic. 2-8 D-C Voltmeter Circuit of the VOM

Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.

are wire-wound individually for each rectifier; so no resistance values can

be given here. For the 5,000-v a-c range, the external test leads are con-
nected to the jack terminals labeled NEG. and 5,000 V.A.C., and the
range switch is set to its 1,000-v position.

750,000 200,000 40,000 7500

Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms R23

0-50
D-CA
(2000 Ohms)

5000 V. ROS: NEG.

FIG. 2-9 A-C Voltmeter Circuit of the VOM

Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.

The output meter circuit is shown in Figure 2-10. This circuit is

seen to be the same as the a-c voltmeter described in the preceding para-
graph, except that the 5,000-v range has been omitted and a 0.1-micro-
farad (yf) blocking capacitor added to the input circuit.
38 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

750,000 200,000 40,000 7500

Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms R23

0-50
D-C wA
(2000 Ohms)

OUTPUT NEG.

FIG. 2-10 Output-Meter Circuit of the VOM

Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.

-O-50 D-C wA (2000 Ohms)

11.5 Ohms 11438 Ohms 21,850 Ohms

AW 10,000
ra Ohms
VA
ZERO-SET

POS. NEG.
Fic. 2-11 RXI1I Ohmmeter Circuit of the VOM
Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.

-0-50 D-C pA (2000 Ohms)

44.5 Ohms 14138 Ohms 21,850 Ohms

4 10,000
/ Ohms
ie

ZERO-SET

POS. NEG.

Fic. 2-12 RX100 Ohmmeter Circuit of the VOM

Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.
 OHMMETERS AND VOLT—OHM—MILLIAMMETERS 39

Figures 2-11, 2-12, and 2-13 are the ohmmeter circuits corresponding
to range-switch positions of RX1, RX100, and RX10,000 respectively.
The ohmmeter employs the potentiometer-type circuit. (See Section 2.4
for explanation of operation.)

--O-50 D-C pA ( 2000 Ohms)

ZEROTSEM <A

44.5 Ohms 1138 Ohms 21,850 Ohms =“

447,700
Ohms

POS. NEG.

FIc. 2-13. RX10,000 Ohmmeter Circuit of the VOM

Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.

In the d-c microammeter circuit (Figure 2-14), the series arrangement

of the 2,000-ohm 0-50 d-c microammeter and 3,000-ohm resistor is in
parallel with the five series-connected resistors ranging from 4,975 to
0.025 ohms. The five resistors form a 5,000-ohm shunt across the-5,000-ohm

-~O-50 D-C pA (2000 Ohms)

0.475 0.025
3000 Ohms 4975 Ohms 22.5 Ohms 2 Ohms Ohm Ohm

POS, NEG.

Fic. 2-14 D-C Microammeter Circuit of the VOM

Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.

meter circuit. Fifty microamperes flow through this shunt and 50 pa

through the meter circuit, making a total of 100 ya. The voltage drop
across the circuit is 250 mv.
The arrangement in Figure 2-15 provides a d-c milliammeter and
ammeter circuit. As the ranges are switched in this circuit, different shunt
40 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

values are connected across the input terminals, while at the same time
different values of meter series resistance are switched in. Thus the total
shunt resistance with the switch in its 500-ma position is 0.475 + 0.025 =
0.5 ohm, while the total series resistance (excluding the internal resistance
of the meter) is 3,000 + 22.5 + 2 = 3,024.5 ohms. In the 10-ma position
of the switch, the series resistance has been reduced to 3,000 ohms, while
the shunt resistance has been increased to 22.5 + 2+ 0.475 + 0.025 =
25 ohms. To check currents in the 10-amp range, the test leads are trans-

--- 0-50 D-C pA (2000 Ohms)

3000 Ohms 22.5 Ohms 0.475 Ohm 0.025 Ohm

POS. NEG. =
oe .
oat

FIG. 2-15 D-C Milliammeter-Ammeter Circuit of the VOM

Courtesy Simpson Electric Co.

ferred to the terminal jacks labeled +10 A. and —10 A. For this range the
shunt resistance is 0.025 ohm, and the series resistance 3,000 + 22.5 + 2+
0.475 = 3,024.975 ohms. For each current range the instrument voltage
drop is 250 mv.

2.10 Calibration of VOM’s

The separate calibration procedures for current meters and volt-
meters, outlined in Section 1.14 of Chapter 1, and for ohmmeters in
Section 2.7 of Chapter 2, may be applied to calibration of the a-c/d-c VOM.
It is advisable to calibrate the lowest d-c range first, since all ranges
of the instrument will be seriously in error if the basic meter, or basic
current range, is inaccurate. Next, calibrate each succeeding current range
in increasing order. Then, calibrate each d-c voltage range in increasing
order and each resistance range. Conclude with the calibration of each
a-c voltage range in increasing order. If this order of procedure is fol-
lowed, defects may be spotted in the first range in which they occur and
corrected before their effects spread to other ranges.
 OHMMETERS AND VOLT—OHM—MILLIAMMETERS 41

2.11 Multimeter Operating Instructions

The combination VOM is a basic tool in electronic laboratories and
shops. Proper use of this instrument will enhance its accuracy, increase its
usefulness, and prolong its life.
1. ‘To prevent meter overloading and possible damage when checking
currents or voltages, start with the highest range of the instrument and
switch down in range successively.
2. For highest accuracy, make the final current or voltage reading on
the range in which the deflection falls in the upper half of the meter scale.
3. For maximum accuracy and minimum circuit loading, whenever
possible choose a voltmeter range such that the total voltmeter resistance
(ohms-per-volt rating X full-scale voltage) is at least 100 times the resist-
ance of the circuit under test. The importance of this technique may be
realized from the fact that the voltage indicated by the meter must be
multiplied by (RJ + R2)/R2 to give the true voltage value. (RJ is the
resistance of the circuit under test, and R2 the total voltmeter resistance.)
4. Make all resistance readings in the uncrowded portion of the meter
scale, whenever possible.
5. Exercise extraordinary precaution when checking high voltages
and also when checking currents in high-voltage circuits. Injurious shocks
often are received from electronic equipment. A safe line of procedure is
to turn off the power, connect the meter (do not use test prods held in
the hands) , switch the power back on and take a reading, then switch the
power off again before removing the meter connections.
6. Verify circuit polarity before making a test. Connect the positive
terminal of the meter to the positive terminal of the circuit under test.
Either polarity is satisfactory when making a-c measurements.
7. When checking resistors in circuits, be sure the power is switched
off. A voltage across a resistor may damage the meter.
8. Renew ohmmeter batteries frequently to insure accuracy of the
resistance scales and also to prevent the oozing of electrolyte inside the
instrument.
9. Reset the ZERO OHMS rheostat, with the test leads connected
temporarily together, after you have switched to a new resistance range.
10. Set the function switch in the instrument to AC or DC to corre-
spond to the nature of the source under test. If there is a d-c component
in combination with an a-c voltage under test, switch the instrument to
itt OUTPUT METER function. This will introduce the blocking
capacitor in series with the input leads and protect the rectifier and meter.
If the instrument has no OUTPUT function, a 0.1—1 yf capacitor must be
connected in series with one of the test leads. In either case, the meter
reading will be somewhat lower than the true voltage value because of
42 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

the reactance of the capacitor. The extent of the error will depend upon
the operating frequency, being highest at low frequencies. After using
the OUTPUT function, either with an internal or external blocking
capacitor, touch the test prods together momentarily to discharge the
capacitor.
11. In all measurements, grip the test-prod handles near their lead
ends, and do not allow the fingers to touch the metallic prod tips. This
technique will protect the operator from electric shock while checking
voltage or current, and will prevent body-resistance shunting error when
checking resistance.
12. Keep the mechanical zero-set screw of the indicating meter
adjusted to bring the pointer exactly over the zero line. No voltage or
current should be applied to the meter during this operation.
13. Recalibrate the instrument at frequent intervals.
14. When the instrument is idle, switch to its highest d-c voltage
range and remove the test leads. Never allow the meter to stand by on a
resistance range.
15. Protect the instrument from dust, moisture, fumes, and heat.
16. When transporting the instrument, switch to one of its d-c ranges.
The low-resistance shunt, which then is in parallel with the meter, acts to
damp the movement and prevent excessive swinging which otherwise
might damage the moving-coil assembly.

Review Questions

1. A 0-10 d-c voltmeter has a sensitivity of 5,000 ohms per volt. The
total resistance of the voltmeter therefore is 50,000 ohms. This meter is
deflected to full scale with a battery and rheostat. When an unknown
resistor then is connected into the circuit, the deflection falls to 4 v. What
is the value of the resistor?
2. A d-c voltmeter with a total internal resistance of 200,000 ohms
reads 44 v when connected to a battery. The reading drops to 1 v when
an unknown resistance is connected in series with the battery. What is the
unknown resistance?
3. A 0-500 d-c microammeter having an internal resistance of 250
ohms reads 300 ya when connected to a 14-v cell and an unknown resist-
ance in series. What is the value of the unknown resistance?
 OHMMETERS AND VOLT—OHM—MILLIAMMETERS 43

References

Atherton, Ralph, Principles of Radio for Operators. New York: The

Macmillan Company, 1945, pp. 83-92.
Simpson Electric Co., Operator's Manual, Model 260 Volt-Ohm-Milliam-
meter. Chicago: Simpson Electric Co.
Timbie, W. H., Basic Electricity for Communications (Ist ed.). New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1943, pp. 102-106, 112, 117-121, 224.
Tucker, D. J., Introduction to Practical Radio. New York: The Macmillan
Company, 1951, pp. 192-216.
Turner, Rufus P., and Robert F. Scott, “Survey of Multitesters,” Radzo-
Electronics, May, 1949, p. 44.
 %
Vacuum- Tube Voltmeters

3.1 Features of the VTVM

A VTVM consists of a suitable tube circuit and a simple, moving-coil
meter. The tube circuit may perform the function of rectification, ampli-
fication, or both. When an amplifier circuit is employed, the a-c or d-c
voltage under measurement is applied to the control grid of the tube,
and the meter is deflected by the resulting change in plate current. Since
the plate-current shift is proportional to the applied grid voltage, the
plate-current meter may be calibrated to indicate the applied-voltage
value. The grid-circuit resistance can be made higher than the resistance
of any simple tubeless voltmeter. The sensitivity of a VI'VM, in terms of
input resistance, therefore can amount to as much as several megohms
per volt. An instrument of this type insures minimum loading of a cir-
cuit under test, and it can be used to measure voltages across very high
resistances. This is the first important advantage of the VITVM.
The amplifying properties of the VI'VM circuit enable the use of a
relatively rugged indicating meter. A striking illustration is that of a
VTVM with 10-meg input resistance and a 0-1 d-c milliammeter which
is deflected to full scale by l-v input. The input current drain, if we
neglect the small amount of tube grid current, is 1/10 ya in 10 meg.
Compared with the I-ma deflection, a current gain or advantage of 10,000
is obtained. The VI'VM sensitivity is 10 meg per volt. If the milliammeter
were used alone as a 0-1 d-c voltmeter, the total input resistance with
multiplier would be only 1,000 ohms, and the sensitivity 1,000 ohms per
volt. One thousand microamperes would be drawn from the circuit under
test. Another advantage of the VI'VM thus is increased sensitivity through
current amplification.
As an a-c instrument, the VI'VM has, in addition to the feature of
high input impedance, several noteworthy advantages over common a-c
voltmeters. These include wide frequency response, high sensitivity to
44 .
 VACUUM-—TUBE VOLTMETERS 45

weak voltages, and comparative freedom from errors due to temperature.

Moreover, the input capacitance of the VI'VM is low.

3.2 VTVM Types

A large amount of research and development has been devoted to
VTVM circuits. Many special-purpose instruments have been designed.
It is impossible within the space of this chapter to describe each of the
numerous circuits. However, the practical circuits in present wide use are
seen to fall into the following descriptive categories: (1) diode type,
(2) single-triode type, (3) balanced-triode type, (4) rectifier-amplifier
type, and (5) amplifier-rectifier type. While tetrode and pentode tubes
have been employed to a limited extent in VIVM circuits, the simplicity
of the triode has given it preference over other types. Multigrid tubes
seldom are found in presently popular VI'VM’s except in the amplifier
stages of amplifier-rectifier types. Typical circuit arrangements chayacter-
istic of the groups just listed are described separately in the following
paragraphs.

Diode Type
In this simplest form of VI'VM, the diode tube performs the same
function as the meter rectifier described in Chapter 1. Figure 3-1 shows
the circuits employed in most diode VI'VM’s. In each of these circuits
V is the diode tube, R the multiplier, or load resistance, and M a d-c
milliammeter or microammeter. The diode voltmeter is used only for a-c
measurements.
Figure 3-1(A) is the simplest circuit, consisting of diode, resistor, and
meter connected in series. When the upper a-c terminal is positive, the
diode conducts, and current flows through resistor R and meter M. The
rectified current is proportional to the average value of the applied a-c
voltage. Calibration of the meter for a given a-c input voltage is secured
by adjustment of resistance R.
In Figure 3-1(B), a large capacitance, C, has been added to the diode
output circuit. If the resistance of R is high, and if the time constant of
the R-C combination is high at the operating frequency, this capacitor
will charge to the peak value of the applied a-c voltage minus the small
drop in the tube. Response of this circuit therefore is proportional
approximately to the peak value of the applied voltage.
Both of the circuits just described depend upon the circuit under test
to complete the d-c path required for the diode and meter. This is not
always possible or desirable. ‘The voltage source, for example, may deliver
a d-c as well as an a-c component, and the d-c component will cause an
error in the indication. If the d-c is sufficiently high, the tube and meter
may be damaged. Another likelihood is that the output circuit of the
46 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

voltage source may contain a capacitor which will block the required
d-c return path. The shunt-diode circuits shown in Figures 3-1(C), (D),
and (E) provide their own d-c return paths and have blocking capacitors
which exclude any d-c component applied by the voltage source.

(A) (B)
SERIES SERIES
DIODE DIODE
Average BOL Peak
Reading Reading

R
+

(Cc) (D) (E)

SHUNT DIODE SHUNT DIODE SHUNT DIODE
Positive Negative WITH BUCKING
Peak Reading Peak Reading BATTERY CIRCUIT

Re
(F) z /
SHUNT & /
DIODE = Me (G)
WITH x re DIODE
Sa iN _ is CHARACTER-
= / ISTIC CURVE
BUCKING M Me ¢
CIRCUIT i ————E
APPLIED A-C VOLTAGE

FIG. 3-1 Diode VIVM Circuits

In each of the shunt-diode circuits, capacitor C charges approxi-

mately to the peak value of the applied a-c voltage when diode V conducts.
The deflection of the meter therefore is proportional to the peak value
of the input voltage if R is high. The circuit in Figure 3-1(C) is used for
positive-peak measurements; the one in Figure 3-1(D) for negative peaks.
In a diode tube, electrons strike the plate with sufficient velocity to
impart a negative potential to the plate. This happens as long as the tube
8
 VACUUM-TUBE VOLTMETERS 47

filament or heater is in operation and is referred to as the contact potential

effect. The result is a steady deflection of the meter by electron emission
current on low-voltage ranges, even when no a-c voltage is applied. This
deflection, which is characteristic of all diode circuits, depends upon the
amount of resistance in series with the meter, being largest for small
resistance values. This initial current must be bucked out so that the
meter will read zero in the absence of an a-c test voltage. Figure 3-1(E)
shows one such bucking circuit. Current from the battery flows through
the zero-set rheostat (R2) and meter M in a direction opposite that of
the electron current generated by the diode. Adjustment of the battery
current by means of R2 allows the meter to be set accurately to zero. The
resistance of R2 at its setting for zero meter deflection must be high with
respect to the internal resistance of the meter, in order to prevent diode
current resulting from a signal voltage from flowing through the battery
circuit instead of the meter. This calls for a high battery voltage. The
same sort of bucking circuit may be used also with the other diode cir-
cuits shown in Figure 3-1. A second type of balancing circuit often used
in modern VI'VM’s is shown in Figure 3-1 (F). Here the contact potential
of a second diode (V2) is used instead of a battery to buck out the electron
current of the first diode (signal rectifier) , VJ.
When a diode VI'VM is built into some other electronic instrument,
such as an oscillator or signal generator, the bucking voltage often is
obtained from the equipment power supply.
Figure 3-1(G) shows the generalized shape of the typical diode-
conduction curve. While this characteristic is linear at higher values of
applied a-c voltage, considerable curvature is seen to exist at low poten-
tials. Meter response in the diode VI'VM thus is linear only at high values
of input voltage, separate voltage scales being necessary below about 10 v.
The diode VIVM has the advantage of simplicity. The only power
supply it requires is used to heat the tube filament. Its input resistance is
limited, however, by the amount of resistance which may be connected
in series with the indicating meter. A very sensitive microammeter is
required when high resistances are used. The principal application of
diode circuits in modern vacuum-tube instrumentation, as will be shown
later in this section, is in rectifier-amplifier and amplifier-rectifier VITVM’s.

Triode Type
The triode-type VIVM offers the advantages of amplification and of
isolation of the indicating meter from the instrument input circuit.
Common triode-voltmeter arrangements are shown in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2(A) shows the basic triode circuit. Operation of this cir-
cuit depends upon transconductance, the tube property whereby grid
control of plate current is obtained. The tube receives its bias from the
48 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

voltage drop across a cathode resistor. The input test voltage is applied to
the grid in series with this bias and causes an increase in plate current.
This plate-current change (dJ,) is indicated by the d-c milliammeter or
microammeter, M, and is proportional to the test voltage. Before a test

C1 VOLTAGE
yRANGE SWITCH
ZERO-SET

(A)
TRIODE WITH
BATTERY
BALANCING

ct
HH ZERO-SET

INPUT TRIODE WITH

VOLTAGE BRIDGE
aa (e) 552
BALANCING

POLARITY
REVERSING
SWITCH

+ ©
Cc)
BALANCED
TRIODE
CIRCUIT _—@

FIG. 3-2. Triode VIVM Circuits

voltage is applied to the input terminals of the instrument, meter M is

set to zero by balancing the steady plate current of the tube out of the
meter through adjustment of the zero-set rheostat. The triode circuit may
be used to check either a-c or d-c voltages, although the two scales do not
usually coincide. Capacitors CJ and C2 are connected for a-c.
The circuit in Figure 3-2(B) is similar to the basic triode circuit,
except that a resistance bridge instead of a battery is connected in the
plate circuit for meter balancing. The four arms of this bridge are RI,
 VACUUM-TUBE VOLTMETERS 49

R2, R3, and the internal plate-cathode resistance (r,) of the tube. The
component rf, is equal to the plate-cathode voltage divided by the plate
current (expressed in amperes). The bridge is balanced and the meter
zeroed when R1/r, = R3/R2. To prevent plate-current changes from
flowing through the balancing circuit instead of the meter, balancing
resistor RJ must be ten or more times the internal resistance of the meter.
The total resistance of R2, R3, and R;, in series must be low enough to
allow a current flow through this resistance string of from five to ten
times the plate current of the tube.
The bias-voltage value, governed by the size of cathode resistor R;,
determines the point at which the tube is operated along its E, — I,
characteristic curve, and in turn the VI VM characteristic; that is, whether
the meter deflection is linear with respect to the applied test voltage, or
whether it varies as the square of the test voltage or follows some other
law. When the bias exceeds the cutoff value for the tube used, a peak-
reading voltmeter is obtained. A bias value much lower than cutoff gives
full-wave square-law operation. Bias near the cutoff value gives half-wave
square-law operation.
A difficulty often experienced with simple triode voltmeters is the
tendency of meter zero to shift from original balance. This occurs slowly
during periods of operation on a single voltage range, and abruptly when
changing from one range to another. Frequent readjustment of the zero-
set rheostat is necessary. The simple triode circuit is subject also to power-
supply fluctuations and to variations in tube characteristics. These con-
ditions are relieved in the circuit shown in Figure 3-2 (C) . While basically
a d-c VIVM, this circuit may be used also to check a-c voltages, as will
be shown later, by preceding it with a diode rectifier. Two identical triodes
are employed. VJ handles the applied test voltage, while V2 is a balancing
tube.
A high resistance, R3, is connected in series with the junction point
of the two cathode resistors (RJ and R2) and the source of bias voltage.
Because of its high value, this resistance, rather than the tube characteris-
tics, largely determines the cathode current. The circuit accordingly is
divorced almost completely from variations in tube characteristics and
from small plate-current changes resulting from tube and power-supply
fluctuations. When a positive test voltage is applied to the upper input
terminal, tube VJ draws increased plate current, raising point “X” to a
higher positive value. This increased positive potential is applied auto-
matically to the cathode of V2, thereby reducing the plate current of that
tube. The net result of this action is to make the top of R4 more positive
and the bottom of R6 less positive. This difference of potential causes a
current to flow through the meter, M. If the upper input terminal inadver-
tently is made negative, the meter would be deflected downward. How-
50 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

ever; the polarity reversing switch may be thrown to obtain an upward

deflection for the negative input voltage. This feature removes the neces-
sity of interchanging the test leads.
The input resistance of triode VI'VM’s is the total resistance of the
input voltage divider associated with the range switch. This resistance is
as high as 100 meg in some commercial instruments, but values between
10 and 20 meg are more common.

Rectifier-Amplifier Type
A diode rectifier can be operated ahead of a d-c VI'VM to allow a-c
voltage measurements with the d-c instrument. Figure 3-3 shows one
arrangement of such a rectifier-amplifier-type VI'VM. The circuit is so
named because the d-c VIVM circuit basically is a d-c amplifier.

D0-C
V-T VOLTMETER

FIG. 3-3 Rectifier-Amplifier-Type VTVM

Input capacitor C/, diode VJ, and load resistor RJ is recognized as

the shunt-diode rectifier circuit described under Diode Type. This sec-
tion of the circuit is followed by a second identical diode, V2, the contact
potential of which is used to buck out the steady electron current gener-
ated by the input diode, VJ. Resistor R3 is the balancing rheostat.
Resistor R2 and capacitor C2 form a low-pass filter for smoothing out
fluctuations present in the d-c output of the first diode. Because the d-c
VTVM requires virtually no current for its operation, load resistance R1
can be made very high. This minimizes loading of the circuit under test,
while at the same time affording higher d-c output from diode VJ.
The rectifier-amplifier circuit is a very satisfactory arrangement for
measuring a-c voltages up to high frequencies. At the same time, the d-c
VTIVM portion of the circuit is available for d-c measurements. In
modern combination instruments, the diode rectifier is contained in an
external probe. The d-c VI'VM used in the rectifier-amplifier circuit indi-
cates the approximate peak value of the applied a-c test voltage (1.414
 VACUUM-—TUBE VOLTMETERS 51

times the rms sine-wave voltage), except in voltage ranges lower than
about 10 v rms. At low a-c voltages, the deflection is somewhat less than
peak value. The diode input circuit, as shown in Figure 3-3, is negative-
peak reading. Although the circuit is peak-responsive, the scales of a-c
VTIVM’s of the rectifier-amplifier type customarily are calibrated in rms
values on the basis of sine-wave input.
While two separate diode tubes are shown in Figure 3-3, a single
twin-diode tube usually is employed. The peak inverse voltage rating
of the diode tube largely determines the maximum a-c voltage which

TABLE 3—1

Maximum RMS
OA Sine-Wave Voltage
1N34 DA ar
IN34A 7a ye
1N38 35.5
IN38A 35.5
1N39 71.0
1N54 12.4
IN54A 17.75
IN55 53.3
IN55A 53.3
1N56 14.2
IN56A 14.2
IN58 35.5
IN58A 35.5
IN60 8.9

may be applied safely for measurement. An rms voltage of 300 is the

maximum value handled directly by commercial VIVM’s. Higher volt:
ages may be applied through capacitive voltage dividers. Germanium
crystal diodes are used instead of tubes in rectifier-amplifier VIVM’s
when the a-c test voltage is not high. Germanium diodes are useful at
frequencies up to about 200 me. These crystal units are small in size,
being readily enclosed in test probes, and require no heater voltage. Free
from contact potential effects, they also require no bucking voltage.
The maximum rms sine-wave voltage which may be applied to a
crystal-type shunt-diode input circuit depends upon the continuous
reverse working voltage of the crystal. Maximum voltages which may be
applied, for measurement, to representative germanium diodes in the
shunt-diode circuit are shown in Table 3-1.
52 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Amplifier-Rectifier Type
Another complex VIVM is the type in which a rectifier and indicat-
ing meter follow an input amplifier. This arrangement, shown in Fig-
ure 3-4, often is used in a-f VI'VM’s designed to measure small signals
down to levels of a few millivolts.
The test voltage first is amplified to a desired degree by a high-gain
voltage amplifier. The amplified voltage then is presented to a driver or
current amplifier stage, and the output of the latter is fed into a rectifier
and d-c milliammeter or microammeter. The rectifier-meter circuit usually
is made part of a negative feedback loop extending to the input amplifier

aac A-C CURRENT

AMPLIFIER
A-C VOLTAGE STAGE OR +
AMPLIFIER DRIVER

Fic. 3-4 Amplifier-Rectifier-Type VIVM

stage. Feedback increases stability of the instrument, widens its frequency

response, and linearizes its scale. Response of the feedback-type amplifier-
rectifier VI'VM is proportional to the average value of an applied test
voltage.
The lowest full-scale voltage of an amplifier-rectifier voltmeter
depends upon the voltage gain of the amplifier and is limited by the
inherent noise level of the system. Because of the relatively low-voltage
output of the amplifier, crystal diodes frequently are used as meter recti-
fiers in this circuit.

3.3 Battery-operated Diode VTVM!

Figures 3-5, 3-6, and 3-7 show details of a small, compact, shunt-
diode-type VI'VM which is linear in response. For complete isolation,
instant operation, and portability, the tube filament is battery-operated.
A Type 1A3 diode is used.
This instrument has a single range of 0-100 v rms. It will be found
particularly useful for measuring r-f voltages. Because of the high voltage
range of this instrument and the correspondingly high value of load
resistance, contact potential in the diode will not produce a noticeable

1 Adapted from Rufus P. Turner, ‘““A Compact Linear Diode V.T.V.M.,” Radio
News, July, 1948, p. 40.
g
 VACUUM-—TUBE VOLTMETERS 53

deflection of the 0-200 d-c microammeter. Therefore no bucking circuit

is required.
This simple VI'VM responds to the negative peak of applied volt-
age. Calibration is accomplished by applying a 100-v rms sine-wave

FIG. 3-5 Battery-Operated Diode VIVM

voltage to the A. C. INPUT terminals and setting rheostat R for full-

scale deflection of the microammeter. The single-point calibration will
suffice, since the scale is linear. With the 0.02 yf input capacitor shown
in Figure 3-7, the frequency of the calibration voltage should not be

FIc. 3-6 Internal Construction of the Battery-Operated Diode VIVM

lower than 100 cps. The specified capacitance of 0.02 pf is a good com-
promise value. However, C should be changed to 1 yf if the instrument
is to be used exclusively at frequencies lower than 100 cps, and to 0.001 uf
for frequencies higher than 10 mc.
54 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Unless a special voltage scale is drawn for the meter, voltages must
be read by dividing each indication of the meter by 2. Each scale division
of the 40-division scale represents 24 v rms.
The 1A3 filament draws only 150 ma, so good life may be expected
from a jumbo-size flashlight cell in intermittent use.

3.4 A-C Operation of a Diode VTVM

The shunt-diode VI'VM circuit shown in Figure 3-8 is similar to
the instrument described in Section 3.3, except that one half of a Type
6H6 tube, operated from 6.3 v a-c, is used. A6AL5 tube also might be used.

0.02 yf 0.02 pt 100-006

MICA or CERAMIC 4 Meg. MICA or CERAMIC one

AV.

Fic. 3-7 Circuit of the Battery- Fic. 3-8 A-C Operated

Operated Diode VITVM * Diode VITVM

The circuit responds to the negative peak of the applied a-c voltage.
The calibration control rheostat, R, is set for full-scale deflection of the
0-1 d-c milliammeter with a 100-v rms sine-wave signal applied to the
A.C. INPUT terminals. The meter scale may be read directly by adding
ciphers mentally to each indication. Each division of a conventional
50-division milliammeter scale will represent 2 v.

3.5 Center-Zero D-C VIVM

Figure 3-9 shows the circuit diagram of a center-zero d-c VI VM for
a-c operation. This instrument is convenient for the rapid checking of
voltages in electronic circuits, since neither the test leads nor the meter
need be switched for polarity of the test voltage. Since zero is set initially
at the center of the meter scale, deflection is up-scale for positive and
 VACUUM-TUBE VOLTMETERS 55

down-scale for negative input voltages. A typical calibration is given

in Figure 3-9.
Full-scale d-c voltages are 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 v. A I-meg
isolating resistor mounted inside the handle of the test probe, together
with the shielding of the probe and its cable, minimizes hand capacitance
effects.

LOPEN- CIRCUIT
yf PHONE JACK

SHIELDED~ —=
PLUG ee
5 Meg.
J 4 Megr7
SHIELDED
-= CABLE 500,000
Ohms

SHIELDED 400,000
/ PROBE
Vad onpe CALIBRATION
Sto 50,000 500V, ~ CONTROL ~
Meg. Ohms 1000 Ohms
WIREWOUND

GROUND
CLIP Xx
TO 6C4
STANCOR-~~ menlen 0G3
P-6120 x 4500 Ohms ,
5W.
WIREWOUND TYPICAL
CALIBRATION
ON- D-C MILLI-
OFF VOLTS AMPERES
5 SEG ai ae 4.0
a eee 0.9
Se eee OS
O Cope a A 0.68
oN sin 0 a ee 0.58
a f O2as = 0.50
OD3 a rere 0.42
—2_____0.35
See 0.27
\ = = EM 0.20
115V. A-C ‘315-0-315 V., 70 MA. = Tear 0.15
All resistors 1 Watt unless labelled otherwise

FIc. 3-9 Genter-Zero D-C VIVM

The heater of the 6C4 voltmeter tube is operated at 5 v for improved

stability and reduced grid current. Voltage regulation of the d-c plate
voltage is secured by means of the 0C3 and 0D3 regulator tubes connected
in series.

Adjustment
(1) Switch on the instrument and allow a 30-minute warm-up time.
(2) Set the range switch to its 5-v position. (3) Set the 1,000-ohm CALI-
56 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

BRATION CONTROL rheostat at about half of its maximum rotation.

(4) Set the ZERO SET potentiometer to bring the pointer of the milli-
ammeter exactly to half-scale (0.5 ma). (5) Plug the test probe into the
input jack. (6) Connect the probe to the positive terminal of an accu-
rately known 5-v d-c source. (7) Connect the ground clip to the negative
terminal of the source. (8) Adjust the CALIBRATION CONTROL to
bring the meter pointer exactly to 1 ma. (9) Disconnect the 5-v source
and recheck center zero. If the zero point has shifted from 0.5 ma, readjust
the ZERO SET potentiometer. (10) Reconnect the 5-v source and
readjust the CALIBRATION CONTROL, if necessary, for I1-ma deflec-
tion. (11) Work back and forth in this manner between the CALIBRA-
TION CONTROL and ZERO SET control until l-ma deflection is
obtained each time the 5-v input is applied and the meter returns to
half-scale when the input is removed. (12) Without disturbing the CALI-
BRATION CONTROL, check the deflection at 1, 2, 3, and 4 v positive
and (with the test leads interchanged) at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 v negative.
Then, from these data, prepare a calibration curve or table, or draw a
special voltage scale for the milliammeter. If the six resistors in the input
voltage divider have been chosen carefully for the exact specified resistance
values, the higher-voltage ranges will be in calibration automatically.
The CALIBRATION CONTROL rheostat should be mounted inside
the instrument to prevent accidental disturbance.
PRECISION RESISTORS
FOR OHMMETER RANGES O0-C
V-T VOLTMETER

ea 4.5 or =
= 3V. BATTERY
UNKNOWN <3
RESISTANCE = iy

<.

xX ©

Fic. 3-10 Basic Circuit of Vacuum-Tube Ohmmeter

3.6 Resistance Measurement with VIVM

Modern, general-purpose VITVM’s combine the function of resistance
measurement with that of voltage measurement. The resistance range
covered by a vacuum-tube ohmmeter commonly extends from 0.1 ohm to
1,000 meg.
Figure 3-10 illustrates the basic circuit of the vacuum-tube ohmmeter.
Current from the test battery flows through a selected precision resistor
 VACUUM-—TUBE VOLTMETERS 57

and the unknown resistance in series. The d-c VI'VM is deflected by the
resulting voltage drop across the unknown resistance. The higher this
resistance, the higher will be the deflection of the meter. The scale of
the VI'VM accordingly is distinguished by its left-to-right order; that is,
zero resistance is at meter zero, and the highest resistance is at full-scale
voltage. Before making a resistance measurement, the meter is set initially
to full scale, by means of an internal control, with terminals X-X open.
This circuit is seen to be similar to the potentiometer-type ohmmeter
shown in Figure 2-2, Chapter 2. The major point of difference is the
connection of the VIVM across the unknown, instead of the standard
resistance. The very high input resistance of the VITVM makes this man-
ner of operation possible. In the nonelectronic potentiometer-type ohm-
meter, the d-c voltmeter, having much lower internal resistance, had to
be connected across the precision resistor.

3.7 Commercial Kit-Type VTVM2

A commercial kit-type combination VIVM for private assembly is
shown in Figure 3-11. This instrument is typical of modern VIVM’s
widely used in electronic servicing. It combines the features of the
balanced-triode d-c VIVM, diode-balanced shunt-diode input rectifier,
and vacuum-tube ohmmeter circuits separately described earlier in this
chapter. Ranges provided are 0-3, 10, 30, 100, 300, and 1,000 v a-c and
d-c; and 0-1,000, 10,000, and 100,000 ohms and 0-1, 10, and 1,000 meg.
An accessory probe is available for extending the d-c voltage range to
30,000 v. The input resistance on each d-c range is 1] meg (1 meg of this
is in an isolating resistor enclosed in the handle of the d-c probe) . Sen-
sitivity of the instrument as a voltmeter is 3,666,666 ohms per volt on the
3-v range. :
The selector switch allows positive or negative d-c input to be
selected, obviating the need of shifting the test leads once they have been
connected to a test-voltage source. In the circuit diagram, the selector
switch is shown in its A-C VOLTS position. The selector switch and the
range switch each consist of two decks ganged together.
One half of a 7A6 twin diode is used as the rectifier for a-c test volt-
ages. A portion of the contact potential generated by the second half is
used to balance out the contact potential of the first. The diode responds
to the negative peak of an applied a-c test voltage. The meter reads the
rms value of a sine wave, or 70.7% of the peak value of a nonsinusoidal
wave. The a-c calibration is accurate throughout the a-f spectrum. For
higher frequencies, up to 200 me, a germanium crystal probe is available
and may be plugged into the D-C INPUT jack.

2 Heathkit Model V5, The Heath Co., Benton Harbor, Mich.

58 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS
3.3 Meg, 42AU7
O0-C 3 A-C BALANCE
PROBE Se 10 Meg.
3 S J .002 pt
~~~ Built-in = Pa !

es a
4.0 Meg.
Resistor

> 8 4 =
01
ut
:B 3.3
Meg.
a

0 A-G—=
D-C SELECTOR CAL.
INPUT SWITCH ~>s, 10,000

ao
PROBE
ope [OLD AE) 70,000 Ohms
‘200,000 Ohms
X y 700,000 Ohms
ee, =

A-C y &
onms © =
io}

oe
>
‘
le}
Efo)=

S
Wino cA ie gto)
GROUND ~ = _— <a :
CLIP GND seen ‘= “ZERO ADu.
pre ONG ne = 40,000
‘i 1] \\ i ae
~ S4 Oh ms

ees SWITCH ht A
ie) \ = '
SS ie)
5 gS} S 20,000 Ohms
a x< x 39 Oh Each

Bas ae ~~ & & ate

Meg. OFF=
A
ex 90 900 IS \
‘“._ 90,000
-T Ohms Ohms 9000 Ohms

= Ghios SELENIUM
die Neg ae RECTIFIER

Fic. 3-11 Complete Circuit of Kit-Type VTVM

Courtesy The Heath Co.

The calibration controls labeled A-C BALANCE, A-C CAL., and

D-C CAL. are mounted inside the instrument case and provided with
slotted shafts for screw-driver adjustment. Placing these controls out of
reach protects them from accidental disturbance. The controls labeled
ZERO ADJ. and OHMS ADJ. are located on the front panel of the
instrument, together with the ON-OFF switch, pilot light, selector switch,
and range switch.

Adjustment and Calibration

An initial calibration is made in the following manner.
FOR D-c: (1) Set the SELECTOR switch to DC+. (2) Set the
RANGE switch to 3 v. (3) Connect the D-C and GND. test leads to cor-
a
 VACUUM-TUBE VOLTMETERS 59

responding instrument input terminals. (4) Switch on the instrument

and allow a 2-hour warm-up. (5) Bring the meter pointer exactly to
zero on the scale by adjusting the ZERO ADJ. potentiometer. (6) Apply
an accurately known d-c voltage between 14 and 3 v to the test leads,
and adjust the D-C CAL. control to bring the meter pointer exactly to
the corresponding voltage on the scale.

FOR A-C: Make this calibration after completing the d-c voltage cali-
bration. (1) Zero the meter carefully on the 3 v d-c range. (2) Set the
SELECTOR switch to A-C. (3) Set the RANGE switch to 3 v. (4) If
there is a movement of the meter pointer away from zero when switching
to A-C, restore the zero setting by adjustment of the ACC BALANCE
control. (5) Set the RANGE switch to its 300-v position, and connect
the A-C and GND. test leads to an accurately known a-c voltage source
delivering between 250 and 300 v rms. (6) Adjust the A-C CAL. control
to bring the meter pointer exactly to the corresponding voltage on the
meter scale. Use care in making this adjustment, since the test voltage is
high enough to be dangerous.
A final calibration, repeating each of the steps outlined in the fore-
going paragraphs, must be made after the instrument has been allowed
to run continuously for 48 hours. This permits aging of the tubes and
insures a stable calibration.
The calibration should be rechecked whenever tubes or any circuit
component is replaced. If the VIVM receives a great deal of use, calibra-
tion should be checked after each 100 hours of operation, however
intermittent.

3.8 Accessories for VTVM’s

The utility of the VI'VM is increased by accessories which extend
its ranges and functions. Several of these devices are described in the
following paragraphs.

R-F Probe
An external shunt-diode rectifier operated ahead of the d-c VIT'VM
permits measurement of r-f voltages. This rectifier (Figure 3-12) is built
in the form of a shielded probe on the end of a flexible, shielded cable.
Germanium crystal diodes are often used in r-f probes because of their
freedom from contact potential and their ability to operate without
power supply. Since only two small mica or ceramic capacitors, one crys-
tal diode, and two 4-w carbon resistors are required, the r-f probe may
be constructed in the handle of a test prod.
The maximum r-f voltage which may be applied to germanium
diodes of various types is given in the crystal table in Section 3.2 of this
60 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

chapter. A d-c VIVM operated with crystal-probe input will indicate the
peak value of an applied r-f voltage. The d-c scale of the meter may be
read directly in peak volts, except at low input voltages (under about 5 v
rms) where a special calibration is required.

_Shield
TO D-C
V-T VOLTMETER
\
\
\
\
(

SHIELDED
CABLE

Fic. 3-12 Crystal-Type R-F Probe for D-C VTVM

The r-f probe is designed to feed directly into the d-c VI'VM, not
through the normal d-c probe, which contains a 1-meg isolating resistor.
The I-meg filter resistor in the r-f probe circuit replaces the isolating
resistor.

Television Peak-to-Peak Probe

The measurement of peak-to-peak a-c voltage values is important in
some forms of electronic testing, especially in television. Figure 3-13
shows the circuit of a special twin-diode probe for checking peak-to-peak
a-c values with a d-c VIVM.

Y2 6ALS : R3

TO D-C
V-T VOLTMETER

C2
O41 pt

Yo 6ALS

Fic. 3-13 Television (A-C) Peak-to-Peak Probe for D-C VITVM

The two halves of a 6AL5 twin-diode tube are used as separate posi-
tive- and negative-peak rectifiers. Their d-c outputs are added in series
across resistors RJ and R2, and the total potential applied to the d-c
 VACUUM-—TUBE VOLTMETERS 61

VTVM. The d-c scales of the meter will indicate directly the peak-to-
peak value of the applied a-c voltage, except at low voltages (below
about 5 v rms input), where a special calibration is required.
The peak-to-peak probe is designed to operate directly into the d-c
VTVM, not through the normal d-c probe of the instrument, which
contains a l-meg isolating resistor. The l-meg resistor, R3, in the peak-
to-peak probe replaces the isolating resistor.
Some means must be provided within the VIVM for balancing out
the contact-potential effects of the 6AL5 tube. Filament voltage for the
tube can be obtained from the power supply of the instrument. Neither
the positive- nor the negative-peak voltage of the signal applied to the
6AL5 peak-to-peak probe may exceed 210 v. Germanium crystal diodes
may be used, instead of a tube, in the peak-to-peak probe, but with
reduced input voltage. The maximum positive- or negative-peak voltage
which may be applied safely to representative crystals in this probe cir-
cuit may be determined from the crystal table in Section 3.2 of this
chapter. To obtain the maximum-peak value, multiply the rms values
in the crystal table by 1.414.

High-Voltage D-C Probes

Special safety-type probes with built-in high resistances are available
for extending the d-c VI'VM range to several kilovolts (kv) . These acces-

D-C INPUT

eA
SAFETY FLANGES

D-C
V-T VOLTMETER

Fic. 3-14. High-Voltage D-C Probe for D-C VIVM

sories adapt the instrument fdr measuring the high voltages encountered
in television picture-tube power supplies, electronic photoflash equip-
ment, X-ray apparatus, radio transmitters, radioactivity detectors and
counters, nuclear-research equipment, etc. Common ranges supplied by
commercial high-voltage probes intended for television servicing are 10
and 30 kv.
The arrangement of the high-voltage probe is illustrated in Figure
3-14. The probe high resistance, R,, in series with the input voltage
divider, R,,, of the instrument provides a division of the applied high
62 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

voltage to a value low enough to be accommodated by the meter. The

high-voltage probe feeds directly into the VI'VM, not through the low-
voltage d-c test probe.
The high-voltage probe-resistance (R,) value may be determined in
terms of the input resistance (R,,) of the dc VIT'VM by means of the
following equations. All values are in ohms,
To read 0-10,000 v on the 1,000-v scale of the meter:

| inc oe (3A)

To read 0-30,000 v on the 300-v scale of the meter:

R, = 99R», (3B)

Thus, for 10,000 v, a 90-meg probe will be required with a VI'VM having
an input resistance of 10 meg. For 30,000 v, a 1,485-meg probe is needed
with a 15-meg-input instrument.

Current Shunts
Both alternating and direct current may be measured with a VIVM,
with the aid of external shunts, as shown in Figure 3-15. The shunt
resistances are high, when compared with those used with nontube cur-
rent meters, and may be used only in test circuits which can tolerate the
introduction of such resistance values.
NORMAL INSTRUMENT
TEST LEADS
\
\ \
|
|

\
CURRENT SHUNT
INPUT RESISTOR

V-T VOLTMETER

Fic. 3-15 Use of Current Shunt with VIT'VM

To prevent an excessive voltage drop across the shunt resistor, either

the 1- or 3-v a-c or d-c range of the VI'VM should be used. The regular
a-c or d-c test probes of the instrument must be used. Table 3-2 gives the
shunt-resistance values for various common current ranges.

3.9 Audio VIVM-Millivoltmeter

Several commercial amplifier-rectifier-type a-c VI'VM’s are available
for use at audio and supersonic frequencies. Through their internal
amplification these instruments make possible the measurement of poten-
 VACUUM-—TUBE VOLTMETERS 63

tials as low as a few millivolts. Heretofore, VITVM-millivoltmeters of this

type have, because of their high cost, been inaccessible to most electronic

TABLE 3—2

Full-Scale I Volt Full-Scale 3 Volts Full-Scale

Current (Ohms) (Ohms)

ima 3,000 1,000

10 ma 300 100
100 ma ‘30 10
1 amp 3 1
10 amps 0.3 0.1

technicians. More recently, however, a kit-type instrument? has been

made available for private construction. This meter is shown in Figures
3-16 and 3-17.

Fic. 3-16 Kit-Type Audio VIT'VM-Millivoltmeter

Courtesy The Heath Co.

The circuit consists of a two-stage amplifier followed by a full-wave

crystal rectifier and microammeter. The first stage of the amplifier is a
6AU6 pentode voltage amplifier; the second stage a 6AT6 triode current
amplifier. The meter rectifier circuit is a half-bridge. The four arms of

3 Heathkit Model AV-1, The Heath Co., Benton Harbor, Mich.

64 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

0.01V.
O

683,800
Ohms oe CALIBRATION
sreuno 6AU6 05ut 6ATE 2.0 ut iki a
Ohms OAV.
0 5
68,380 o
Ohms 0.3 V. { a £ }
O 6 |
21,620 9
() Ohms 1.0. 8

N PUT
|
6838 . .
~~
arse 3V, -O1 pt t+
6 0
2462
Ohms 10 V.
GND O
(0) 683.8 a
Ohms 30 V. s
O
[o)
216.2. Se
Ohms 100 V.
e) >
68.38 iS
Ohms 300V. Nu
O +4
31,62 c =
Ohms 1 3 AE
y == ON-OFF
40 10 40 Ka =
bf uf pt ink =
= za =
SELENIUM RECTIFIER®

PILOT ee |e pb4
LAMP Ss 6AU6 : 6AT6
115 V.
A-C

Fic. 3-17 Complete Circuit of the Kit-Type Audio VIVM-Millivoltmeter

Courtesy The Heath Co.

the bridge are those comprised by the two crystals and the two 4,700-ohm
resistors. The d-c microammeter is graduated in rms volts and is con-
nected in parallel with a 5,000-ohm potentiometer which serves as a cali-
bration control. This potentiometer is provided with a slotted shaft for
screwdriver adjustment and is mounted inside the instrument case to
prevent accidental movement. Tube screen and plate voltages are supplied
by a voltage-doubling selenium rectifier circuit.
Voltage ranges are selected by means of the range switch and
10-resistor input voltage divider. Precision resistors are employed in
this divider string. The lowest full-scale voltage is 0.01 v (10 mv). The
highest is 300 v. Each voltage position of the range switch also provides
a decibel (dbm) range, zero db being based upon 1 mw in 600 ohms.
The total decibel range is —52 to +52 dbm.
Figure 3-17 shows one side of the meter rectifier circuit to be con-
 VACUUM—TUBE VOLTMETERS 65

nected back to the top of the 10-ohm cathode resistor in the 6AU6 input
stage. This connection provides negative feedback which stabilizes opera-
tion of the circuit, extends the frequency response of the instrument,
linearizes the meter scale, and makes the instrument response propor-
tional to the average value of the applied a-c test voltage. Frequency
response is +1 db from 10 cps to 50 kilocycles (kc.). Input impedance is
1 meg at 1,000 cps. No electrical zero adjustment is required.
Calibration of the instrument is simple. After a 15-minute warm-up,
an accurately known voltage corresponding to any one of the full-scale
values higher than | v is appliéd to the INPUT and GND terminals.
The frequency of this voltage may be that of the power line or higher,
as may be convenient. The calibration-control potentiometer then is
adjusted carefully to bring the pointer of the meter exactly to the corre-
sponding full-scale voltage value.
The audio VI'VM is invaluable in the measurement of signal volt-
ages over a wide range of values in audio amplifiers and similar systems.
It is widely used also in many forms of research and experimentation.

3.10 Calibration Procedure for VTVM’s

The method of calibrating VI'VM’s essentially is the same as the
calibration procedure for nontube-type meters. (See Section 1.14 and
Figure 1-15, Chapter 1.) The d-c voltage ranges of a combination VTVM
should be calibrated before the a-c voltage ranges. The power-line fre-
quency usually may be employed conveniently for a-c voltage calibration,
although a frequency in the vicinity of 1,000 kc should be used for
checking r-f ranges. The ohmmeter scales of a combination VIVM may
be calibrated with the aid of an accurate decade resistance box or a series
of precision resistors.
The shortest possible leads must be employed in the calibration cir-
cuits for VI'VM’s, and the wiring should be protected from stray electric
and magnetic fields, since the low ranges of VI'VM’s, both a-c and d-c,
are extremely susceptible to pickup. In some cases, shielded leads must
be used.
Precision resistors usually are used in the input voltage divider of a
VTVM. Consequently calibration adjustments ordinarily need be made
only on one range, the other ranges automatically being in calibration.
However, some meter circuits have an adjustable calibration rheostat or
potentiometer for each range, and each must be set separately.
The meter in a well-designed VIT'VM will not shift from zero as
ranges are switched, nor will the zero setting change when the test leads
are connected temporarily together. When switching from a-c to d-c,
however, a separate zero adjustment often is required.
66 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

3.11 Accuracy of VTVM’s

Various [Link] the accuracy of VIVM’s. The use of degen-
eration in both a-c and d-c instruments greatly minimizes errors due to
variations in tube characteristics, electrode voltages, and the values of
usually critical circuit components. Voltage regulation of the d-c power
supply is a further aid. Frequency response is notably better in VIVM's
than in other types of a-c voltmeters but is limited at some high fre-
quency, usually from 50 to several hundred megacycles, by electron tran-
sit time in the tubes and the impedance of coupling components. The
precision of range resistors in the input voltage divider determines
whether voltage readings can be duplicated on different scales.
In a-c VIT'VM’s, response of the instrument is an important factor,
because common practice is to graduate the scales in rms values while
the instrument may be peak-responsive, average-responsive, or square-
law. The rms readings are accurate only for a sine-wave test voltage and
will be in error by varying percentages determined by both the magni-
tude and phase of harmonics present when the voltage is nonsinusoidal.
Of the various VI'VM’s with scales graduated in rms values, the types
in which deflection is proportional to the average value of applied a-c
exhibit the least error when large harmonic percentages are present.
Some a-c VI'VM’s show turnover error. That is, different voltage
indications are obtained if the test-voltage leads are reversed. In such a
case the average of the two separate readings is taken to be approxi-
mately the true voltage. ‘Turnover error is the result of harmonics which
distort only one peak of the applied signal voltage, or distort one peak
more than the other. .
Laboratory-type VI'VM’s seldom are rated in accuracy closer than
+2% of full scale. Instruments designed expressly for service and main-
tenance are rated at from +3% to +5% of full scale.

3.12 VTVM Operating Instructions

1. Always allow a warm-up period as long as possible before using
the instrument. Recheck the zero setting on the lowest voltage range
frequently during warm-up.
2. Recheck the zero setting, with the test voltage removed, each time
the meter is switched to a new range.
3. When the approximate value of a test voltage is not known, start
with the highest range of the instrument and switch down in range until
the reading finally is made in the upper third of a scale. While over-
loading the instrument will not burn out the indicating meter, the
pointer often will be driven against its stop with enough force to bend
or break the pointer. .
 VACUUM-TUBE VOLTMETERS 67

4. Grasp the handles of the test probes near their “dead” ends,
keeping the fingers back away from the metallic test prods. This prevents
hand capacitance effects and protects the operator from electric shocks.
Do not touch the metal prods when the instrument is set to one of its
low-voltage ranges, since stray pickup will deflect the meter forcibly.
5. When checking resistance, be sure that no voltage is present
across the resistor.
6. Exercise extraordinary caution when measuring voltages between
two points both of which are above ground. The ground (or common)
input terminal usually is connected to the instrument case, and in this
instance the case will be at a dangerous potential.
7. For maximum personal safety when measuring high voltages with
the VI'VM, switch off the high-voltage source, discharging any capacitors
in the circuit. Then connect the test leads to the meter and test circuit.
Switch on the voltage source and make the meter reading. Finally, switch
off the voltage source before disconnecting the instrument. When a high-
voltage probe must be held in the hand, the free hand should be placed
in a pocket.
8. When the VIVM is standing idle, it should be switched to its
highest d-c voltage range, and all test leads should be detached. Never
store the instrument when it is switched to one of its ohmmeter ranges.

Review Questions

1. Ad-c VIVM has an input resistance of 10 meg. What is the ohms-

per-volt sensitivity of this instrument on its 3-v range?
2. One volt d-c is applied toa VIVM having 20 meg input resistance.
The 1-ma indicating meter in this instrument is deflected to full scale.
What value of current amplification does this operation represent?
3. What resistance will be required in an external high-voltage
probe to enable 10,000 v to be read at full scale on the 1,000-v scale of a
VTVM having an input resistance of 11 meg?

References

Henney, Keith (ed.), The Radio Engineering Handbook (3d ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1941, pp. 205-207.
68 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Rider, John F., Vacuum Tube Voltmeters. New York: John F. Rider,
Inc., 1941.
Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., Servicing Radio and Television with a
Vacuum Tube Voltmeter. New York: Sylvania Electric Prod-
ucts, Inc.
Terman, F. E., Measurements in Radio Engineering (1st ed.) . New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1935, pp. 18-31.
———, Radio Engineers’ Handbook (lst ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., 1943, pp. 929-938.
 4
Power Measurements

and Power Meters

4.1 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method

The a-c or d-c power dissipated in a load device may be checked
by means of a voltmeter and ammeter when special power-measuring
instruments are not available. The voltage across the load and the cur-
rent through it are measured with the meters, and the power (watts)
determined by multiplying the voltage (volts) by the current’ (amperes) .
When compared with the resistance of the load device, the ammeter
resistance must be low and the voltmeter resistance high.
This method, while entirely satisfactory for d-c, will not give the
true a-c power value unless the load device is a pure resistance. If the
load has a reactive component (inductance or capacitance) the simple
EI product will express volt-amperes instead of true watts. To obtain
true a-c power, the phase angle (6) of the load device must be known
and EJ must be multiplied by the cosine of this angle. Thus for alter-
nating current, P = EI cos 6. The cosine of the phase angle, also known
as the power factor, has some value less than | unless the device is a pure
resistance, whereupon cos § = 1.

4.2 Basic Wattmeter

The basic wattmeter contains both a current coil and a potential
coil (Figure 4-1). The potential coil, P, is connected across the voltage
source (in parallel with the load), while the current coil, C, is in series
with the load. Deflection of the meter is proportional to the product of
volts and amperes, and this instrument takes into consideration the
power factor of the load. Indications therefore are directly in watts.
69
70 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

The wattmeter operates on the dynamometer principle and, like the

dynamometer-type voltmeter, may be used on either a-c or d-c sources.

4.3 Checking Power Drain of Electronic Equipment

Electronic equipment is energized by power supplies operated either
from the commercial power line or from private electric generators or
batteries. An important characteristic of all such equipment is the amount
of power required to operate it. A measurement of this power drain often
serves to establish the condition of the equipment and therefore is a use-
ful, though frequently overlooked, service tool.

_--WATTMETER

COMMON CURRENT
@--+---.0.000 ----@

Fic. 4-1 Basic Wattmeter Circuit

Power drain may be measured accurately with a wattmeter (Section

4.2) connected between the power source and the device under test. The
a-c volt-amperes drain may be checked by the voltmeter-ammeter method
(Section 4.1). If the device under test is powered by batteries or a d-c
generator, the voltmeter-ammeter method will give an indication of true
watts drain. When the power supply voltage is known to be constant,
an ammeter alone can be used, and its scale graduated in d-c watts or a-c
volt-amperes.

4.4 Simple Checking of A-F Power

The power output of an a-f amplifier or oscillator may be checked
in the simplest manner with a high-resistance a-c voltmeter and elemen-
tary calculations. For best results, a VT'VM should be used.
The apparatus setup for this test is shown in Figure 4-2. The output
of the amplifier or oscillator is connected to a load resistor, R, equal
to the output impedance (in ohms) of the amplifier or oscillator. An
amplifier under test must be driven by a sine-wave signal supplied by an
audio oscillator. The wattage of the load resistor must be at least twice
 POWER MEASUREMENTS AND POWER METERS 71

the expected power. The following equation is used to determine the

power value from the voltmeter reading:
B= ee R, (4A)
where P is the power in watts,
E, the voltmeter deflection (volts) , and
R, the load resistance (ohms) .

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: An amplifier expected to have 10-w output

and with 8-ohms output impedance is terminated with an 8-ohm, 20-w
resistor. When supplied with an input signal from an audio oscillator,
this amplifier develops 8 v across the load resistor. What is the power?

A-F AMPLIFIER
OR HIGH-RESISTANCE
OSCILLATOR A-C VOLTMETER

FIG. 4-2 Voltmeter Method of Checking A-F Power

In this case, P = 82/8 = 64/8=8 w. The power measurement

should be repeated at several frequencies in the audio spectrum (for
example, 50, 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 cps) to ascertain whether
there is variation in power output with frequency.
A second method uses an a-c ammeter in series with the load resistor,
instead of the voltmeter across the resistor. In this case:
P =/2R, (4B)
where P is the power in watts,
I, the current meter deflection (amperes), and
R, the load resistance (ohms).

4.5 Audio Output Power Meter

Measurements of a-f power are made professionally with the output
power meter. This instrument reads directly in watts and may be adjusted
over a wide range of impedance values to match the output circuit of the
equipment under test.
The basic circuit of the output power meter is shown in Figure 4-3.
The input coupling transformer has tapped primary and secondary wind-
ings for matching the meter-circuit impedance to the output impedance
of the power source. A loss-adjusting resistor network compensates for
copper losses in switching the transformer ratios. The indicating meter
72 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

is a rectifier-type voltmeter calibrated to read in watts. Switching the

meter multiplier or attenuator network provides a wide selection of
wattage ranges.
Ganged METER MULTIPLIER

ADJUSTING
INPUT NETWORK
\
RECTIFIER-
TYPE
A-C
\ VOLTMETER
“i VARIABLE
-RATIO
COUPLING TRANSFORMER

FIG. 4-3. Basic Circuit of Audio Output Power Meter

MILLIWATTS
\ centaay nano co 7

OHMS —
OUTPUT POWER METER
THE BBS-5 “SERIAL NO 4ST
‘ QENERAL RADIOS.
IMPEDANCE GAMBRIGUE MADE. US A
j : 5S ae eater coon gay
MULTIPLIER <y eelnerhyentsen
we,

Fic. 4-4 Low-Power-Type Audio Output Power Meter

Courtesy General Radio Co.

Figures 4-4 and 4-5 show two types of audio output power meter.
The instrument in Figure 4-4 (General Radio Type 583-A) has four power
ranges extending from 0.1 mw to 5 w, and forty impedance combinations
from 2.5 to 20,000 ohms. The meter in Figure 4-5 (General Radio Type
783-A) has five power ranges from 0.2 mw to 100 w, and forty impedance
combinations from 2.5 to 20,000 ohms. Auxiliary decibel ranges (based
upon zero db = 1 mw) are provided on the scale of each meter.
 POWER MEASUREMENTS AND POWER METERS 73

POWER TRIER
ATS. warty
Cy
ie a Bie .
e es ee

FIG. 4-5 High-Power-Type Audio Output Power Meter

Courtesy General Radio Co.

To measure power, the output power meter is connected to the power

source (in operation) in place of any other terminating device such as a
loudspeaker. ‘The impedance dial and impedance multiplier of the instru-
ment are adjusted to the output impedance value of the power source,
and the meter multiplier set for a wattage reading in the upper half of
the scale. For accuracy of power indications, the signal under measure-
ment must be sine wave. Both an oscilloscope and the output power
meter may be connected to the power source, the oscilloscope enabling
the technician to determine if the signal is undistorted. If available, a
distortion meter may be used in place of the oscilloscope.
The output power meter may be used to check oscillators, ampli-
fiers, phonograph pickups, telephone lines, receivers, transmitter modu-
lators, and similar equipment.

4.6 Checking R-F Power

The circuit of a simple r-f wattmeter is shown in Figure 4-6. In this
setup a tuned circuit, consisting of coil L2 and capacitor C, is coupled
74 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

to the output tank of the r-f power source by means of the link-coupling
COllsiadn Gale.
A noninductive, power-type resistor (rated to withstand safely at least
twice the maximum power to be measured) is connected in series with
L2, C, and an r-f ammeter or milliammeter. The meter may be a thermo-

1 OR 2 TURNS
TIGHTEY-COUPLED TO) C2==— =~

NON-INDUCTIVE
até_- RESISTOR
= . ( POWER
TYPE)
4 OR 2-TURN
PICKUP COIL
\
-— COAXIAL .\
CABLE \
CRYSTAL-TYPE OR THERMOCOUPLE
AMMETER OR MILLIAMMETER

The values of L2 and C chosen to

resonate at test frequency.

Fic. 4-6 Simple R-F Wattmeter

couple- or crystal-type instrument. The circuit is resonated by tuning

capacitor C for peak deflection of the meter. If the value of R is known
very accurately, the r-f power value may be determined by means of the
following equation:
P=I?R, (4C)
where P is the r-f power in watts,
I, the current meter deflection (amperes), and
R, the load resistance (ohms).

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: A 100-ohm resistor and 0-1 r-f ammeter are

employed in the circuit of Figure 4-6. When this circuit is coupled to a
radio transmitter and tuned to resonance, a meter reading of 0.75 amp is
obtained. What power value does this indicate?
Here, P = (0.752)100 = (0.5625)100 = 56.25 w.
This type of r-f power-measuring circuit is known to radio-transmitter
engineers as a calibrated dwmmy antenna, so called because it is sub-
stituted for the normal antenna during power measurements. It is used
frequently for checking the power output of transmitters, industrial oscil-
lators, diathermy machines, and similar generating equipment. Coil L2
and tuning capacitor C should be no smaller in size than the same tuning
components in the power source. If the coil is too small, it will overheat;
and if the capacitor plate spacing is too close, flashover will occur.
Introduction of the load resistor in series with the capacitor and coil
 POWER MEASUREMENTS AND POWER METERS 75

results in somewhat broad tuning because of reduction by the resistance

of the effective Q of the tuned circuit. At higher frequencies, an appreci-
able amount of r-f energy may leak across the resistor instead of passing
through it. This reduces the accuracy of the power indications, causing
the wattage readings to be higher than true power values. Unless well-
designed shielding is employed, this system of power measurement seldom
is satisfactory at frequencies higher than 30 mc.

4.7 Photoelectric R-F Wattmeter

A photoelectric scheme for the measurement of approximate values
of r-f power is used occasionally by amateur transmitter operators. A
regular 120-v, frosted incandescent lamp is connected in place of the load
resistor in the circuit of Figure 4-6. The circuit is tuned for maximum
brilliance of the lamp, and a reading taken on a photographic exposure
meter (or the equivalent self-generating photocell and 0-100 d-c microam-
meter) placed a fixed distance from the lamp. The wattage then may be
determined by disconnecting the lamp from the circuit and connecting
it (without altering the distance between lamp and exposure meter)
through a wattmeter and Variac to the a-c power line. The Variac then
is adjusted to bring the lamp brilliance to the point where the exposure
meter reads the same as before. The wattage then is read from the watt-
meter scale.
If desired, the exposure-meter scale may be calibrated initially in
watts by means of the lamp, wattmeter, and Variac, the lamp and expo-
sure meter being mounted rigidly to maintain their separation constant.
The lamp then may be transferred to the tuned circuit and all readings
referred to the wattage calibration of the exposure-meter scale.
The photocell must be protected from ambient light, to prevent
erroneous deflection of the meter. For this reason, the lamp and cell often
are enclosed within a light-tight box. With a box enclosure, however, all
measurements must be made as quickly as possible to prevent heat
damage to the photocell.

4.8 Decibel Power-Level Scales

A number of a-c voltmeters intended for electronic testing are pro.
vided with decibel scales. ‘These scales enable the measurement of power
levels in db, which is customary in audio and telephone work.
At this writing, two different reference levels for zero db are in
general use by separate instrument manufacturers. Scheme | establishes
zero db as 6 mw in 500 ohms. This 0-db point is at 1.732 v on the volt-
meter scale, and the db scales of the instrument are of the direct-reading
type when measurements are made across a 500-ohm load. The meter
shown in Figure 2-6 uses this basis for its decibel calibration.
76 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Scheme 2 establishes zero db as 1 mw in 600 ohms, with the 0 db

point at 0.7746 v on the voltmeter scale. A meter graduated on this basis
reads directly in db when measurements are made across a 600-ohm load.
The meter shown in Figure 3-16 uses this basis for its decibel calibration.
The abbreviation dbm is used to designate decibels based upon zero
db = 1 mw, 600 ohms. Decibel readings taken from a scale calibrated on
the basis of 0 db = 6 mw, 500 ohms (Scheme 1) may be converted into
dbm values by adding +7 db algebraically to the readings. Thus, a read-
ing of 10 db on a Scheme-1 scale = 10 + 7, or 17 dbm. Likewise a reading
of —3 db = —3 + 7= +4 dbm, while a reading of —7 db = —7+7 =
0 dbm.
The decibel scale of a meter is read directly when the instrument
range switch is in its 0-db position. At all other settings of the switch,
however, the algebraic sum of the scale reading and the range-switch
indication must be taken.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: ‘The meter indicates —12 db, and the range
switch is in its + 30-db position. What is the correct power level?
Here, the algebraic sum is —12 + 30 = +18 db.
Levels above zero db are designated positive; those below zero db as
negative. Decibels may be converted into watts of power by means of
the following equation:
P=B antilog db/10, (4D)
where P is the power in watts,
B, the zero db base (watts), and
db, the number of decibels to be converted.
(antilog db/10 means simply “that number whose logarithm is db/10.”)
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: A db meter based on 0 db = 6 mw gives a
reading of +50 db. What actual power value does this correspond to?
Here, B = 0.006, and db = 50.
P = 0.006 antilog 50/10 = 0.006 antilog 5.0 antilog 5 = 100,000.
So, P = 0.006(100,000)-= 600 w.
Negative decibels present this special case when converting from db
to watts: When the number of negative db is not evenly divisible by 10,
the following procedure must be taken. (1) Add enough negative db to
increase the numerator in Equation (4D) to the next highest number
evenly divisible by 10. (2) Add the same number of positive db to one
side. (3) Divide both by 10, and add their separate quotients.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: —32 db not evenly divisible by 10. Add
—8 db to increase to —40, the next highest number evenly divisible. Add
 POWER MEASUREMENTS AND POWER METERS 77

also +8 db. Divide both by 10 and add the separate quotients. Thus:
—32
—8+8 -—404+8
—db/10 = = = -4408 = —48.
/ 10 10 a
This value of —4.8 now can be substituted for db/10 in Equation (4D).

Review Questions

1. A voltage reading of 5.5 v is obtained across an 8-ohm load resistor

in the output of an amplifier. What is the output power of the amplifier,
in watts?
2. What value of voltage must be read across a 16-ohm load resistor
in the output of an amplifier delivering 50 w?
3. An a-c milliammeter in series with a 25-ohm amplifier load resistor
reads 250 ma. What is the power output of the amplifier?
4. What voltage value corresponds to zero db when the reference
level is 6 mw in 500 ohms?
5. What voltage value corresponds to zero db when the reference
level is 1 mw in 600 ohms?
6. A decibel meter indicates —10 db when its range switch is in its
+30 db position. What is the correct number of decibels?
 5
Impedance Meters
and Measurements

5.1 Scope of Instrumentation

Impedance meters and impedance-measuring setups of test equip-
ment are convenient for the rapid determination of Z values of electronic
components. Such components include coils, capacitors, chokes, trans-
formers, loudspeakers, tuned circuits, filters, etc.
Complex instruments, such as special-purpose bridges, twin-T net-
works, and microwave devices, are available for impedance checking.
However, instruments of such type are beyond the scope of this book, and
only comparatively simple devices easily available to the electronic
technician will be discussed in this chapter. |
Impedance measurements with simple apparatus can be made over
a wide frequency range including both radio and audio frequencies.
Coverage from 20 cps to 30 mc is not difficult; and with more than ordi-
nary care, the range may be extended. The upper r-f limit is governed
by accuracy and response of the instruments used and by the effectiveness
with which the measuring-circuit components can be shielded.

5.2 Bridge-Type Impedance Meter

Figure 5-1 shows the basic circuit of an impedance meter for use at
audio frequencies. This circuit can be used as a complete, assembled in-
strument or, with the use of available parts, it may be set up temporarily
on the bench.
This arrangement is not a bridge in the strictest sense; but has been
so called because, like a bridge, it must be manipulated in order to obtain
a reading.
78 "
 IMPEDANCE METERS AND MEASUREMENTS 79

A-C INPUT

DIRECT-READING
OHMS SCALE

aac
UNKNOWN IMPEDANCE
CONNECTED HERE

[N=G
V-T VOLTMETER

Fic. 5-1 Basic Circuit of Bridge-Type Impedance Meter

The unknown impedance (Z), which may be a coil, capacitor, or

some combination of capacitance, inductance, and resistance, is con-
nected in series with a calibrated variable resistor (R) and a source of a-c
voltage. The resistor dial reads direct in ohms. The a-c voltage forces a
current through the unknown impedance and the calibrated resistor in
series, setting up a voltage drop across each. An a-c VIVM is employed
to read each of these voltage drops. When switch S$ is in its position /,
the voltage (£,) across the impedance is read. When S is in position 2,
the voltage (E,) across the resistor is read.
When an impedance measurement is being made, the resistor is
varied while the switch is thrown back and forth. At some setting, R
equals Z, and E, therefore equals E,. Since the voltage drops then are
equal, there is no change in meter reading as switch S is thrown from one
position to the other. At this point the value of the unknown impedance
(in ohms) may be read from the resistor dial. If the resistor has no
calibrated dial, the impedance value may be determined by means of an
ohmmeter or resistance-bridge measurement made on the resistor after
one of its leads has been disconnected from the circuit.
The sine-wave a-c input voltage may be supplied by an audio oscil-
lator having the desired frequency. An isolating transformer should be
connected between the oscillator and the impedance meter. The voltage
level must be kept low enough to prevent excessive current flow through
Rand Z.
With ordinary circuit components, the maximum frequency which
will yield accurate results will be in the vicinity of 10,000 cps. At higher
frequencies, leakage due to stray capacitances will reduce accuracy unless
well-designed shielding is applied to each circuit component.
80 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

The bridge-type impedance-meter circuit often is set up temporarily,

with the use of a calibrated rheostat or resistance decade box, audio
oscillator, and a-c VIVM-millivoltmeter. The a-c meter described in
Section 3.9 (see also Figures 3-16 and 3-17) is especially suitable for this
application, since its low-voltage ranges allow the use of a low, safe value
of test voltage.

FIG. 5-2 Commercial, Self-contained Impedance Meter

Courtesy Technology Instrument Corp.

A commercial, self-contained impedance meter! employing an elab-

oration of the bridge impedance-meter principle is shown in Figure 5-2.
This instrument has four impedance ranges extending from 0.5 to 100,000
ohms. An internally generated test voltage is available at 60 or 400 cps,
or an external generator may be employed for other frequencies. An
external variable resistor may be connected to a special pair of terminals
to extend the impedance range. Satisfactory impedance measurements
may be made with this instrument at frequencies as high as 40 kc.

5.3. Impedance Measurement by Voltmeter-Ammeter Method

An unknown impedance may be determined from the readings of an
a-c VIVM and rectifier-type a-c ammeter connected as shown in Figure 5-3.
Since the ammeter and unknown impedance are in series with the

1 Type 310-A Z-Angle Meter, Technology Instrument Corp.. Acton, Mass.

 IMPEDANCE METERS AND MEASUREMENTS 81

generator supplying the sine-wave test voltage, the output impedance of

the generator must be low, with respect to the impedance under test.
This will prevent erroneous ammeter indications. The high input resist-
ance of the VI'VM insures that negligible current will be drawn by that
instrument.
RECTIFIER-TYPE
A-C AMMETER

TO SINE-WAVE
VOLTAGE SOURCE V-T VOLTMETER
UNKNOWN ~~~
IMPEDANCE

FIG. 5-3 Voltmeter-Ammeter Impedance-Measuring Circuit

The unknown-impedance value is determined, by means of Ohm’s

law for a-c, from the voltmeter and ammeter readings:

Z = E/I, (5A)
where Z is the unknown impedance (ohms),
E, the voltmeter deflection (volts), and
I, the ammeter deflection (amperes).

The voltmeter-ammeter method is satisfactory for the measurement

of a-f impedance up to about 5,000 cps. Accuracy at the high audio fre-
quencies is improved by using crystals, instead of dry-disc rectifiers, in the
ammeter. At very high audio frequencies (above 5 kc) and radio fre-
quencies, the method usually is not suitable because of the stray capaci-
tances in the instruments and wiring.

5.4 A-F Impedance Measurement with Simple T-Network

A simple three-leg I-network can be used for rapid impedance
measurements with the apparatus setup shown in Figure 5-4. The T-net-
work is comprised by the two 1,000-ohm noninductive resistors (RJ and
R2) and the unknown impedance (or test resistor) connected to terminals
X-X,
An adjustable sine-wave signal voltage is applied to the network
by an audio oscillator. The level of this voltage is monitored by means of
an a-c VI'VM-millivoltmeter. The amplifier is terminated by a power-
type resistor, R3, equal in ohms to the output impedance of the amplifier.
82 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

The voltage developed across R3 is monitored by an a-c voltmeter which

need not be of the vacuum-tube type.
To make a measurement: (1) First connect a 10-ohm precision non-
inductive resistor to terminals X-X. (2) Adjust the oscillator output for a
good readable deflection (£2) of the output a-c voltmeter. (3) Note the
corresponding reading (E/) of the input voltmeter-millivoltmeter, and

A-C TERMINATING
V-T VOLTMETER- 4000 4000 RESISTOR
MILLIVOLTMETER Ohms Ohms
\

AUDIO
OSCILLATOR

!
=> A-C VOLTMETER

Fic. 5-4 T-Network A-F Impedance-Measuring Setup

record this as E,. (4) Remove the 10-ohm resistor and connect the un-
known impedance to terminals X-X. (5) Readjust the oscillator output
until the output voltmeter (£2) gives the same reading as before. (6) Note
the reading of the input voltmeter-millivoltmeter, and record this as E,,.
(7) Calculate the unknown impedance value (in ohms) from the equation:
Z = 10(E,/E,).
If the oscillator is equipped with an attenuator reading direct in
millivolts and volts output, the Z, and E, readings may be taken from
this attenuator, and the input meter omitted.

5.5 R-F Impedance Measurement with Simple T-Network

The simple T-network can be used also for r-f measurement of im-
pedance by substituting an r-f signal generator for the audio oscillator
specified in Section 5.4, and a radio receiver for the audio amplifier. The
signal generator must have a calibrated output attenuator reading direct
in microvolts. The receiver must have a carrier-strength (intensity) meter,
or an output meter must be connected to its output terminals. If a built-in
intensity meter is provided, an unmodulated test signal may be used.
With the separate output meter, an amplitude-modulated signal will be
required. In either case, the automatic volume control (avc) of the
receiver must be switched off during the impedance measurement.
 IMPEDANCE METERS AND MEASUREMENTS 83

The test procedure is the same as that outlined for a-f impedance
measurements in the preceding Section 5.4, except that the E, and E,
readings are taken from the dial of the attenuator in the signal generator,
instead of from an input voltmeter.

4000 4000
Ohms Ohms

R-F
SIGNAL RADIO
GENERATOR RECEIVER

t
i
CALIBRATED = OUTPUT METER
ATTENUATOR

FIG. 5-5 T-Network R-F Impedance-Measuring Setup

At 500 kc and higher, shielding of the T-network is required. Figure

5-6 shows how a T-network mounted inside a small shield can is con-

Fic. 5-6 T-Network Connected to R-F Signal Generator for

Impedance Measurements

nected to a signal generator through a shielded cable. A second shielded

cable extends to the receiver. One “high” terminal and one grounded one
are provided for connection to the unknown impedance.
84 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Review Questions

1. In the simple measurement of impedance with a voltmeter and

ammeter, 5 v and 0.25 amp are read. What is the corresponding impedance
value? |
2. Using a simple T-network, the applied voltage is 3 v with a
10-ohm checking resistor in the T, and is 8.5 v with an unknown im-
pedance substituted for the resistor. What is the impedance value?
3. A resistance decade box and a-c VIVM are employed as a bridge-
type impedance meter. Equal voltage drops are obtained across the un-
known impedance and the decade box when the decades of the latter are
set to 8 thousands, 5 hundreds, 4 tens, and 3 units. What is the unknown
impedance?
 6
Capacitor Checkers

6.1 Simple Capacitor Checker

Figures 6-1 and 6-2 show a simple slide-wire-type bridge designed for
the rapid checking of capacitors in the shop. Despite its simplicity, this
instrument is quite effective. The capacitance range of 10 pyf to 100 pf is
covered in four steps: 0.00001 to 0.001, 0.001 to 0.1, 0.1 to 10, and 1 to
100 pf.

UNKNOWN Re
CAPACITOR
CAPACITANCE
ea BALANCE © G,

iene SIGNAL-VOLTAGE
S4 WIREWOUND INPUT
STANDARD R3
CAPACITOR (e) Go

_POWER FACTOR
BALANCE
4000 Ohms
R1
WIREWOUND

FIG. 6-1 Circuit of the Simple Capacitor Checker

A standard capacitor corresponding to one of the ranges is connected

to terminals S$, and S, (Figure 6-1), and the unknown capacitor to X, and
X,. A signal source (an audio oscillator tuned to 400 or 1,000 cps, or a
step-down transformer operated from the a-c power line) is connected to
terminals G, and Gy. Any convenient null detector, such as high-resist-
85
86 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

ance headphones, a-c VI'VM, oscilloscope, or magic-eye tube, is con-

nected to jack J.
Two wire-wound controls, RI and R3, are employed. R2 and R#4
are precision-type limiting resistors with an accuracy of 1% or better. The
main dial of the instrument is attached to potentiometer R3 and is

FIG. 6-2 Simple Capacitor Checker, Showing Three of the Standard Capacitors

graduated from 0.1 to 10, with 1 at the center of its range. This dial is
read in microfarads directly when a l-yf standard capacitor is connected
to terminals $, and S,. The other standard capacitors provide the ranges
shown in Table 6-1.

TABLE 6—1
Standard Capacitor Type Capacitance Range
(uf) (ut)
0.0001 Silvered mica 0.00001—0.001
0.01 Silvered mica 0.001-0.1
1.0 Metalized paper 0.1-10
10 Oil-filled 1-100

To operate the simple capacitor checker: (1) Connect the unknown

capacitor to terminals X,; and X,. (2) Connect a standard capacitor to
terminals S$, and Sy. (3) Connect an a-c signal-voltage source to terminals
2
 CAPACITOR CHECKERS 87

G, and Gy. (4) Connect a null detector to jack J. (5) Adjust potentiom-
eter R3 for null. (6) Adjust rheostat RI for further sharpening of the
null, and readjust R3 if necessary. (7) If no null is obtained, connect a
new value of standard capacitance and repeat the adjustments.
Accuracy of this checker will depend upon the precision of the
standard capacitors and of resistors R2 and R4, as well as upon the
accuracy with which the dial of potentiometer R3 is calibrated.

Calibration
The instrument may be calibrated in terms of the resistance settings
of potentiometer R3. A resistance bridge is used. A somewhat less accurate
calibration may be obtained with a freshly calibrated ohmmeter of good

TABLE 6—2

R3 Setting Dial R3 Setting Dial

(Ohms) Graduation (Ohms) Graduation

827.3 0.1 5,000 1.0

1,230.5 0.15 6,020 1.5
1,600 0.20 6,700 2.0
1,940 0.25 7,185.8 2.5
2,253.9 0.30 7,550 3.0
2,544.5 0.35 7,833.4 3.5
2,814.3 0.40 8,060 4.0
3,065.6 0.45 8,245.5 4.5
3,300 0.50 8,400 5.0
3,519.4 0.55 8,530 5.5
3,725 ¥ 0.60 8,642.9 6.0
3,918.2 0.65 8,740 6.5
4,100 0.70 8,825 7.0
4,271.5 0.75 8,900 7.5
4,433.4 0.80 8,966.7 8.0
4,586.5 ; 0.85 9,026.3 8.5
4,731.6 0.90 9,080 9.0
4,869.3 0.95 ° 9,128.6 9.5
Oi Zech 10.0

quality. Calibration in terms of resistance is an advantage, since other

methods involve the use of several dozen accurate test capacitors or a
precision variable capacitor.
The following procedure is recommended: (1) Temporarily discon-
nect resistor R2 from potentiometer R3. (2) Connect the resistance bridge
to the center and left-hand terminals of potentiometer R3, as viewed from
88 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

the dial side of this potentiometer. (3) Set potentiometer R3 to 827.3

ohms, as indicated by the bridge, and mark this setting 0.1 on the dial.
(4) Set R3 successively to each of the resistance values shown in Table 6-2,
and mark the dial with the corresponding graduation.
The accuracy of this method of calibration depends directly upon
the precision of the resistance-measuring instrument and the care with
which it is used in the process.

6.2 Compact Capacitor Bridge

In Figure 6-3, the basic slide-wire bridge circuit previously shown in
Figure 6-1 has been expanded to include self-contained standard capaci-
tors, a signal-voltage input transformer, and associated gain control. A

SIGNAL- VOLTAGE INPUT

_--GAIN CONTROL
--~~ 20,000 Ohms
WIREWOUND
000000 RANGES
2:1 TRANSFORMER
- 0.00004 - 0.004 pf
. 0,004 - 0.4 pf
CAPACITANCE _ ee . 04-10 pf
BALANCE Y . 1.0 -100 pf
100 Ohms

S41 RANGE SWITCH

100 Ohms h

We* eg a Vr
40,000 Ohms
WIREWOUND
10
UNKNOWN * *
CAPACITOR : ek oe 1.0 ut
x ©

POWER FACTOR __
BALANCE
Ohms
WIREWOUND

Fic. 6-3 Compact Capacitor Bridge Circuit

further improvement is the double-pole, double-throw switch, $2, which

enables the power factor (pf) balance rheostat to be connected at will
in series with either the unknown or standard capacitor. When checking
high-Q (low-pf) capacitors, this switch usually is thrown to its X position.
Position S$ is for capacitors having somewhat lower Q (higher pf) than
 CAPACITOR CHECKERS 89

that of the internal standard capacitor. If there is doubt, $2 should be

switched back and forth, while the pf balance rheostat and capacitance
balance potentiometer are adjusted for sharpest null.
Operation procedure for this bridge is the same as that recommended
in Section 6.1 for the simple capacitor checker.

6.3. Commercial Kit-Type Capacitance-Resistance Bridge!

Capacitance bridges designed for the service technician often
include also a resistance-bridge circuit, as well as provision for checking
capacitor leakage at rated operating voltage. An instrument of this type,
produced in kit form for private construction, is shown in Figures 6-4
and 6-5.

FIG. 6-4 Kit-Type Capacitance-Resistance Bridge

Courtesy The Heath Co.

As a completely self-contained capacitance bridge, this instrument

provides four direct-reading ranges: 10 pf to 0.005 pf, 0.001 to 0.5 pf, 0.1
to 50 pf, and 20 to 1,000 yf. AH types of capacitors, including paper, mica,
ceramic, and electrolytic, can be checked. As a resistance bridge, two
ranges are provided: 100 to 50,000 ohms, and 10,000 ohms to 5 meg. ‘The
null detector is a Type 1629 magic-eye tube. A separate pf control allows
measurement of this factor between 0 and 50%. Capacitors may be
checked for leakage at d-c potentials of 20, 200, 300, 400, or 500 v. Leakage
is shown by flashing of a Type NE-51 neon lamp.

1 Heathkit Model C-2, The Heath Co., Benton Harbor, Mich.

90 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Figure 6-5 shows details of the resistance-capacitance bridge circuit.

The range switch consists of three ganged sections: S/, $2, and $3. The
center section, $2, switches the various internal standards (C5, C6, C7,

4.0 Meg.
Rt 4629 RANGE
SWITCH (S1-S2-S3)
_-MAGIC EYE POSITIONS
ve 4,RX4 7. 20 VOLTS
0.01 pt 2,R X 100 8. 200 VOLTS
3.'0.00001 — 0.005 pf 9. 300 VOLTS
4. 0.001 - 0.5 pt 40. 400 VOLTS
5.04-50 uf 44. 500 VOLTS
6. 20-1000 pf
R3,R4,R5 AND R6-Each 30,000 Ohms
CAP. Es Reo
© Ox ©
\

R3 R4 COMMON

yp
5
2000 c
Ohms 3 2
NE-54
200,000 Ohms-, Cc
R44
200,000

PAPER = a bd ae _-~ 10,

40,000 Oh ms
MICA ~~* i
a 0.5 ut y
BS / TO FORE
ELECTRO-7f wan HEATERS

LYTIC - 30,000 CONTROL

Ohms : 9 to
400 to 500 V. 12 V,
3 000000000000000
8
~~12A6
| on- » 115 V.
OFF A-C

FIG. 6-5 Circuit of the Kit-Type Bridge

Courtesy The Heath Co.

R10, and R11) into the circuit as required. Switch section S/ selects the
various polarizing voltages for the capacitor leakage test through the
voltage divider comprised by resistors R3 to R7.
One secondary winding of the power transformer supplies a line-
frequency test signal to the bridge circuit. A second winding furnishes
high voltage which is rectified by the diode-connected Type 12A6
tube to supply the capacitor polarizing voltages and the Type 1629
tube voltages. The third winding supplies heater voltage to the two
tubes.
 CAPACITOR CHECKERS 91

6.4 Substitution Method for Small Capacitances

All direct-reading capacitance bridges have a small amount of in-
herent capacitance, due to terminals and internal wiring. The extent of
this capacitance varies among bridges of different design and often among
instruments of the same model. It amounts often to as much as 10 puf.
The effect of this capacitance is to give a false null at that dial point corre-
sponding to its value. For highest accuracy, this value must be subtracted
from all low-capacitance readings. A second effect of the internal capac-
itance is to place a limit on the lowest value of capacitance which can be
measured directly. No value lower than that of the stray capacitance itself
may be checked.

UNKNOWN UNKNOWN
CAPACITOR CAPACITOR
es ‘es ee a ae ‘==

CAPACITANCE vL CAPACITANCE >

BRIDGE * ie BRIOGE y dk
‘
f
ve er le: ee ee ON aa
ee eee ee ee
\
\

REFERENCE
\
CALIBRATED
CAPACITOR VARIABLE
CAPACITOR
(A) (B)
Fic. 6-6 Arrangements for Substitution Method of Capacitance Checking

When smaller capacitances must be measured, the substitution

method offsets the effects of internal capacitance. Figure 6-6 shows two
ways of using this method.
Both schemes .require an accurately rated reference capacitor. In
Figure 6-6(A), a high-quality fixed mica capacitor is used. The bridge is
balanced first with the reference capacitor only. This capacitance value
is recorded as C1. The small unknown capacitance then is connected in
parallel with the reference unit, using the shortest possible leads. The
bridge is rebalanced, and this second reading recorded as C2. The un-
known capacitance is equal to C2 — Cl.
In Figure 6-6(B), a calibrated variable capacitor is employed as the
reference unit. This capacitor is set first to some value near its maximum
and connected to the bridge by means of short, rigid leads. The bridge
is balanced carefully and the capacitance read from the dial of the vari-
able capacitor as CJ. The unknown small capacitance then is connected
in parallel with the variable capacitor, the shortest possible leads being
used. The bridge becomes unbalanced by this addition, and must be
restored to null by reducing the setting of the variable capacitor. Notice
92 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

that the bridge setting is not disturbed. At this second null, the setting
of the variable capacitor is read as C2. The unknown small capacitance
is equal to Cl — C2,

6.5 Capacitance Checking with Grid-Dip Oscillator

A grid-dip oscillator can be used to check capacitance values with
fair accuracy if a small air-wound coil of accurately known inductance is
available for reference.

OSCILLATOR KNOWN UNKNOWN CAPACITANCE

COIL
‘\ INDUCTANCE
;;

A-C
VOLTAGE :
INPUT oe
/
UNKNOWN MILLIAMMETER
CAPACITANCE OR AMMETER

\S6RID-DIP OSCILLATOR

FIG. 6-7 Use of Grid-Dip Oscillator Fic. 6-8 Use of Current-Meter for
for Checking Capacitance Checking Capacitance

Figure 6-7 shows the arrangement. Connect the unknown capacitor to

the coil by means of the shortest possible leads. Loosely couple the grid-
dip oscillator to the test coil, and tune the oscillator for resonance. Read
the resonant frequency from the oscillator dial. The capacitance then
may be determined from the equation: ‘

C = 25,400/f2L, (6A)
where C is the unknown capacitance in micromicrofarads,
f, the resonant frequency (megacycles) , and
L, the test inductance (microhenrys).

6.6 Meter Checking of Capacitance

No simple, inexpensive capacitance meter is entirely satisfactory in
performance, since considerable error in ‘capacitance reading may be
caused by the power factor, or Q, of the capacitor being checked. In
troubleshooting and servicing, however, the rapidity and directness of the
meter method often compensates for the possibility of error.
The simple capacitance meter may be regarded as an a-c ohmmeter.
An a-c test voltage of appropriate value is applied to the unknown
capacitor in series with an a-c milliammeter or ammeter (Figure 6-8), and
the meter deflection is assumed to be proportional to the reactance of the
:
 CAPACITOR CHECKERS 93

unknown capacitance. If the applied voltage and its frequency are known
closely, the unknown capacitance may be calculated thus:

eas
6.28fE
(6B)
where C is the unknown capacitance in microfarads,
I, the current meter deflection (amperes),
E, the applied voltage (volts), and
f, the frequency of the applied voltage (cycles).
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: A 10-v, 60-cps test voltage is applied to a
capacitor and a-c milliammeter in series. The meter reads 3.8 ma. What
is the approximate capacitance?

108(0.0038) 1,000,000(0.0038) 3,800

= = = = 1.008 pf.
6.28(60)10 377(10) 3,700
Only nonelectrolytic capacitors should be checked by this reactance-
meter method. It is possible for the applied a-c voltage to damage some
electrolytic capacitors.
If a current meter is not available, a voltmeter can be used in some
capacitance ranges by adding an external shunt resistor of proper ohmage
to convert the voltmeter into a current meter.

Review Questions

1. A capacitor is checked by the substitution method. The instru-

ment is nulled initially at 100 puf. When the capacitor of unknown value is
connected into the circuit, a new null is obtained at 89.3 pyf. What is the
value of unknown capacitance?
2. A grid-dip oscillator resonates at 2.5 mc when coupled to a 10-ph
inductance and unknown capacitance. What is the capacitance value?
3. A 10-v 60-cps voltage is applied to an a-c milliammeter and un-
known capacitor in series. The meter reads 100 ma. What is the value
of unknown capacitance?
 /
Inductance Checkers

7.1 Inductance Bridge Assembled from Laboratory Parts

Figure 7-1 shows the circuit of a simple slide-wire-type inductance
bridge which can be assembled from laboratory parts.
The dial attached to potentiometer R2 is calibrated by means of
resistance measurements, by the same procedure outlined for the capac-
itor checker in Section 6.1 of the preceding chapter. The same resist-

Sy
STANDARD RESISTANCE R41
COIL EE TES 100) INDUCTANCE
y Lo Sipe rr Ohms / / BALANCE
BALANCE
S2 ee rerer cH / 40,000 Ohms
/ —WIREWOUND
/

SIGNAL-VOLTAGE
INPUT

X4
UNKNOWN R3 400 Ohms
INDUCTANCE
Xo
FIG. 7-1 Simple Inductance Bridge

ance table given in that section may be used. Although it bears the same
figures as in the capacitance bridge, the dial of the inductance bridge is
direct reading in microhenrys (yh), millihenrys (mh), and henrys (h).
Four standard coils are employed in the inductance bridge to pro-
vide ranges of 10 ph to 1 mh, | to 100 mh, 100 mh to 1 h, and 1 to 100 h.
Table 7-1 shows inductance ranges provided by these standards.
The 0.1-mh coil may be constructed by close-winding 83 turns of
No. 28 enameled wire on a l-inch-diameter form. The three other stand-
94
 INDUCTANCE CHECKERS 95

ard coils are small, tunable units manufactured by United Transformer

Corporation ([Link].): the 104nh coil is Type VI-C2; the I-h, Type VI-C7;
ana the \0-h Type VI-CI7. Each of these coils may be set exactly to the
required inductance value by means of an Allen screw adjustment. Some-
what less precise bridge operation is obtained with makeshift iron-core
oils with lower O ratings than those possessed by the U.T.C. coils. For
ca2saple, the \0-4nh, lh, and J0-h coils might be made from miniature
filter Chokes with enough turns removed to reduce their inductance values
to those specified.
Each of the four standard coils must be set exactly to the inductance
values specified in the foregoing table; the 0.l4nh cil by removing

TABLE 7-1

Standard Inductance
Cail Range

01 mh 10 pb-] mh
10 mh 1-100 mh
1 hb 100 mh-10h
10 bh 1-100 h

several turns carclully until the specified value is obtained, and the others
by adjustment of the inductance-trimming screws. This work may be done
with the aid of an rf test oscillator or signal generator, audio oscillator,
and radiofrequency ac VIVM.
Connect the cil under test in series with an accurately known
001-6 mica capacitor and the output of the oscillator. Connect the
VIVM in parallel with the coil. Use the r-f£ oscillator to check the 0.1-mh
oil, and the audio oscillator for the other three. Keep al] leads in the
Grovit as short 2s posible. The oscillator frequency is varied until the
rexmant point of the coil-capacitor test circuit is located, as indicated
by peak defiection of the VIVM. When the coils have been adjusted to
the specified inductance values, resonance will occur at the following
frequences: 0.1 mh 159 ke, 10 mh 15,900 cps, 1 h 1,590 cps, and 10 h
GOO cps.
The bridge signal voltage, preferably 1,000 cps, is supplied by an
oxillator or hummer connected to the SIGNAL-VOLTAGE INPUT
terminals. The nul) detector (high-resistance headphones, ac VIVM,
oxilloxope, or magicecye tube) is connected to jack J.
Two simultancous adjustments of the bridge are necessary to locate
4 dean nul) point—potentiometer R2 to locate the inductance null, and
theostat R4 to balance out the resistance of the coil under test. The posi-
96 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

tion of R4 in the circuit assumes that the resistance of the test coil will
be higher than that of the standard, which usually is the case. When
the reverse is true, however, R4 must be shifted to be jn series with the
test coil instead of the standard.
During operation, the bridge must be situated in an area free from
magnetic fields, in order to prevent extraneous pickup by the standard
coils or the test coil.

7.2 Coil Checker with Capacitors as Standards

Many technicians prefer an inductance-bridge which employs capaci-
tors, instead of coils, as standards. This is a somewhat less expensive
arrangement and the circuit is not susceptible to magnetic pickup. A
Maxwell bridge circuit answering this description is shown in Figure 7-2.

© SIGNAL- VOLTAGE ©
G, INPUT rf
R41
S1 A
10 Oh Es
©) UNKNOWN ©
X, |NDUCTANCE ‘
‘ S || 1000 Ohms
| ©

B R2
@) A ican © RANGE ©O R3
SWITCH 10,000 Ohms

feira0
| ©

R4--> | C1
10,000 | ,
Ohms h 1S$2 A
WIREWOUND ~" 0.01 pf
INDUCTANCE 0
BALANCE e Ge
—_—_— RESISTANCE
BALANCE C
RANGES aa eal 4.0 uf
I
A. 10-1000 uH R5 ¥ 5000 D
B. 4-100 MH Ohms
C. O.4-10 HY WIREWOUND
D. 1-100 HY =

FIG. 7-2. Maxwell-Bridge Coil Checker

In this circuit, the standards are capacitors C1 and C2. Both of

these units must have the exact specified capacitance values and must
be high-Q components. The ratio resistors (RI, R2, and R3) likewise
must be accurate and noninductive. For a uniformly graduated dial with
negligible crowding of its divisions, the taper of rheostat R4 should
be logarithmic. Rheostat R5 serves to balance out the resistance of the
 INDUCTANCE CHECKERS 97

TABLE 7~2

Settings Inductance Dial Readings

of R4 (A) (B) (C) (D)
100 10 ph 1 mh 0.1 h ight:
150 15 1.5 0.15 1.5
200 20 2.0 0.2
250 25 2.5 0.25 2.5
300 30 0S 0.3 3
350 35 3.5 0.35 3.5
400 40 4 0.4 4
450 45 4.5 0.45 4.5
500 50 5 0.5 5
550 55 5.5 0.55 5.5
600 60 6 0.6 6
650 65 6.5 0.65 6.5
700 70 7 0.7 “|
750 75 7.5 0.75 7.5
800 80 8 0.8 8
850 85 8.5 0.85 8.5
900 90 9 0.9 9
1,000 100 10 ] 10
1,500 150 15 1.5 15
2,000 200 20 2 20
2,500 250 25 2.5 25
3,000 300 30 3 30
3,500 ” 350 35 3.5 35
4,000 400 40 4 40
4,500 450 45 4.5 45
5,000 500 50 5 50
5,500 550 55 5.5 55
6,000 600 60 6 60
6,500 650 65 6.5 65
7,000 700 , 70 7 70
7,500 750 75 “9 75
8,000 800 80 8 80
8,500 850 85 8.5 85
9,000 900 90 9 90
9,500 950 95 9.5 95
10,000 1,000 100 10 100
98 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

coil under test. Inductance ranges are selected by means of the two-pole,
four-position switch, S/-S2. The ranges are 10 to 1,000 ph, 1 to 100 mh,
0.1 to 10 h, and 1 to 100 h.
A signal-voltage source must be connected to terminals G, and Gg.
This preferably will be a low-distortion audio oscillator operated at 400
or 1,000 cycles. In lieu of the oscillator, a signal voltage may be derived
from the a-c power line through an isolating step-down transformer and
a primary voltage control, such as a Variac, for signal amplitude adjust-
ment. The latter is very important to proper operation of the instrument,
since only the lowest voltage producing a readily detected signal is per-
missible. Excessive signal voltage may damage the coil under test or the
standard resistor (RI, R2, or R3), since the coil and resistor are in series
across the signal-voltage terminals. A null detector (high-resistance head-
phones, a-c VI'VM, oscilloscope, or magic-eye tube) must be connected
to detector jack J.

Calibration
(1) Connect a resistance bridge or good ohmmeter to terminals A
and B of rheostat R4. (2) Near the start of its rotation from the left-hand
position of rest, set R4 to 100 ohms. (3) Mark this point 10 ph on the R4
dial. (4) Advance R4# to 150 ohms, and mark this point 15 ph on the R4
dial. (5) Continue the process, advancing R4 in 50-ohm steps from 100
to 1,000 ohms, and in 500-ohm steps from 1,000 to 10,000 ohms. (6) Grad-
uate the R# dial according to these resistance settings, as shown in
Table 7-2.

7.3 Resonant L Meter

An unknown inductance may be connected in series with an accu-
rately known capacitance, the resonant frequency of the L-C combination
determined with an oscillator and VIVM, and the inductance value
calculated from frequency and capacitance.
An amplifier stage is required to isolate the coil-capacitor test circuit
from resonating components in the output circuit of the oscillator. The
resonant L-meter circuit shown in Figure 7-3 is a simple pentode ampli-
fier employed to couple the oscillator to the measuring circuit. The
unknown coil is in series with the 0.01-yf output capacitor with which
it resonates. The a-c-r-f VI'VM is connected in parallel with the coil
terminals, X, and X95.
An audio oscillator, connected to the SIGNAL-VOLTAGE INPUT
terminals, will be required for all test frequencies between 10 cps and
50 kc. An r-f oscillator or signal generator supplies input voltages from
50 kc to 10 mc. An inductance-vs.-frequency chart for the L meter is given
in Figure 7-4. From this chart it will be seen that the audio oscillator
.
 INDUCTANCE CHECKERS 99

will be required for inductances between 1 mh and 25,000 h, and the r-f
oscillator for 0.025 ph to 1 mh. The L meter is a convenient device which
may be used in conjunction with oscillators and VIVM already in pos-
session of the technician.

0.01 pf MICA

0.04 pt

@) X,
UNKNOWN
INDUCTANCE
SIGNAL-
VOLTAGE ©) X2
INPUT

7)

16 pf, 50 V. A-C, R-F

ELECTROLYTIC V-T VOLTMETER

HES VA 180-250 V.
A-C D-C

FIG. 7-3 Resonant L-Meter

300
200

400
80
60 FREQUENCY INDUCTANCE
50 ne a
AD {0-100 CYCLES—-2 25,000-250 HENRYS
2 ae 400-4000 CYCLES__--__-____ 250-2.5 HENRYS
5 1 ORK Ree 2.5 HENRYS — 25 MILLIHENRYS
==)
S 20 10-400 Koo 25-0.25 MILLIHENRYS
iF 100-4000 KG________- 0.25 MH- 2.5 MIGCROHENRYS
Aa p FA OMO een ea 2.5-0.025 MICROHENRYS
i yi
6 \

5
4

3 \
2
4 21 1314.5 6 8.40
FREQUENCY

Fic. 7-4 L-Meter Calibration Chart

100 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Operation
(1) Connect the oscillator, unknown inductance, VIVM, and power
supply to the L-meter circuit, as indicated by Figure 7-3. (2) Switch on
the instruments and allow a short warm-up time. (3) Starting at the low-
est frequency in its ranges, tune the oscillator for peak deflection of the
VIVM. (4) At this point, read the resonant frequency carefully from
the oscillator dial, and refer to the chart in Figure 7-4 for the inductance
value.

7.4 Checking Inductance with Grid-Dip Oscillator

A grid-dip oscillator may be used to check the inductance of coils
of the air-wound and powdered-iron-core types, but not of coils having
solid-iron cores. Fair accuracy can be obtained.

OSCILLATOR COIL

i _- UNKNOWN
] ~” INOUCTANCE
Y
ACCURATELY
S G KNOWN
CAPACITOR

FIG. 7-5 Use of Grid-Dip Oscillator to Check Inductance

Figure 7-5 shows the setup employed in this test. The unknown coil
is connected in parallel with a high-quality mica or ceramic capacitor
of accurately known capacitance. The shortest possible leads must be
used between the coil and capacitor. The grid-dip oscillator then is
coupled loosely to the unknown coil, and the resonant frequency of the
L-C combination found by tuning the oscillator for dip indication. The
inductance value is calculated in terms of the capacitance (C) and the
resonant frequency, thus:

L = 25,400/f2C, (7A)
where L is the unknown inductance (microhenrys),
f, the resonant frequency (megacycles), and
C, the test capacitance (micromicrofarads).

If C is chosen exactly 0.01 yf, the chart given in Figure 7-4 may be
used to determine inductance from the resonant frequency without cal-
culations.
 INDUCTANCE CHECKERS 101

7.5 Combination Inductance Bridge!

Occasional difficulty is experienced in securing a good resistance
balance with the Maxwell bridge when checking large, iron-cored choke
coils. This is because the resistance balance rheostat shunts the standard
capacitor (Figure 7-2).

COIL TERMINALS 40 Ohms RANGES

. 10 to 1000 pH
. 4 to 100 MH
. O4 to 10 HY
. 4 to 100 HY
wesp
loo
BRIDGE
RANGE SWITGH-~ BRIDGE
(St, S2) CONVERSION
SWITGH
DETECTOR
(S3,S4)
\
RESISTANCE |
!
jf BALANCE |
!

aaey
10,000 *
Ohms x =
PBFA
\
\
INDUCTANCE
BALANCE
(Dial Reads Directly
in wH, MH and HY )

SIGNAL- VOLTAGE
INPUT

FIG. 7-6 Combination Maxwell-Hay Inductance Bridge

The Hay bridge, on the other hand, is more satisfactory for checking
such coils. In this circuit, the resistance balance rheostat is in series with
the standard capacitor.
Figure 7-6 shows a combination bridge which may be converted from
the Maxwell to the Hay circuit, when required, by throwing a double-
pole-double-throw (dpdt) changeover switch, $3-S4. In the H position of
this switch, the circuit is a Hay bridge; and in the M position is a Max-
well bridge. If satisfactory inductance and resistance balances are not
obtained with the switch in one position, it should be thrown to its
other position and the bridge adjustments repeated.
Provision should be made for plugging in external resistance balance
rheostats other than the 250,000-ohm value shown in Figure 7-6, since no

1 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “Combination Inductance Bridge,” Radio Serv-

ice Dealer, June, 1950, p. 18.
102 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

single unit will cover satisfactorily all of the low- and high-resistance
values encountered in coils spread throughout the full range of the Max-
well and Hay circuits.

7.6 Q Meter for Coil Testing

The over-all efficiency of coils and capacitors intended for r-f appli-
cations is evaluated best by means of Q measurements. The factor Q is
the ratio of reactance to resistance, X/R. Coil Q is of chief concern to
most experimenters making measurements, since high-Q capacitors are
obtainable readily.
There are several methods of checking Q. One system, which does
not require expensive equipment, is the susceptance variation method.
The coil under test is connected in series with a calibrated, low-loss
variable capacitor [Figure 7-10(A)] and loosely coupled to a variable-
frequency r-f oscillator or signal generator. Although inductive coupling
is shown in the circuit, loose capacitive coupling also can be used. An
r-f VI'VM is connected in parallel with the coil.
With the use of the meter as an indicator, the circuit is resonated
to the oscillator frequency by tuning the variable capacitor to a value
C,. [Figure 7-10(B)]. The capacitor then is detuned to a value C, on the
low-capacitance side of resonance at which the meter reading falls to
70.7% of the resonant deflection. Next, the capacitor is set on the high-
capacitance side of resonance to a value C, where the voltmeter deflection
again drops to 70.7% of the resonant voltage. The points C,, C,, and C,
are close together when the coil Q is high (sharp tuning) and far apart
when the Q is low (broad tuning). The numerical Q value may be deter-
mined from the three capacitance settings by means of the following
equation:

DA LOM EL A (7B)
C,, Cy, and C, each may be in either microfarads or micromicrofarads.
If two capacitors are employed in the measuring circuit, one large
fixed air section and a small variable air trimmer, and the tuning is car-
ried on entirely with the latter, a dial attached to the trimmer may be
graduated in Q units for direct reading. Figure 7-11(A) shows a revised
circuit for checking Q in this manner. A large fixed air capacitor, C,, is
shunted by a small trimmer, C,. The capacitances are chosen in value so
that the fixed capacitance plus } the trimmer capacitance is 500 pyf. The
oscillator frequency is adjusted to resonate the circuit with this total
capacitance across the test coil. The trimmer then is detuned successively
to each side of resonance to 70.7% voltage points, and the Q graduation
of the dial determined in terms of the spread between these two points.
An external view of the complete Q meter employing this operating
8
 INDUCTANCE CHECKERS 103

principle appears in Figure 7-7. The complete circuit diagram is shown

in Figure 7-8. The instrument is divided into five sections: (1) band-
switching r-f oscillator tuning from 100 kc to 13 mc, (2) pentode buffer
stage, (3) Q-measuring circuit, (4) r-— VIVM, and (5) power supply.
The r-f oscillator is enclosed in a metal shield box to prevent stray
coupling into the coil under test. The frequency ranges of the oscillator
are selected by switching coils L/, L2, and L3. C, is the oscillator tuning
capacitor. Coil LI (100 to 550 kc) is a 2}-mh pi-wound r-f choke (5-pi type)

FIG. 7-7 Coil-Testing Q-Meter

with a tap taken between the first and second pi’s. L2 (500 kc to 2.6 mc)
consists of 80 turns of No. 24 enameled wire close-wound on a 14-inch-
diameter form, tapped 25 turns from the ground end. L3 (2.5 to 13 mc)
is 15 turns of No. 20 enameled wire spaced to a winding length of 2
inches on a 14-inch-diameter form and tapped 6 turns from the ground
end. Signal voltage output is continuously adjustable by means of the
2,000-ohm wire-wound SIGNAL LEVEL CONTROL potentiometer, in
the grid circuit of the 6AU6 buffer stage.
The Q-measuring circuit consists of capacitors Cz, C,, coil terminals
X, and Xz, and the 0.01-uf coupling capacitor, C,, from the plate of the
6AU6 buffer stage. Both air capacitors, Cz and C,, must be provided with
high-grade ceramic insulation.
The VTVM is a simple 6AT6 triode circuit of the reflex type, having
high input resistance. The indicating meter is a 0-] d-c milliammeter.
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 INDUCTANCE CHECKERS 105

The power supply is conventional. For compactness, a 2,000-ohm,

25-w resistor is employed in lieu of a choke coil and provides adequate
filtration for the instrument circuit.

FIG. 7-9 Close-up of the Q Dial and VIVM

Calibration
After assembly and wiring of the instrument have been checked, pro-
ceed with the calibration in the following order:
OSCILLATOR: Calibrate the oscillator frequency dial to read directly
in kc and mc by comparison with another oscillator or signal generator
covering the 100-kc to 13-mc range. An all-wave radio receiver may be
used as a zero-beat indicator.
vtvm: (1) Do not switch’on the Q-meter power supply at this point.
(2) Open the lead along X (Figure 7-8) between C, and the measuring cir-
cuit. (3) Replace the regular milliammeter scale with a plain card of white
Bristol board. (4) Connect a source of variable a-c voltage (0-10 v rms at
60-1,000 cps), monitored with an accurate voltmeter, to COIL TERMI-
NALS X, and X,. Set the voltage source to zero. (5) Switch on the
Q meter power supply and allow a 10-minute warm-up period. (6) Set
the VIVM carefully to zero. (7) Increase the a-c test voltage for full-
scale deflection of the VI'VM. Inscribe a line at the full-scale point on
106 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

the meter card. (8) Reduce the a-c test voltage to 70.7% of the value
required for full-scale VTVM deflection, and inscribe a second line on the
scale. These are the only two points required on the scale. They show
clearly in Figure 7-9. (9) Remove the a-c voltage source and restore the
connection at X in the measuring circuit.

COIL R-F AG=Co=Cp

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(A) (B)
FIG. 7-10 Q-Meter Operating Principle

Q-MEASURING CIRCUIT: (1) Switch off the Q-meter power supply and
open the lead along Y in Figure 7-8. (2) Connect an accurate capacitance
bridge to COIL TERMINALS X, and Xg. (3) Open the lead along Z so
that only the 25-yuf trimmer capacitor, C,, remains connected to terminals

COIL ae
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CAPACITOR CAPACITOR

(A) (B)
Fic. 7-11 Arrangement of the Q-Measuring Circuit in the Instrument

X, and Xp. Use the shortest possible leads between the bridge and the
coil terminals. (4) Set the bridge successively to a large number of capaci-
tance values between zero and 25 pyf, follow up by tuning C,, and mark
the corresponding capacitance points lightly in pencil on the dial attached
to C,. Make a reference line at the 12.5-yuf point. (5) Permanently mark
“X”’ the dial point at 25 puf. (6) With the bridge still connected to termi-
 INDUCTANCE CHECKERS 107

TABLE 7—3

AC Q AC Q
20 50 3.03 330
16.69 60 2.94 340
14.29 70 2.86 350
12.50 80 2.78 360
11.11 90 2.70 370
10.0 100 2.63 380
9.10 110 2.56 390
8.35 120 2.50 400
7.70 130 2.44 410
7.14 140 2.38 420
6.67 150 9.32 430
6.25 160 2.28 440
5.88 170 22 450
5.56 180 2.18 460
5.26 190 2.13 470
5.00 200 2.08 480
4.76 210 2.04 490
4.54 220 2.00 500
4.34 230 1.96 510
4.16 240 1.92 520
4.00 250 1.89 530
3.84 260 1.85 540
3.70 270 1.82 550
3.57 280 1.79 560
3.45 elt 250 1.75 570
3.33 300 1.72 580
3.29 310 1.70 590
3.12 320 1.67 600

nals X, and Xz, reconnect lead Z, and (with C, set to 12.5 puf), adjust
capacitor C, until the total capacitance, as indicated by the bridge, is
exactly 500 puf. Capacitor C,’then will need no future adjustment unless
the Q meter subsequently is recalibrated. (7) Reconnect lead X, and
disconnect the capacitance bridge. (8) Starting at the 25-yyf point on
the dial of trimmer capacitor C,, measure off the “delta-C’”’ values shown
in Table 7-3 and permanently mark in the corresponding Q values.

Operation
There are two indices for the Q dial. One is a line inscribed on the
bottom of the meter flange (Figure 7-9). The other, a “sliding” index,
108 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

is mounted on an arm rotating behind the dial about the trimmer-

capacitor shaft in such a way that it travels around the circumference of
the dial. This is also visible in Figure 7-9. In the following discussion
of operation, these indices will be referred to as the stationary index and
the sliding index.
To use the instrument: (1) Switch on the power supply and allow
a few minutes warm-up time. (2) With the SIGNAL LEVEL CONTROL
potentiometer set to zero, set the VI'VM to zero. (3) Connect the test
coil to terminals X, and Xy. (4) Set the Q dial to its 12.5-yyf point at
the stationary index. (5) Advance the SIGNAL LEVEL CONTROL and,
starting with the lowest frequency in the low-frequency band, tune the
oscillator until a deflection of the VI'VM occurs. (6) Adjust the fre-
quency carefully for a peak deflection. (7) Advance the SIGNAL
LEVEL CONTROL for exact full-scale deflection of the meter.
(8) Detune the Q dial (in the direction of maximum capacitance of the
trimmer capacitor) to bring the meter deflection down to the 70. iT
point. (9) Move the sliding index until it coincides with point “X” on
the Q dial. (10) Retune the Q dial back through resonance and to the
other point, giving 70.7% deflection of the meter. (11) Read the Q value
opposite the sliding index.

Review Questions

1. A grid-dip oscillator resonates at [Link] when coupled to a cir-

cuit containing a 100-ypf capacitor and weep own inductance. What is
the inductance value?
2. If a 100-mh coil has an r-f resistance of 1,000 ohms at 100 kc, what
is its Q?
3. A susceptance variation-type Q meter is used to check a coil.
The tuning capacitance at resonance is 100 pyf. At a 70.7% voltage point
off resonance in one direction, the capacitance is 90 puf. At a 70.7%
voltage off resonance in the other direction, the capacitance is 110 pul.
What is the coil Q value?
4. If a coil resonates with a capacitance of 500 pyf in a susceptance
variation-type Q meter, what will be the difference between capacitance
settings for the upper and lower 70.7% voltage points for a coil Q of 100?
 8
Special-Purpose
Bridges and Accessories

8.1 Precision Resistance Bridge

Figure 8-1 is the circuit of a completely self-contained Wheatstone
bridge for resistance measurements. The range of this instrument is 0.001
ohm to 11.11 meg. Readings are taken in the conventional manner by
reading the total resistance shown by the decade-switch settings (S5, $6,
S7, and $8) and multiplying by the setting of the ratio-arm switch, $/-S2.
The ratios are made up by various combinations of resistor RJ and
resistors R2 to R5. All are precision resistors. The two-pole rotary selector
switch, S1-S2, switches the resistors into the circuit and provides multi-
pliers of 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 1,000.
The main adjustable arm of the bridge consists of four decades,
each made up of ten precision resistors connected in series with a single-
pole, rotary switch for selecting from one to ten of the resistors. The
units decade (R6 to R15) contains ten l-ohm resistors; the tens decade
(R16 to R25), ten 10-ohm resistors; the hundreds decade (R26 to R35),
ten 100-ohm resistors; and the thousands decade (R36 to R45), ten
1,000-ohm resistors. The total resistance of this four-decade arm is 11,110
ohms, and it is variable in l-ohm steps.
The null indicator, M, is a center-zero d-c microammeter reading
50 or 100 ya each side of zero. This meter is cut into the circuit by the
single-pole-single-throw (spst), nonlocking push-button switch, $4. The
use of a push-button switch insures maximum protection to the meter.
Potential for operation of the bridge is supplied by a small tapped
battery connected to the voltage selector switch, $3. This arrangement
allows 14, 3, 44, 6, or 74 v to be selected at will.
109
110 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Operation
(1) Connect the resistor to be measured to terminals X, and Xp».
(2) Set switch S3 to its 14-v position. (3) Adjust the decade switches
(S5 to S8) and the ratio switch (S/-S2), while tapping the push button,
S4, lightly, and continue this adjustment until the meter is not deflected

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FIG. 8-1 Precision Resistance Bridge Circuit

from its center zero position when the push button is depressed. (4) On
high values of unknown resistance, increase the setting of the battery
switch ($3), while repeating the bridge-balancing operation until null is
secured with the full 74 v of battery. (5) At exact null, read the total
resistance indicated by the decade switch settings, and multiply by the
setting of the ratio switch (SI-S2).
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: In Figure 8-1 the decade switches show 3
thousands, 1 hundred, | ten, and 1 unit, and the ratio switch is set to
x 1,000. The value of resistance indicated is 3,111 x 1,000 = 3,111,000
ohms = 3.111 meg.
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 111

8.2 Skeleton-Type L-C-R Bridge

A simple bridge for the measurement of resistance, capacitance, and
inductance may be constructed with four resistance decades comprising
one arm and with binding-post terminals to which external resistors or
capacitors may be connected to complete the other arms. Such a skeleton
arrangement is useful in the laboratory, since it permits the operator to
set up a number of different bridge circuits simply by plugging standards
and unknown units into the proper terminals.

DETECTOR

GENERATOR

FIG. 8-2 Basic Circuit of the Skeleton-Type L-C-R Bridge

The circuit schematic of a skeleton-type bridge and its accessories

for the measurement of resistance, capacitance, and inductance is shown
in Figure 8-5. The basic arrangement of this bridge is shown in Figure
8-2. Note in the latter diagram that only the decade arm, R,, is self-
contained. The other arms are completed by connecting the unknown
and standard components to terminals 1-2, 3-4, 7-8, 9-10, and 11-12; a
null detector to 5-6; and a generator to 13-14.
The skeleton-type bridge can be used for both a-c and d-c measure-
ments. By proper arrangement of the bridge arms, the Wheatstone cir-
cuit [Figure 8-3 (A)] may be set up for resistance measurements (a-c or
d-c); a comparison circuit [Figure 8-3 (B)] for capacitance; and the Max-
well circuit [Figure 8-3 (C) ] for inductance.
The skeleton bridge permits resistance measurements from 0.001
ohm to 11.11 meg, capacitance from 1 ppf (if stray circuit capacitances
permit) to 1,111 pf, and inductance from 1 ph (if stray inductance and
capacitance permit) to 111.1 henrys.
112 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

The bridge accessories are shown in the main schematic, Figure 8-5.
These are two switched resistance-standard boxes (one containing 10-,
100-, and 1,000-ohm precision resistors; and the other 1-, 10-, 100-, 1,000.,
and 10,000-ohm precision resistors); one switched capacitor-standard box

UNKNOWN RESISTANCE UNKNOWN CAPACITANCE

CONNECTED TO 14 AND 12 CONNECTED TO 3 AND 4

) A
13

(A)
WHEATSTONE
~~ (8)
COMPARISON
( RESISTANCE ) ( CAPACITANCE)

UNKNOWN INDUCTANCE
CONNECTED TO 4 AND 2
.

4
3 14
CO ame
MAXWELL
( INDUCTANCE)
FIG. 8-3 Circuits Provided by the Skeleton-Type Bridge

containing 0.001-, 0.01-, and l-uf closé-tolerance capacitors; and four

mounted, dial-calibrated rheostats having resistance values of 100, 1,000,
10,000, and 100,000 ohms. One of the mounted rheostats is shown in front
of the bridge in Figure 8-4.
For d-c measurements of resistance, connect a 1}-to-74-v battery to
terminals 13 and 1/4, and a center-zero 50-—0-50 or 100-0-100 d-c micro-
ammeter to terminals 5 and 6. For a-c measurements of resistance, capaci-
tance, and inductance, connect a signal source (audio oscillator tuned to
1,000 cps, or a step-down transformer operated through a Variac from
3
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 113

the a-c. power line) to terminals 13 and 14, and a null detector (head-
phones, a-c VI'VM, oscilloscope, magic-eye tube, or special detector) to
terminals 5 and 6.

Calibration
If precision resistors and capacitors and low-resistance selector
switches are employed throughout, the bridge will require no calibration.
However, the four mounted rheostats will require dial calibrations in

Fic. 8-4 External View of the Skeleton-Type Bridge

order to read directly in ohms. This calibration should be made with an

accurate resistance bridge, although a freshly calibrated ohmmeter of
good quality may be used with less accuracy.

Operation
RESISTANCE: (1) Connect RES. STD. NO. 1 (set to 1,000 ohms) to
terminals /-2. (2) Connect RES. STD. NO. 2 (set to 1 ohm) to terminals
3-4. (3) Connect the unknown resistor to terminals 11-12. (4) Leave ter-
minals 9-10 open. (5) Connect a heavy wire jumper from 7 to 8. (6) Con-
nect a generator to jack J/ and a detector to jack J2. If the generator is a
battery, the detector must be a center-zero d-c microammeter. If the gen-
erator is an a-c source, the detector must be a suitable a-c-type null
detector. (7) Adjust the decade switches for null. If a null is not obtained
with the resistance-standard settings given in (1) and (2), try other set-
tings, and repeat the decade adjustments. (8) At null, determine the
114 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

unknown resistance (R,) from the readings of the decades (R,), RES.
STD. NO. 1 (R1), and RES. STD. NO. 2 (R2) by means of the following
equation:
R, = R2(R,/R1) ohms. (8A)
Table 8-1 is a list of resistance ranges afforded by the various pos-
sible combinations.
Jf GENERATOR J2 DETECTOR
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Fic. 8-5 Complete Circuit of the Skeleten-Type Bridge and Accessories

CAPACITANCE: (1) Connect RES. STD. NO. 1 (set to 1,000 ohms)

to terminals 1-2. (2) Connect the CAP. STD. (set to 0.001 pf) to terminals
11-12. (3) Connect the unknown capacitor to terminals 3-4. (4) Leave
terminals 9-10 open. (5) Connect the 100-ohm rheostat to terminals 7-8.
(6) Connect an a-c generator to jack J/, and an a-c null detector to jack J2.
(7) Adjust the decade switches for null. If null is not obtained with the
standard settings given in (1) and (2), try other standard resistor and
capacitor settings. (8) At null, determine the unknown capacitance (C,)
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 115

TABLE 8-1

Res. Std. Res. Std. Range

No. 1 No. 2 (Ohms)

1,000 1 0.001 to 11.11

1,000 10 0.01 to 111.1
1,000 100 0.1 to 1,111
1,000 1,000 1 to 11,110
1,000 10,000 10 to 111,100
100 10,000 100 to 1,111,000
10 10,000 1,000 to 11,110,000

from the readings of the decades (R,), RES. STD. NO. 1 (RJ), and CAP.
STD. (C) by means of the following equation:

C, = C(R,/R1) pf, (8B)

where R/ and R, are in ohms, and C is in microfarads.

Table 8-2 is a list of capacitance ranges afforded by the various pos-
sible combinations.
Note that the null point is sharpened by adjustment of the rheostat
connected to terminals 7-8. If a definite resistance balance is not obtained
with the 100-ohm rheostat specified in (5), substitute successively each
higher-resistance rheostat until a sharp null is obtained. Determine the

TABLE 8-2

Res. Std. No. 1 Cap. Std. Range

1,000 ; 0.001 1 to 11,110 ppyf

1,000 0.01 10 pyf to 0.1111 pf
100 0.01 100 pat to 1.111 pe
1,000 1.0 0.001 to 11.11 pf
100 1.0 OOL [Link] at
10 1.0 0.1 to 1,111 pf

power factor of the unknown capacitor from the rheostat dial reading
(R,), unknown capacitance (C,), and bridge generator frequency (f) by
means of the following equation:
pf = 0.000628/R,C,%, (8C)
where f is in cycles,
R, in ohms, and
C, in microfarads.
116 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

INDUCTANCE: (1) Connect the CAP. STD. (set to 0.01 yf) to terminals
9-10. (2) Connect RES. STD. NO. 2 (set to 100 ohms) to terminals 3-4.
(3) Connect the 100-ohm rheostat to terminals 1-12. (4) Connect a heavy
wire jumper from 7 to 8. (5) Connect the unknown inductance to termi-
nals J and 2. (6) Connect an a-c generator to jack J/, and an a-c null
detector to jack J2. (7) Adjust the decade switches for null. (8) Adjust
the rheostat for sharper null. (9) If null is not obtained with the resist-
ance and capacitance standard settings given in (1) and (2), try other
settings of the standard switches. If a good resistance balance is not
obtained with the 100-ohm rheostat specified in (3), substitute suc-
cessively each higher-resistance rheostat until a\sharp balance is obtained.
(10) At complete null, determine the unknown inductance (L,) from the
readings of the decades (R,), RES. STD. NO. 2 (R2), and CAP. STD.
(C) by means of the following equation:
L, = C(R2R,) henrys, (8D)
where R2 and R, are in ohms, and
C in farads.

Table 8-3 is a list of inductance ranges afforded by the various pos-

sible combinations.
TABLE 8-3

Res. Std. No. 2 Cap. Std. Range

100 0.01 YF sph to 11-11 mh

1,000 0.01 10 pwh to 111.1 mh
10,000 0.01 : 100 ph to 1.111 h
10,000 1.0 10 mh to 111.1 h

8.3 Rheostat-Type Skeleton R-C-L Bridge!

A simplified bridge of the skeleton type for measurement of resist-
ance, Capacitance, and inductance can be made by substituting a wire-
wound rheostat for the four resistance decades shown in the bridge de-
scribed in Section 8.2. :
The rheostat-type bridge is shown in Figures 8-6 and 8-7. A dial
graduated 0-10 (corresponding to the settings of the rheostat between
near-zero and 10,000 ohms) is attached to the rheostat and is read in
resistance, capacitance, and inductance units. This dial may be calibrated
by means of a standard resistance bridge or freshly-calibrated ohmmeter
of good quality connected for the purpose between terminals J and 5.

1 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “Bridge Measures L-C-R,” Radio-Craft, Sep-

tember, 1948, p. 50.
®
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 117

FIG. 8-6 Rheostat-Type Skeleton R-C-L Bridge

To prevent crowding of the dial divisions, the rheostat should have a

logarithmic taper.
The bridge is assembled into a small metal box. Chassis-type jacks,
Ji and J2, are used for connections to the generator and detector. Note

STANDARD STANDARD
CAPACITOR CAPACITOR
10,000 \ EXTERNAL \ EXTERNAL
Ohms X RHEOSTAT \_ RHEOSTAT
WIREWOUND
(LOGARITHMIC
TAPER)

5 6 5 6

CAPACITANCE INDUCTANCE

Fic. 8-7 Circuit of the Rheostat-Type Bridge

that jack J2 has two separate terminals, while J/ has one central terminal,
the other connection being through the body of the jack and the shielded
cable. A two-terminal jack is necessary at J2 to prevent grounding of the
generator (or generator output transformer) to the instrument case, since
this would short-circuit terminals 5 and 6.
The theory of operation and methods of adjusting the rheostat-type
118 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

bridge are the same as with the skeleton-type bridge described in Section
8.2, but because the resistance range of the rheostat is not quite as great
as that of the decades, the ranges afforded by the rheostat-type bridge are

TABLE 8—4
Resistance

Range Terms. 1-2 Terms. 3-4

(Ohms) (Ohms) (Ohms)

0.01-1 10,000 « it
0.1-10 10,000 10
1-100 10,000 100
10—1,000 10,000 1,000
100-10,000 10,000 10,000
1,000—100,000 1,000 > 10,000
10,000-1 meg. 100 10,000

Connect unknown resistor to terminals 5 and 6.

somewhat different. Tables 8-4, 8-5, and 8-6 show the resistance, capaci-
tance, and inductance ranges, respectively, covered with the various
standards connected to the terminals shown.

TABLE 8-5
Capacitance

aay Terms. I-2 Terms. 5-6

2 (Ohms) (uf)

1-100 ppf 10,000 0.0001

10-1,000 put 10,000 0.001
100 pyf-0.01 pf 10,000 0.01
0.001-0.1 pf 1,000 0.01
0.01-1 uf 10,000 £0)
0.1-10 pf 1,000 1.0
1-100 uf 100 1.0

Connect unknown capacitor to terminals 3 and 4.

Also shown in Figure 8-7 are connections for an external rheostat to

be used as a resistance balance in capacitance and inductance measure-
ments. For methods of adjusting this rheostat, see explanation in
Section 8.2.
a
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 119

TABLE 8—6

Inductance

ee Terms. 3-4 Terms. 5-6

: (Ohms) (uf)
1-100 ph 1.0 0.01
10-1,000 zh 10 0.01
100 ph-10 mh 100 0.01
1-100 mh 1,000 0.01
10—1,000 mh 10,000 0.01
0.1-10 h 1,000 1.0
1-100 h 10,000 1.0

Connect unknown inductance to terminals J and 2.

8.4 Kit-Type Impedance Bridge?

A wide range of resistance (a-c and d-c), inductance, and capacitance
measurements are afforded by a professional kit-type impedance bridge3
now available for private assembly. This bridge measures inductance (L)
from 10 yh to 100 h, capacitance (C) from 10 puf to 100 uf, resistance (R)
from 0.01 ohm to 10 meg, dissipation factor (D) from 0.001 to 1, and Q
from 1 to 1,000. Resistance, capacitance, and inductance units all are read
directly on the same dial scale, graduated 0 to 10, and are multiplied by
settings of a multiplier switch.
The bridge is shown in Figure 8-8, and its complete circuit schematic
in Figure 8-9. Six inductance ranges are provided: (a) 10 to 100 yh,
(b) 50 ph to 10 mh, (c) 0.5 to 100 mh, (d) 5mhtolh, (e) 50 mh to 10h,
and (f) 0.5 to 100 h. These ranges include all common inductances of
coils of all types employed in electronics.
Eight resistance ranges are provided: (a) 0.01 to 1 ohm, (b) 0.05 to
10 ohms, (c) 0.5 to 100 ohms, (d) 5 to 1,000 ohms, (e) 50 to 10,000 ohms,
(f) 500 to 100,000 ohms, (g) 5,000 ohms to 1 meg, and (h) 50,000 ohms
to 10 meg.
Six capacitance ranges are provided: (f) 10 to 1,000 puf, (e) 50 pyf
to 0.01 pf, (d) 0.0005 to 0.1 pf, (c) 0.005 to 1 uf, (b) 0.05 to 10 pf, and
(a2) 0.5 to 100 pf.
The letter symbols in parentheses in the preceding three paragraphs
correspond to the same lettered positions of the MULTIPLIER SWITCH
in Figure 8-9.
Referring to the circuit diagram (Figure 8-9), the two-pole, eight-

2 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “A Wide-Range Impedance Bridge,” Radio

Service Dealer, November, 1949, p. 12.
3 Heathkit Model IB-1B, The Heath Co., Benton Harbor, Mich.
120 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

position MULTIPLIER SWITCH sets the bridge to the desired R, C, or

L range. This switch cuts in or out of the circuit the various precision
resistors RI to R9. The dial settings of the MULTIPLIER SWITCH
show the various R, C, and L factors by which the settings of the MAIN
CONTROL dial must be multiplied to obtain the correct value of the
component under test. These factors are shown in Figure 8-9 for each
setting of the switch.

FIG. 8-8 Kit-Type Impedance Bridge

Courtesy The Heath Co.

The function of the DETECTOR SWITCH is to connect an appro-

priate null detector across the bridge output terminals. When this switch
is thrown to its EXTERNAL position, the two terminals labeled EXTER-
NAL DETECTOR are connected across the bridge output, and an
external null detector may be connected to these terminals. Satisfac-
tory external detectors are high-resistance headphones, a-c VIVM,
oscilloscope, magic-eye tube, or sensitive center-zero. d-c galvanometer.
The galvanometer is used only in resistance measurements when the
internal 6-v battery (or a higher-voltage external battery) is used to power
the bridge. When the DETECTOR SWITCH is thrown to its GAL-
VANOMETER position, the self-contained center-zero (100-0-100) d-c
microammeter is connected, as a d-c null detector, across the bridge out-
put. When the DETECTOR SWITCH is thrown to its SHUNTED
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 121

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122 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

GALVANOMETER position, the microammeter is connected across the

bridge output, but in parallel with the 100-ohm resistor, R10. This
resistor decreases the microammeter sensitivity and acts to prevent meter
damage when an unknown resistance is first checked.
Two self-contained bridge power (signal) sources are employed. One
is a General Radio 1,000-cps hummer (an electromechanical type of
oscillator) which supplies the signal voltage for inductance, capacitance,
and resistance measurements at a-c. The second source is a 6-v midget dry
battery used only to power the bridge when d-c measurements of resist-
ance are made with the microammeter (or an external galvanometer) as
a null detector.
The function of the GENERATOR SWITCH iis to connect an appro-
priate power (signal) source across the input points of the bridge circuit.
When this switch is in its 1-kc position, the output of the self-contained
1,000-cps hummer is connected to the bridge input, and the 6-v battery
is switched in automatically to drive the hummer. When the switch is
in its D-C position, the self-contained 6-v battery is switched across the
bridge input circuit. When the GENERATOR SWITCH is in its EX-
TERNAL position, the bridge input points are connected to the two
terminals labeled EXTERNAL GENERATOR. A suitable external
generator may be connected to these terminals. When an a-c—type null
detector is used, a satisfactory generator is an audio oscillator. When the
self-contained microammeter, or an external galvanometer, is used as the
bridge detector, a battery would be employed as the external generator.
The MAIN CONTROL is a 10,000-ohm wire-wound rheostat having
a logarithmic taper. The dial attached to this component is graduated
0 to 10 and is read directly in pyf, pf, »h, mh, h, ohms, and meg, depending
upon the setting of the MULTIPLIER SWITCH. Thus the figure # on
this dial] is read as 4 mh if the bridge is set-up for inductance measurement,
and the multiplier switch is in its position B (Figure 8-9). But it would
be read as 40,000 ohms if the bridge were set up for resistance measure-
ment and the MULTIPLIER SWITCH were in its position F.
Two separate pairs of “unknown” terminals are provided. Resistors
under test are connected to the pair fapce R; capacitors and coils to the
pair labeled C-L.
The SELECTOR SWITCH performs two functions. The first is to
set up the bridge automatically for either resistance, capacitance, or
inductance measurements. For resistance, the circuit is a standard Wheat-
stone bridge, for capacitance it is a conventional four-arm bridge with
capacitances in two legs and resistance in the ratio arms. The Maxwell
bridge circuit is employed for measuring inductors with Q factors of 10
or less, and the Hay bridge circuit for inductors with Q’s higher than
10. The second function of the SELECTOR SWITCH is to select the
%
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 123

proper rheostat for reading the dissipation factor of capacitors or Q of

coils. When this switch is in its C-D position, the bridge is set up for
measuring capacitance, and rheostat D is selected for dissipation factor
readings from 0.001 to 0.1 (corresponding to capacitor power factor
readings from 0.1 to 10%). When the switch is in its CDQ position, the
bridge is set up for capacitance measurement, and the rheostat DQ is
selected for dissipation factor readings from 0.01 to 1. When the switch is
in its LQ position, the bridge is set up for inductance measurement, and
the rheostat Q is selected for Q readings from 10 to 1,000. When the
switch is in its LDQ position, the bridge is set up for inductance measure-
ment, and the rheostat DQ is selected for Q readings from 1 to 10. When
the SELECTOR SWITCH is in its R position, the bridge is set up for
resistance measurement only, and the rheostats D, Q, and DQ auto-
matically are switched out of the circuit.
Rheostat Q has a logarithmic taper. Rheostats D and DQ have linear
tapers.
The reactive standards are the self-contained 0.01- and 0.1-yf pre-
cision capacitors. Both capacitance and inductance measurements are
made against these capacitors as standards.

Initial Calibration
The settings of the MAIN CONTROL dial pointer must agree
(when referred to the printed scale under this pointer) with the settings
of the MAIN CONTROL rheostat. It is the purpose of the initial calibra-
tion to align the scale and rheostat. (1) Set the DETECTOR SWITCH
to its SHUNTED GALVANOMETER position. (2) Set the GENER-
ATOR SWITCH to its D-C position. (3) Set the D, Q, and DQ rheostats
to their zero or minimum-resistance readings. (4) Set the MULTIPLIER
SWITCH to its 1,000-ohm position (position D in Figure 8-9). (5) Set
the SELECTOR SWITCH to its R position. (6) Connect an accurately
known 10,000-ohm resistor to the pair of terminals labeled R. (7) Adjust
the MAIN CONTROL rheostat for null, as indicated by zero reading of
the internal microammeter. (8) Set the DETECTOR SWITCH to its
GALVANOMETER position, and readjust the MAIN CONTROL for
a sharper null indication. (9) The MAIN CONTROL should read ex-
actly 10 (which is an indication of 10,000 ohms, the value of the resistor
connected to the R terminals). If it fails to do so, loosen the setscrew of
the MAIN CONTROL knob without disturbing the setting of the rheo-
stat, set the pointer exactly to 10, and retighten the setscrew.
Since precision resistors are used in positions RJ to RY and accurate
capacitors are used for the 0.01- and 0.1-yf standards, this one-point cali-
bration automatically calibrates all ranges of the bridge for a-c and d-c.
If a highly precise point-by-point calibration is required on the various
124 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

ranges, this may be accomplished with a number of precision resistors,

capacitors, and inductors. Each component is connected to the bridge
set up in the proper manner, a null adjustment made, and the value of
the component recorded against the setting of the MAIN CONTROL.
The direct readings of the D, Q, and DQ rheostat dials are accurate
only for 1,000 cps bridge-signal frequency. At other frequencies, their
indications are only relative.

8.5 Bridge Oscillator

While it is customary to employ an available audio oscillator as the
generator for an a-c bridge, complete separation of laboratory instruments
often recommends a compact oscillator for this exclusive purpose.
1.0 pf
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FIG. 8-10 Bridge Oscillator (Signal Source)

Figure 8-10 shows the circuit of a self-contained bridge oscillator.

The layout comprises a 12AU7 low-distortion, resistance-capacitance-type
oscillator and 6B4-G degenerative power amplifier. The oscillator fre-
quency is set by a Wien bridge circuit composed of capacitors CJ and C2
and resistors RJ and R2. When R/J = R2 and Cl = C2, the frequency of
J
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 125

oscillation is equal approximately to 1/(6.28 RJ C1). Rheostat R3, which

is mounted inside the instrument to prevent accidental disturbance, con-
trols the intensity of oscillation and thereby the purity of waveform. It
also has a minor effect on the oscillator frequency. The nonlinear current-
resistance characteristic of the 3-w tungsten lamp, used as a cathode
resistor in the first triode section of the 12AU7 tube, is utilized for
stabilization.
The output power amplifier is a 6B4-G. The 800-ohm cathode re-
sistor in this stage has been left unbypassed, the resulting degeneration
serving to reduce the distortion introduced by the amplifier stage.
Values of Wien bridge constants are listed in Table 8-7 for the com-
mon frequencies at which the oscillator might be operated in bridge
generator service.
TABLE 8—7

Component 120 Cps 400 Cps 500 Cps 1,000 Cps

Cl 0.005 pf 0.002 uf 0.002 uf 0.001 pf

C2 0.005 uf 0.002 uf 0.002 uf 0.001 yf
Rl 0.265 meg 0.20 meg 0.16 meg 0.16 meg
R2 0.265 meg 0.20 meg 0.16 meg 0.16 meg

A high-quality, electrostatically shielded output transformer with a

tapped secondary winding is employed. The selection of taps provides
a series of output voltages for application to the bridge with which this
oscillator is used.

Adjustment
(1) Connect the oscillator output terminals to the vertical amplifier
input terminals of an oscilloscope. Switch off the internal sweep of the
oscilloscope. (2) Switch on the oscillator power and set output control
R8 to about 4 maximum. (3) Connect a calibrated variable-frequency
audio oscillator to the horizontal amplifier input terminals of the oscil-
loscope, and set this oscillator to the desired frequency. (4) Adjust rheo-
stat R3 in the bridge oscillator for a stationary circle or ellipse pattern
on the oscilloscope screen. This pattern, when standing still, indicates
that the bridge oscillator is set to the same frequency as the standard
oscillator. If necessary, capacitors CJ and C2 may be altered in value to
secure the correct frequency.

8.6 High-Gain Null Detector

The null detector shown in Figure 8-11 uses a 6U5 magic-eye tube
as the indicator. Null is indicated by the widest opening of the eye. A
126 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

2-stage, high-gain 12AX7 voltage amplifier, inserted between input ter-

minals DJ and D2 and the 6U5, permits operation at low bridge-signal
levels. This is an advantage, since the use of too high a bridge-signal
voltage can damage the resistance arms in some bridges.

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Fic. 8-11 High-Gain Null Detector

Since input terminal D2 is grounded, the bridge detector terminal

to which D2 is connected also will be grounded. This is permissible if
a coupling transformer is used between the generator and the bridge.
If the generator has no output transformer, a detector coupling trans-
former must be placed ahead of terminals DJ and D2.

Operation
(1) Connect terminals DJ and D2 to the bridge output (EXT.
DETECTOR) terminals. (2) Switch on the power supply of the null
detector. (3) Place the bridge into operation, but set it well away from
the null point. (4) Set the GAIN CONTROL in the null detector to
the point at which the 6U5 eye shadow just closes but does not overlap.
(5) Adjust the bridge for null, indicated by the widest opening of the
eye shadow. (6) Advance the GAIN CONTROL for highest sensitivity.
2
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 127

8.7 Null Detector with Peaked Amplifier

The use of a selective bandpass amplifier in the null detector per-
mits discrimination against noise, hum, and harmonics of the bridge
generator frequency. This results in a sharper null indication and
greater accuracy in bridge measurements.

604 0.005 ut 0.01 ut 1.0 Meg.

0.25 uf

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Meg.

Fl
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Fic. 8-12 Null Detector with Peaked Amplifier

The null-detector circuit shown in Figure 8-12 has a simple input

amplifier tuned to the bridge-signal frequency by the parallel resonant
circuit, LC, in the 6C4 plate circuit. The null indicator in this detector
is a 6U5 magic-eye tube, and the method of using the instrument is the
same as that of the null detector described in Section 8.6.
The resonant-circuit coil, L, is a 10-h choke. For sharp response and
narrow bandwidth, the Q of this component must be high. A Type
VI-C17 inductor (manufactured by U.T.C.) is recommended, since this
type has a good Q and, in addition, may be set to the exact desired in-
ductance value by means of screw adjustment. Capacitor C will be 0.704 yf
for 60 cps, 0.176 yf for 120 cps, 0.0158 pf for 400 cps, and 0.00253 pf for
1,000 cps.
128 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Adjustment
(1) Switch on the null-detector power supply. (2) Set the GAIN
CONTROL to minimum. (3) Connect the oscillator or generator nor-
mally used for bridge operation to input terminals D, and D,, and
switch on the oscillator. (4) Advance the GAIN CONTROL slowly until
the 6U5 eye shadow is about half-open. (5) Adjust the value of capacitor
C or inductor L until the eye shadow closes. If the shadow overlaps,
reduce the setting of the GAIN CONTROL.

8.8 Sharply-tuned Bridge Amplifier*

When selectivity must be higher than that afforded by the simple
peaked amplifier described in Section 8.7, the sharply-tuned bridge ampli-
fier circuit shown in Figure 8-13 is recommended. This amplifier may
be connected between the bridge and any other a-c null detector, such
as high-resistance headphones, a-c VI VM, oscilloscope, or magic-eye tube.
0.01 pt

C7
b= >
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400,000

Dy
Ohms
400,000

SELECTIVITY
ADJUSTMENT

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CONTROL ELECTROLYTIC =
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Fic. 8-13. Sharply Tuned Bridge Amplifier

The amplifier has a voltage gain of 30, with a maximum output of

10 v rms. It has better than 50 db rejection of frequencies at 4 and two
times the bridge frequency (more than 300:1 discrimination against
these frequencies and others outside the pass band).
The selectivity is obtained by means of negative feedback through a
null network. The feedback circuit includes in its loop a bridged-T
+ Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “A Sharply Tuned A. F. Amplifier,”
Radio & Television News, February, 1952, p. 65.
s
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 129

network (CH, C4, C5, and R7) which produces a sharp null at one fre-
quency determined by its constants. There accordingly is no feedback at
that frequency. At all other frequencies, the feedback is sufficient sub-
stantially to cancel the amplifier gain. The net result is that one fre-
quency (or, actually, a narrow band of frequencies) passes through the
amplifier, while all others are rejected.
For high Q and tunable inductance, CH is a Type VI-C15 tunable
inductor (U.T.C.). The CH, C4, C5, and R7 values shown in Figure 8-13
have been selected for 1,000-cps operation.
Power requirements of the amplifier are 300 v d-c at 3 ma, and
6.3 v a-c or d-c at 0.3 amp.

Adjustment
(1) Switch on the power supply to the amplifier. (2) Set GAIN
CONTROL R/ at about + maximum. (3) Connect a 10-v a-c VIVM to
the OUTPUT terminals. (4) Connect an audio oscillator, set to 1,000
cps, to input terminals DJ and D2. (5) Advance RI carefully for a read-
able deflection of the VIVM. (6) Adjust the inductance of inductor CH
for peak deflection. (7) Adjust rheostat R7 for increased peak deflection,
and readjust CH. Rheostat R7 need not be touched after this initial cali-
bration; consequently it should be mounted inside the amplifier for
protection.
The amplifier can be tuned to frequencies other than 1,000 cps by
changing the values of C4, C5, and R7. Capacitors C4 and C> must be
identical in value, each having twice the calculated value of capaci-
tance required to tune CH to resonance at the desired frequency. (C =
1/ (39.5 f2L), where f is in cps, L in henrys, and C in farads.) For the Type
VI-C15 inductor shown in this circuit, rheostat R7 should be 100,000
ohms maximum for frequencies between 20 and 800 cps, 500,000 ohms
for 800-3,000 cps, and 2 meg for 3,000—20,000 cps.

8.9 Oscilloscope as Null Detector

A high-gain cathode ray oscilloscope is especially useful as a null
detector for an a-c bridge, since it will indicate separately the completeness
of the reactive and resistive balances of the bridge. Figure 8-14 shows how
the oscilloscope is connected to the bridge and generator, and Figure 8-15
shows the patterns customarily obtained. For best results, the generator
should be transformer-coupled to the bridge.

Procedure
(1) Prepare the oscilloscope by switching off its internal sweep. (2) Set
up the oscilloscope, bridge, and generator, as shown in Figure 8-14.
(3) Connect the unknown component to the bridge. (4) Switch on the
130 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

OSCILLOSCOPE
~~__

Vertical
A-C BRIDGE Amplifier

BRIDGE
GENERATOR

\
/ \ /
GENERATOR ‘ DETECTOR Horizontal
TERMINALS TERMINALS Amplifier Input

Fic. 8-14 Use of Oscilloscope as Bridge Null Detector

generator and oscilloscope. (5) Set the bridge off null, noting that a tilted
ellipse, resembling A or B in Figure 8-15, appears on the oscilloscope
screen. (6) Adjust the vertical and horizontal gain controls of the oscil-
loscope for a pattern of suitable size, and the focus and intensity controls

REACTIVE UNBALANCE REACTIVE UNBALANCE REACTIVE BALANCE

RESISTIVE UNBALANCE RESISTIVE UNBALANCE RESISTIVE UNBALANCE

(A) (8) | (Cc)

REACTANCE
REACTIVE UNBALANCE REACTIVE UNBALANCE AND RESISTANCE
RESISTIVE BALANCE RESISTIVE BALANCE BOTH BALANCED

(0) GE) ag (F)

Fic. 8-15 Null Detector Patterns Obtained with Oscilloscope

for sharpness and easy visibility. (7) Adjust the main control of the
bridge, noting that the ellipse tilts in one direction or the other. Reactive
balance (that is, the balance for capacitance or inductance) is indicated
by the pattern in Figure 8-15(C), in which the ellipse is exactly horizontal.
(8) Adjust the resistance (power factor or Q) balance of the bridge, noting
.
 SPECIAL—PURPOSE BRIDGES AND ACCESSORIES 131

that the ellipse rolls forward or backward on the screen. When the ellipse
rolls over so that its top apparently hides its back, a straight horizontal
line is obtained [Figure 8-15(F)]. Resistance balance then is complete, and
this pattern indicates complete balance of the bridge, both for reactance
and for resistance.
The oscilloscope often is employed also as a null detector simply
by using it as an a-c VI'VM having an electron-beam indicator. In this
method of use, the bridge output is presented to the vertical amplifier
input terminals of the oscilloscope, and the height of the pattern is
observed while the bridge is adjusted. If the internal sweep of the oscil-
loscope is operating, the pattern will consist of several sine-wave cycles.
Without the sweep, a single vertical line is obtained. As the bridge is
balanced, the amplitude of the pattern decreases simultaneously from
top and bottom. At null, a horizontal line is obtained when the sweep
is running, or a single dot when the sweep is off. Inability to reduce the
pattern at null to a line or dot usually is due to the presence of harmonics
or other extraneous voltages in the bridge output.

Review Questions

1. The skeleton bridge (Figure 8-5) is set up for resistance measure-

ment, according to instructions given in Section 8.2. With the unknown
resistance connected to terminals JJ and /2, null is obtained under the
following conditions: Resistance Standard No. 1 = 1,000 ohms; Resist-
ance Standard No. 2 = 100 ohms; and the decades are set to 9 thousands,
5 hundreds, 6 tens, and 3 units. What is the unknown resistance?
2. The skeleton bridge (Figure 8-5) is set up for capacitance measure-
ment, according to instructions given in Section 8.2. With the unknown
capacitance connected to terminals 3 and #, null is obtained at 1,000 cps
under the following conditions: Resistance Standard No. 1 = 100 ohms;
Capacitance Standard = 0.01 pf; and the decades are set to 3 thousands,
7 hundreds, 8 tens, and 2 units. What is the unknown capacitance?
3. What is the power factor (in percentage) of the capacitor checked
in Exercise 2 if the resistance balance rheostat (R,) must be set to 10 ohms
for sharpening of the null?
4. The skeleton bridge (Figure 8-5) is set up for inductance measure-
ment, according to instructions given in Section 8.2. With the unknown
inductance connected to terminals J and 2, null is obtained at 1,000 cps
under the following conditions: Resistance Standard No. 2 = 10,000 ohms;
Capacitance Standard = 1 pf; and the decades are set to 6 thousands,
132 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

4 hundreds, 8 tens, and 1 unit. What is the unknown inductance in

microhenrys?
5. In the Wien bridge oscillator circuit (Figure 8-10), CJ =C2=
0.003 pf, and RI = R2 = 5,000 ohms. What is the oscillator frequency?
6. If choke CH in the sharply-tuned amplifier (Figure 8-13) is 3 h,
what value must each of the tuned-circuit capacitors have for operation
at 1,000 cps?

References

General Radio Co., ‘““The Convenient Measurement of C, R, and L,”

General Radio Experimenter, 7, Nos. 11-12 (April-May, 1953) »
1-7. '
Terman, F. E., Measurements in Radio Engineering (lst ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1935, pp. 37-87.
Timbie, W. H., Basic Electricity for Communications (3d ed.). New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1943, pp. 107-112, 283-289.
 g
Oscilloscopes
and Applications

9.1 Basic Oscilloscope

Certain features of an oscilloscope, such as input amplifiers, sweep
oscillator, and synchronizing circuits, may be dispensed with when the
instrument is to be used exclusively for tests and measurements which do
not require these refinements. Such tests include modulation measure-
ments in amplitude-modulation transmitters, frequency comparisons, and
phase checking at high signal levels, and peak-voltage and waveform
observations at high signal levels. Stripped of its modern accessories, the
remaining circuit is referred to commonly as a basic oscilloscope.
Figure 9-1 shows the circuit of a typical basic oscilloscope. A Type
2AP1 2-inch cathode-ray tube is employed. But, by increasing the d-c
operating voltage and the size of resistors RI to R4, and R7 to R10 (while
keeping their ratios the same), larger oscilloscope tubes may be used. The
d-c power supply can be a voltage doubler, tripler, or quadrupler, or a
standard full-wave unit. It may be built into the oscilloscope, if desired.
Potentiometer RJ is the INTENSITY control by means of which the
brightness of the pattern is adjusted. R3 is the FOCUS control for adjust-
ment of sharpness and clarity of the pattern. Potentiometers R7 and R8
are respectively the VERTICAL and HORIZONTAL CENTERING
controls. Adjustment of R7 moves the pattern vertically on the screen,
while R8& moves it horizontally. Adjustment of these two controls will
position the pattern in the exact center of the screen or move it to any
desired portion of the viewing area.
The VERTICAL GAIN control, RiJ, adjusts the height of the
pattern; the HORIZONTAL GAIN control, R12, the width. When
133
134 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

switch SI is set to position A, the VERTICAL INPUT terminals are

connected to the vertical deflecting plates of the cathode-ray tube through
capacitor C7. With SJ at B, coupling is through capacitor C5 and the
VERTICAL GAIN CONTROL, R//. Horizontal input is selected in
the same manner with switch $2. Capacitors C7 and C8 block high voltage

= | | |.
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All resistors 2 Watts

B VERTICAL
t . INPUT
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500,000 Ohms

FIG. 9-1 Circuit of Basic Oscilloscope

which, in their absence, would appear at the VERTICAL INPUT and

HORIZONTAL INPUT terminals, constituting a hazard to the operator
and to equipment under test.
When using the direct input to the deflecting plates (switches SJ and
S2 set to their A positions), leads ““X” and “Y” are opened temporarily
to remove gain controls R/J and R12 from the circuit. Connection and
disconnection of these leads usually are accomplished by wire jumpers
between screw terminals, but they can be done also with separate switch
sections ganged to S/ and S2.

9.2 Kit-Type General-Purpose Oscilloscope

Figures 9-2 and 9-3 show a popular 5-inch general-purpose oscil-
loscope! which is available in kit form for private assembly. The per-
formance characteristics of this instrument suit it to radio, television, and
electronic research and servicing. Because of its low cost, this oscilloscope

1 Heathkit Model O-7, The Heath Co., Benton Harbor, Mich.

 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 135

is favored by service technicians and by laboratories having small equip-

ment budgets.
Sensitivity of the vertical amplifier is 30 mv per inch; that of the
horizontal amplifier, 0.6 v per inch. The wide-band vertical amplifier has

FIG. 9-2 Kit-Type General-Purpose Oscilloscope

Courtesy The Heath Co.

a frequency range of 10,cps to 2 mc. Referred to response at 1,000 cps,

the vertical amplifier response is up +2 db at 10 cps, and down —24 db
at 2 me, the extremes of the operating range. The horizontal amplifier
is up +2 db at 10 cps and down — 12 db at 2 me.
The VERTICAL INPUT switch allows two signal-voltage ranges
(6 v maximum, and 400 v maximum) to be selected for the vertical
amplifier. The VERT. GAIN control permits continuous, smooth adjust-
ment of the signal amplitude (pattern height) within these ranges. The
HORIZ. INPUT switch allows the horizontal amplifier to be switched
to the HOR. INPUT terminal for the application of an external signal,
or to the sweep oscillator for application of the linear time-base signal
to the horizontal channel. The HOR. GAIN control permits smooth,
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continuous adjustment of the horizontal signal amplitude (pattern

width) .
Input impedance of the vertical amplifier is expressed as 2 meg
shunted by 30 pf; of the horizontal amplifier, as 1 meg shunted by 25 puf.
The linear-sweep (sawtooth) oscillator employs a 12AT7 tube (C
in Figure 9-3) in a multivibrator circuit. The hard-tube multivibrator
may be operated at a much higher frequency than the gas-triode relaxa-
tion oscillators used in earlier oscilloscopes. The 12AT7 sweep generator
covers the range 10 cps to 100 kc. The FREQ. SELECTOR switch selects
various bands within this range, and the dual FREQ. VERNIER poten-
tiometer allows fine tuning in each range.
The sweep oscillator may be synchronized by the signal under study
when the INT. SYNC-EXT. SYNC switch is set to its INTERNAL posi-
tion, or from an external synchronizing signal (applied to the EXT.
SYNC terminal) when it is in its EXTERNAL position. A 60-cps voltage,
available at the 60 CY. TEST terminal, is useful as an external syn-
chronizing voltage, and also as a test voltage for checking the vertical or
horizontal input amplifier. The center-grounded SYNC control permits
the selection of continuously variable, positive or negative synchronizing
voltage.
In addition to the usual focus, intensity, and beam-centering con-
trols, there is a SPOT SHAPE control for correcting astigmatism in the
image on the screen.
A signal applied to the INTENSITY MODULATION terminal
may be used either to blank or intensify the trace in a variety of special
tests.

9.3. Commercial Television Oscilloscope

Figure 9-4 shows the circuit diagram of a commercial wide-band
oscilloscope? designed expressly for television measurements but appli-
cable as well to all general-purpose oscilloscope uses, especially those
involving observation of rapid pulses and nonsinusoidal waveforms. This
instrument has a 7-inch screen.
The vertical amplifier covers the frequency range 10 cps to 2 mc
within 3 db; the horizontal amplifier 10 cps to 600 kc within 3 db. Maxi-
mum sensitivity of the vertical amplifier is 10 mv rms (sine wave) per
inch peak-to-peak deflection. Maximum sensitivity of the horizontal
amplifier is 4 volt-rms (sine wave) per inch peak-to-peak deflection.
Direct input to the vertical deflecting plates, without amplification, gives
a sensitivity of 24 v rms (sine wave) or 34 v d-c per inch peak-to-peak
deflection. Direct input to the horizontal deflecting plates, without am-
plification, gives a sensitivity of 26 v rms (sine wave) or 36 v d-c per inch
2 Type 400 T.V. Oscilloscope, Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., New York.
138 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

VERT. ATTENUATOR

Int~
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R-106
IS K_1ow
100K 2W

FIG. 9-4 Commercial Wide-Band TV Oscilloscope

Courtesy Sylvania Electric Products, Inc.
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 139

R22

INT. EXT.
Q o————_(_) O-3-
S-2A
INT. MOD.

R-24

400 K-3.
&,

MEG.(W
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R-80
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NOTE:
- ALL CAPACITOR VALUES IN MFD, 400 VOLTS;
ALL RESISTOR VALUES IN OHMS. V2 WATT;
ANDO ALL /NOVUCTANCE VALUES IN MILLI-
HENRIES, UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.

(Continuation, Fig. 9-4)

140 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

peak-to-peak deflection. Both vertical and horizontal amplifiers deliver

push-pull output to the cathode-ray tube.
The vertical amplifier has a capacitively-compensated step-type
attenuator (S-IA and S-1B) giving input signal-voltage divisions of 1:1,
10:1, 100:1, and 1,000:1. The VERTICAL GAIN control, R-12, allows
smooth, continuous variation of vertical signal amplitude (pattern
height). The dual HORIZONTAL GAIN control potentiometer, R-86A
and R-86B, permits smooth, continuous variation of horizontal signal
amplitude (pattern width).
Input impedance of the vertical amplifier is expressed as 5 meg,
26 put; of the horizontal amplifier, as 5 meg, 31 pyf.
The linear sweep (sawtooth) oscillator employs a 12AT7 multivibra-
tor circuit (V6B and V7B) for extended high-frequency operation. This
oscillator has five frequency ranges extending from 15 cps to 50 kc,
selected by the COARSE SWEEP switch, S-5A. The FREQ. VERNIER
rheostat, R-56, permits smooth, continuous variation of frequency within
these ranges.
For synchronizing the sweep oscillator, a sync amplifier (V6A) is
inserted between the SYNC SELECTOR switch (S-6) and the multivibra-
tor stage. When S-6 is set to its INTERNAL position, self-synchronizing
voltage is derived from the signal being viewed. At the 60 CYCLE posi-
tion of this switch, a 60-cps synchronizing voltage, extracted from the
internal power supply, is selected. And at the EXTERNAL position,
direct connection is made to the EXT. SYNC terminal for insertion of
an externally generated, synchronizing voltage. The sync amplifier is of
the phase-splitting type; so continuously-variable positive and negative
sync voltages may be obtained by adjustment of the SYNC SIG. potentiom-
eter, R-41. 3
The COARSE SWEEP switch, S-5A, has (in addition to the five
sweep-oscillator range steps) two additional positions—one which connects
the horizontal amplifier directly to the HORIZ. INPUT terminals; the
other, which selects a 60-cps sine-wave sweep voltage derived from the
60 CYCLE PHASING potentiometer, R-90. This 60-cps sweep voltage
often is used in visual alignment of TV and FM receivers.
Terminals D1 and D2 give direct access, without amplification, to the
horizontal deflecting plates of the cathode-ray tube when switches S-3A
and S-3B are in the EXT. position. Terminals D3 and D4 give direct
access, without amplification, to the vertical deflecting plates when
switches S-2A and S-2B are in their EXT. position. A signal applied to
the INT. MOD. terminal permits either blanking or intensification of the
trace in special tests. The terminal labeled 25 V AC delivers a 25-v rms
low-current test signal which may be used for 60-cps synchronization of ex-
ternal equipment or for checking the input amplifiers of the oscilloscope.
%
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 141

9.4 Electronic Switch

When making electrical tests, the simultaneous observation of two
or more phenomena often is advantageous. For example, current in a
circuit might be observed together with voltage.
The utility of an oscilloscope is multiplied considerably when two
or more related images may be viewed on the same screen. At one time,

S OSCILLOSCOPE Signal a Signal b Signal a

! 4 \
SIGNAL
SOURCE
a

SIGNAL
SOURCE
b ; Vertical
Amplifier
Input
ae (A) (c)

SIGNAL BN
oy ouTP F
INPUT CUTOFF U
a : BIAS (To
OSCILLOSCOPE )

i
'

PUSH-PULL
SQUARE- WAVE
GENERATOR

(D)

FIG. 9-5 Principle of the Electronic Switch

this was possible only by using a special cathode-ray tube having separate
sets of electrodes operating on the single screen, and applying the signal
voltages to the separate sets. The electronic switch enables the same
results to be obtained with a single conventional oscilloscope.
Figure 9-5 illustrates the basic principle of the electronic switch. A
mechanical analogy is given in Figure 9-5(A). Here, two separate signal
sources are connected to a single oscilloscope through a spdt switch, S.
If this switch is thrown rapidly back and forth, portions of Signal a and
Signal b will be transmitted alternately to the oscilloscope. Thus if the
switch is closed alternately at the time instant represented by the vertical
142 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

line in Figure 9-5(B), point 7 of Signal a and point 2 of Signal b will be

“caught.” If the frequency at which the switch is operated is high enough,
the small segments of each signal will be closely spaced, and persistence
of vision will causé the two signals to appear complete and simultaneously
on the screen, as in Figure 9-5(B). If the switch operating frequency is
made extremely high, the segments of the signals will not be discernible;
solid, rather than broken, lines will be obtained. However, a mechanical
switch cannot be operated so rapidly; and even if it could be, such un-
wanted by-products as switch contact bounce, arcing, chatter, etc., would
produce extraneous phenomena on the patterns. The switching fre-
quency must be many times higher than the frequency of the signals to
be reproduced.
If the two signal circuits deliberately are unbalanced with respect to
each other, the switch always will select high amplitudes in one position
and low amplitudes in the other. The result will be displacement of the
signals, as in Figure 9-5(C). ,
The basic electronic equivalent of the mechanical switch is illus-
trated by Figure 9-5(D). The input signals in this circuit are applied
to separate amplifiers, V7 and V2. Each amplifier is assumed to be biased
to cutoff and therefore transmitting no signal at the start. The cathodes
of the amplifier tubes are connected to the output of a push-pull square-
wave generator. The output voltage of this generator is sufficient to over-
come the cutoff bias of each tube suddenly on alternate square-wave
cycles. ‘The square wave thus switches V/ and V2 alternately into opera-
tion for short intervals of time. When VJ is in operation, Signal a is
transmitted through to the oscilloscope. Tube VJ then is cut off and V2
rendered conducting. Signal b only is transmited then to the oscilloscope.
While only two channels are shown in the diagram, a number of channels
may be used in more complicated arrangements.
Figures 9-6 and 9-7 illustrate a kit-type electronic switch available for
private assembly.? This instrument may be used for the simultaneous
viewing of two signals on any conventional oscilloscope.
The signals are applied to INPUT A and INPUT B. Separate signal
gain controls are provided. The two amplifiers (Tube A and Tube B)
conduct alternately, thereby transmitting first Signal a and then Signal b
to the OUTPUT terminals.
The square-wave switching signal which actuates the two amplifiers
is generated by the first two 6SN7 stages. The first stage is a multivibrator-
type oscillator with a three-step frequency range extending from less than
10 cps to 2,000 cps. The frequency to which this stage is adjusted with the
COARSE and FINE FREQUENCY controls determines the switching
3 Heathkit Model S-2, The Heath Co., Benton Harbor, Mich.
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 143

rate of the instrument. The second stage is a blocking circuit which de-
livers a cutoff pulse alternately to amplifier tubes A and B. When tube A
is transmitting Signal a to the OUTPUT terminals, tube b is cut off by
the blocking stage. The action then reverses (at a rate determined by the
frequency of the multivibrator) and tube 4 is cut off, tube B transmitting
Signal b to the OUTPUT terminals.

ELECTRONIC Suritnh
MODE 4.

A
os
ON

E FREQ.

a
€ F

FIG. 9-6 Kit-Type Electronic Switch

Courtesy The Heath Co.

Adjustment of the POSITION control determines whether the two

signal images are superimposed upon each other, as in Figure 9-5(B), or
separated vertically by a desired distance, as in Figure 9-5(C). This con-
trol operates by increasing the screen voltage of one amplifier tube, while
decreasing the screen voltage of the other. The tube with the higher screen
voltage draws the higher plate current, producing a larger voltage drop
across resistor R, when this tube is operating. The OUTPUT terminal
is connected directly to R,; so the output voltage is lower when the high-
screen tube is operating. When the other tube goes into operation, the
output voltage is decreased. At the center setting of the POSITION con-
trol, both tubes have the same screen voltage, the output voltages are
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equal, and the images are superimposed, as in Figure 9-5(B). When one
image moves up on the screen, the other moves down, since one screen
voltage is decreased at the same time the other is increased.
The variable-frequency feature of the multivibrator in the electronic
switch enables the operator to select a high frequency for each test signal,
so that solid-line images will be produced on the screen of the oscilloscope.

9.5 Servicing Radio Receivers with Oscilloscope

Intermediate-Frequency Alignment
To align the intermediate-frequency (i-f) channel in a conven-
tional AM broadcast superheterodyne receiver: (1) Connect the oscillo-
scope vertical amplifier input terminal to the top of the load resistor

WUWY (A)
Fic. 9-8
(B) (C)
Visual I-F Alignment Patterns
(D)

of the diode second detector. (2) Connect the oscilloscope GROUND

terminal to the receiver chassis or B-minus bus. (3) ‘Temporarily
disable the avc of the receiver. (4) Connect a frequency-modulated
signal generator between chassis and the mixer (or first detector) con-
trol grid. (5) Set the generator to the intermediate frequency of the
receiver, and set the generator sweep width to 15 kc. (6) Set the oscillo-
scope sweep to 60 or 120 cps, whichever corresponds to the sweep fre-
quency of the FM generator. (7) Set the oscilloscope SYNC switch to
EXTERNAL. (8) Connect the SYNC OUTPUT terminal of the genera-
tor to the EXT. SYNC terminal of the oscilloscope. (9) Switch on the
instruments and receiver and_allow a short warm-up period. (10) Adjust
the i-f and second detector trimmers or slugs to obtain an i-f selectivity
pattern as in Figure 9-8(A). This pattern may be turned right-side-up if
the oscilloscope has a phasing control. Use the lowest possible signal
generator output which will give a good oscilloscope pattern, to prevent
overloading of the receiver, and increase the vertical gain of the oscillo-
scope to make the pattern taller. (11) The SYNC AMPLITUDE and
COARSE and FINE FREQUENCY controls of the oscilloscope must be
adjusted for a single, stationary pattern. Figure 9-8(B) shows the double-
146 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

humped, broad curve obtained when the i-f trimmers are staggered.
Figure 9-8(C) is a dual pattern resulting when the oscilloscope sweep
frequency is one-half the generator sweep frequency. (12) Various points
along the selectivity curve may be identified in frequency by means of a
marker generator tuned to the vicinity of the intermediate frequency and
loosely coupled to the mixer grid. The marker generator will set up a pip

DISCRIMINATOR
OSCILLOSCOPE

LIMITER

" 4

Vertical
Amplifier
Input
Terminals
TO GRID
OF LAST I-F AMPLIFIER

0.01 pt
ISOLATING
CAPACITOR

SYNG = aa
OUTPUT
™-F-M SIGNAL GENERATOR

FIG. 9-9 Setup for FM Discriminator Alignment

or squiggle on the selectivity curve [Figure 9-8 (D)] by beating with the
main generator, and this pip may be moved to any portion of the pattern
by tuning the marker generator. When the pip is set to the point of
interest on the curve, the frequency at that point is read directly from the
marker-generator dial. Any wnmodulated r-f test oscillator or signal
generator with adjustable output will serve as a marker generator if it
furnishes signals at and around the frequency of the main generator. The
output of the marker generator must be kept low, to prevent distortion
of the curve under observation.
The i-f channel of an FM receiver is aligned in the same manner,
except that the oscilloscope is connected through a 10,000-ohm series
isolating resistor to the top of the grid resistor of the receiver limiter stage.
isolating resistor to the top of the grid resistor of the receiver limiter
stage.
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 147

FM Discriminator Alignment
The discriminator stage of an FM receiver may be aligned visually
by means of the setup shown in Figure 9-9. (1) Set the frequency-
modulated signal generator to the receiver intermediate frequency, and
apply its output to the grid of the last i-f amplifier. (2) Set the generator
sweep width to 300 kc. (3) Connect the generator SYNC OUTPUT
terminal to the EXT. SYNC terminal of the oscilloscope. (4) Set the
oscilloscope sweep frequency to the generator sweep frequency or to twice
that value, as desired. If the two frequencies are identical, the test pattern
t

(A) (B)
Fic. 9-10 Alignment Patterns for FM Discriminator or Ratio Detector

in Figure 9-10(B) will be obtained. If the oscilloscope frequency is twice

the generator sweep, 9-10(A) results. Set the oscilloscope SYNC switch
to EXTERNAL. (5) Adjust the trimmers or slugs (C, and C,) of the
discriminator transformer to obtain a symmetrical pattern. The dis-
criminator is aligned properly when points J and 3, and 5 and 7 in
Figure 9-10(A) are evenly spaced from the horizontal reference line, and
when 2 and 6 are equal distances from point 4. Or, in Figure 9-10(B)
when b and d are evenly spaced from the horizontal reference line and ac
equals ce. In Figure 9-10(A), the two slanting lines of the pattern intersect
with the horizontal reference line at point 4. In Figure 9-10(B), the dis-
tance bc is equal to the distance cd.

FM Ratio-Detector Alignment
Many FM receivers use the ratio detector, instead of a discriminator,
as a second detector. The visual-alignment procedure for this type of
detector is the same as that prescribed for the discriminator in the pre-
ceding paragraphs, except for the difference in circuitry (Figure 9-11).
148 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

RATIO DETECTOR AVC

LAST I-F AMP. AR BIAS

QO0000

A-F OUTPUT

0.01 pf

_- SYNC
Av” OUTPUT
Vertical __-
Amplifier
Input =
= F-M SIGNAL Terminals OSCILLOSCOPE
GENERATOR

FIG. 9-11 Setup for FM Ratio Detector Alignment

R-F Amplifier Alignment

(1) Connect the frequency-modulated signal generator to the antenna
input terminals of the receiver. (2) Set the generator to the frequency to
which the receiver is tuned. (3) Set the generator sweep width to 15 kc
for an AM receiver, or 150 kc for an FM receiver. (4) Temporarily disable
the receiver avc. (5) Connect the oscilloscope vertical input through a

41.0 Meg.

0.0001

TO OSCILLOSCOPE
VERTICAL AMPLIFIER
INPUT

TO
CHASSIS =

FIG. 9-12 Crystal-Type Demodulator Probe Circuit

crystal-type demodulator probe (Figure 9-12) to the grid of the mixer or

first detector. (6) Set the oscilloscope sweep to the generator frequency.
(7) Set the oscilloscope SYNC switch to EXTERNAL. (8) Connect the
generator SYNC OUTPUT terminal to the oscilloscope EXT. SYNC
terminal. (9) Adjust the r-f trimmers or slugs for a sharp selectivity pat-
tern [resembling Figure 9-8(A)] for an AM receiver, or a broader pattern
$7
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 149

[somewhat similar to Figure 9-8(B)] for an FM receiver. (10) The r-f

amplifier bandwidth may be measured from the pattern by means of a
pip [Figure 9-8(D)] set up by a marker generator loosely coupled to the
receiver antenna input terminals together with the main generator. For
use of this marker generator, see the description in the first paragraph of
this section.

Checking Hum
(1) Set the oscilloscope sweep frequency carefully to 60 cps. (2) Set
the SYNC switch to INTERNAL. (3) Connect the oscilloscope GROUND
terminal to the receiver chassis. (4) Connect a shielded probe to the
VERTICAL AMPLIFIER INPUT terminal. (5) Touch the probe to
suspected points in the receiver circuit. Presence of 60-cps hum will be
indicated by a single ellipse or circle; 120-cps hum by a horizontal
figure-8.

VIDEO DETECTOR
TO VIDEO
AMPLIFIER
OOOO ¢————>-

TO INPUT OF lH
I-F CHANNEL

<7

®
e fe)
©
A ae
‘4 SMS
=> 10.0007
Ohms 7
|
@ © me/ :

abe S..___TV SWEEP ne

Vertical - OSCILLO-
= GENERATOR piss = SCOPE

sm
MARKER
GENERATOR

Fic. 9-13 Setup for Video I-F Alignment

9.6 Television-Receiver Checking with Oscilloscope

Video I-F Alignment
Figure 9-13 shows the setup of instruments for video i-f alignment.
The vertical amplifier input of the oscilloscope is connected to the video
detector load resistor through a 10,000-ohm series isolating resistor.
A television sweep generator and marker generator are connected to
150 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

the input of the if channel to be aligned. The oscilloscope sweep is

adjusted to the sweep generator sweep frequency. The oscilloscope SYNC
switch is set to EXTERNAL. The sweep generator is tuned to the center
frequency of the i-£f channel. The generator sweep width is set to 10 mc,
unless specified otherwise by the receiver manufacturer.

SOUND I-F VIDEO I-F

CARRIER CARRIER

B 6 MC ,
Fic. 9-14 Video I-F Response Pattern, with Marker Pips

(1) Adjust the i-f trimmers or slugs for a response-curve pattern

similar to Figure 9-14. (2) Using the marker-generator pips to identify
frequency points along this curve, adjust the trimmers or slugs for proper
frequency-vs.-amplitude relationships, as recommended by the receiver
manufacturer.

Sound I-F and Sound-Detector Alignment

The sound i-f and sound detector channels in a television receiver are
FM circuits. The detectors are either discriminators or ratio detectors.
The alignment procedure for these channels is the same as that for i-f
alignment, FM discriminator alignment, and FM ratio-detector alignment
in Section 9.5. The receiver-manufacturer’s service notes should be con-
sulted for data regarding proper bandwidth and checking frequencies.

R-F (Front-End) Alignment

The front end of a television receiver is a high-frequency, broad-band,
superheterodyne, r-f amplifier-mixer arrangement. The general instruc-
tions for visual alignment of r-f amplifiers (see Section 9.5) apply also
to television front ends. However, the receiver-manufacturer’s service
notes should be consulted for data regarding proper bandwidth and fre-
quency-vs.-amplitude characteristics. The crystal-type demodulator probe
(Figure 9-12) will be required for television (TV) front-end alignment.
For purposes of reference, Tables 9-1 and 9-2 give conventional test fre-
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 151

TABLE 9—1

Center Frequencies of TV Channels

Channel Limits Center Freq.

No. (Mc) (Mc)
2 54-60 57
3 60-66 63
4 66-72 69
5 76-82 79
6 82-88 85
7 174-180 Beied.
8 180-186 183
9 186-192 189
10: 192-198 195
1] 198-204 201
12 204-210 207
13 210-216 213

quencies for this alignment. The sweep signal generator is set to the
center frequency of the channel being aligned, and the marker generator
to the video or sound carrier frequency of that channel. The generator
sweep width usually is set to a minimum of 8 to 10 mc.

TABLE 9—2

Marker Frequencies

Channel - Video Carrier Sound Carrier

No. (Mc) (Mc)
2 55.25 59.75
3 61.26 65.75
4 67.25 71.75
5 77.25 81.25
6 83.25 87.75
7 » 175.25 179.75
8 181.25 185.75
9 187.25 191.75
10 193.25 197.75
11 199.25 203.75
2 205.25 209.75
13 2125 Palha Bihe
RRRR A
152 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Inspection of Operational Waveforms

A great deal of information can be obtained regarding the operating
condition of a television receiver and of the results of repairs and adjust-
ments, by visual examination of the waveforms at key points in the cir-
cuits. A wide-band oscilloscope is required for this purpose, since faithful
HORIZONTAL
BLANKING
PULSE See
\

VIDEO \
SIGNAL
\
\

(A) (B) (Cc)

HORIZONTAL PULSES HORIZONTAL PULSES VERTICAL PULSES
Video detector Output of sync separator Output of integrator

(F)
CE) HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL PULSES HORIZONTAL OSCILLATOR OUTPUT TUBE
Video detector Output Output

(G) (H)
DEFLECTING VOLTAGE DEFLECTING VOLTAGE
Horizontal deflecting coils Vertical deflecting coils

FIG. 9-15 Idealized Television Waveforms

reproduction of the steep pulses encountered can be obtained only with

a vertical amplifier having excellent low- and high-frequency response.
No signal generator is needed for this type of test. Instead, a TV
station, preferably one broadcasting a test pattern, is tuned in with the
receiver under test. The video signal (sync pulses combined with picture
information) is examined at the input and output of each stage through
which this signal passes, starting with the video detector output. Also, the
waveforms in the deflection circuits are checked. Both the shape of all of
these signals and their peak-to-peak voltage amplitudes (the latter
obtained from the receiver-manufacturer’s service notes) are examined.
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 153

Normal 180-deg phase shift through amplifiers is revealed by inversion of

the signal pattern.
The oscilloscope sweep is set to 30 cps to reproduce the vertical sync
pulse and video signal; to 7,875 cps for the horizontal pulse and video
signal. Each of these sweep frequencies gives a display of two pulses.
Either vertical or horizontal information can be observed at the same
test point in the receiver circuit (where both are present) by changing the
sweep from one frequency to the other.
While it is impossible on these pages to present even a partially com-
plete catalogue of video and pulse waveforms encountered in the circuits
of the many different television receivers, a few simple (idealized) wave-
forms are shown in Figure 9-15. The reader is referred to the complete
books on television servicing and to the service manuals and receiver-
manufacturer’s literature for an exhaustive treatment of this subject. See
the list of references at the end of this chapter.
FINAL AMPLIFIER
TANK COIL OSCILLOSCOPE
iN
TRANSMITTER
F 4 or 2 TURN
/ PICKUP

(A ) 7 Direct (B)
Vertical WAVEFORM
CONNECTIONS Input RELATIONS

UNMODULATED 400 UNDER- OVER-

NO CARRIER CARRIER MODULATION MODULATION MODULATION
(c) (D) (E) (F) (G)
FIG. 9-16 Wave-Envelope Patterns in Amplitude Modulation

9.7. Checking Transmitter Modulation with Oscilloscope

The modulation percentage of an AM transmitter is checked readily
with an oscilloscope. Figures 9-16 and 9-17 show two methods of making
this test. In Figure 9-16, wave-envelope patterns are used. In Figure 9-17,
trapezoidal patterns are shown.
To use the wave-envelope method (Figure 9-16): (1) Loosely couple
154 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

the direct vertical input of the oscilloscope to the plate tank coil of the
final amplifier in the transmitter. (2) Switch on the oscilloscope sweep.
(3) When the transmitter is not operating, a straight horizontal trace
[Figure 9-16(C)] will appear on the screen. When the unmodulated carrier
is turned on, the line becomes a wide band [Figure 9-16(D)]. Adjustment

OSCILLOSCOPE

4 or 2 TURNS Cet:
COUPLED TO HEIGHT,
FINAL AMPLIFIER
T ANK |IN
,TRANSMITTER

TO "HIGH" TERMINAL OF
MODULATION TRANSFORMER
7 IN TRANSMITTER el
¥ Direct (B )
<1 ah WAVEFORM
04
pt
800,000
Ohms
RELATIONS
(A) ae ~<--~ 500,000
Ohms
CONNECTIONS =

OO) NO'CARRIER
(Cc)
UNMODULATED
“CARRIER
(D)
100% UNDER-
MODULATION - MODULATION
(E) (F)
OVER-
MODULATION
(G)
FIG. 9-17 Trapezoidal Patterns in Amplitude Modulation

of the coupling between the oscilloscope and transmitter will control the
height of this band. Modulation of the transmitter with an audio sine
wave will produce a wave pattern such as shown in (b), (e), (f), and (g)
in Figure 9-16. (4) In Figure 9-16(B), height a represents the unmodulated
carrier amplitude [the same as in 9-16(D)], while 6 is the modulated
amplitude. The modulation percentage is equal to 100(b — a)/a.
The use of trapezoidal patterns (Figure 9-17) is similar. (1) Loosely
couple the direct vertical input of the oscilloscope to the plate tank coil
of the final amplifier in the transmitter. (2) Switch off the oscilloscope
sweep. (3) Connect the direct horizontal input of the oscilloscope to the
modulator in the transmitter through the resistance-capacitance circuit
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 155

shown. The purpose of the potentiometer is to reduce the modulation

voltage to a level which may be handled safely by the oscilloscope. Con-
nections usually are made to the secondary winding of the modulation
transformer. (4) When the transmitter is not operating, a single dot
[Figure 9-17(C)] will appear on the screen. When the unmodulated car-
rier is switched on, a vertical line [Figure 9-17(D)] appears. Adjustment
of the coupling between the oscilloscope and transmitter will control the
height of this line. Modulation of the transmitter with an audio sine wave
will generate a trapezoidal pattern, such as those shown at (B), (E), (F),
and (G) in Figure 9-17. In 9-17(B), height a represents the original un-
modulated carrier amplitude [the same as Figure 9-17(D)], while b is the
modulated amplitude. The modulation percentage equals 100(b — a)/a.

9.8 Frequency Checking with Oscilloscope

The use of the oscilloscope for frequency checking is described in
Section 11.4, Chapter 11.

(A)

OF a5 5 IO Sm 180°

(B) (Cc) (0) CE) Cis)

FIG. 9-18 Phase-Difference Patterns

9.9 Phase Checking with Oscilloscope

If two signals (which may, if required, be derived from two points in
the same circuit under test) are of the same frequency, their phase differ-
ence can be checked comparatively easily with the oscilloscope. In order
to prevent false indications, the vertical and horizontal amplifiers in the
oscilloscope must have identical phase characteristics; otherwise the
deflecting plates must be used directly.
156 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

The cathode-ray beam first is centered exactly on the oscilloscope

screen. The oscilloscope sweep is switched off. One signal is applied to the
vertical input, and the other to the horizontal input. A pattern similar
to those in Figure 9-18 will be obtained. Measure the vertical height b
of the pattern [Figure 9-18(A)] and the height a at which the line of the
pattern intersects the central vertical line of the oscilloscope screen. The
sine of the phase angle is equal to a/b. The angle itself may be determined
by looking up the angle corresponding to this sine in a set of trigonometric
tables.
In the patterns (B) and (F), height a equals zero. In (D), both a and
b are equal. (A) also is the pattern for 360 deg, (D) for 270 deg, (C) for
315 deg, and (E) for 225 deg.

9.10 Voltage Calibration of Oscilloscope Screen

Both the vertical and horizontal axes of an oscilloscope screen may
be calibrated by applying a series of accurately known voltages to the
input terminals and noting the amplitude of the resulting deflections.
During this calibration, the oscilloscope sweep is switched off and the
single-line trace used.
Alternating-current calibrating voltages deflect the electron beam
in both directions (up and down, and left and right). The deflection dis-
tance corresponding to each applied voltage accordingly may be measured
from the center of the screen (normal resting position of the spot) to the
end of the line trace, or from one end of the trace to the other.
While an oscilloscope essentially is a peak voltmeter, its screen may
be calibrated in terms of peak, rms, average, or peak-to-peak voltage, as
desired. ,
The frequency of the calibrating voltage should correspond to some
point at which the frequency response of the oscilloscope is near its
average for the entire operating range.
Inasmuch as the amount of deflection is a function of the setting of
the amplifier gain control, the calibration must be made at some pre-
determined setting, and voltage measurements made subsequently always
at this same setting. Otherwise a voltage correction curve must be plotted
for the gain control.

9.11 Oscilloscope Voltage Calibrator

A voltage calibrator is a device that measures the peak-to-peak voltage
of any pattern on the oscilloscope screen. It does this by supplying a square
wave whose horizontal top and bottom are made to coincide with the top
and bottom of the pattern by adjusting the calibrator output. When
exact coincidence is secured, the voltage value is read directly from the
output control of the calibrator.
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 157

FIG. 9-19 Oscilloscope Voltage Calibrator

Courtesy Allen B. DuMont Laboratories, Inc.

Figures 9-19 and 9-20 show a commercial voltage calibrator.4 This

instrument consists of a power supply (6X4), voltage regulator (0A2),
diode clipper or square-wave generator (6AL5), and coarse and fine

R106 OUTPUT
50,000 Ohms MULTIPLIER SIGNAL
OUTPUT INPUT
47,000 Ohms v102 \ Factory
41 W. \ C102 @ Adj. SIGNAL |©
ip OA2 oe \ OUTPUT

2) Yx.01 GROUND

He
Al]

1%
R108
Ohms
440,000
R109
41,000
Ohms
1%
R110
4400 Ohms
%
R414
440 Ohms
1%
115 V., 50-60~ a4

FIG. 9-20 Complete Circuit of the Voltage Calibrator

Courtesy Allen B. DuMont Laboratories, Inc.

4 Type 264-B, Allen B. DuMont Laboratories, Inc., Clifton, N.J.

158 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

output attenuators. Four voltage ranges are provided: 0.01 to 0.1, 0.1 to 1,
1 to 10, and 10 to 100 volts peak-to-peak. Switch S102 selects the ranges,
and potentiometer R107 permits smooth, continuous adjustment of
voltage output within those ranges. The dial of R107 reads directly in
peak-to-peak volts.
The signal to be observed with the oscilloscope is applied to the
SIGNAL INPUT and GROUND terminals of the calibrator. The
OUTPUT and GROUND terminals are connected to the vertical input
of the oscilloscope. When switch $102 is in its SIGNAL OUTPUT posi-
tion, the signal is connected directly to the oscilloscope. The pattern
height on the screen is noted. $102 then is switched to one of its mul-
tiplier positions, and potentiometer R107 adjusted (along with switch
$102) until the top and bottom of the square wave now appearing on the
screen touch the same horizontal lines formerly reached by the top and
bottom of the signal pattern. The peak-to-peak voltage value then is read
from the dial of potentiometer R107 and multiplied by the setting of
switch $102.
Peak-to-peak volts for a symmetrical pattern may be converted to peak
volts by dividing by 2. Peak-to-peak volts for a symmetrical sine wave
may be converted to rms volts by multiplying by 0.3535.

Review Questions

1. If a horizontal figure-8 pattern is obtained when using an oscil-

loscope with 60-cps sweep frequency for hum tracing, what is the hum
frequency?
2. What minimum sweep width must be provided by a signal genera-
tor used with an oscilloscope to align the front end of a television
receiver?
3. How many horizontal sync pulses are seen on the screen of an
oscilloscope used to check a TV receiver when the oscilloscope sweep
frequency is 7,875 cps?
4. Using an oscilloscope to check amplitude modulation, the un-
modulated signal amplitude is five screen divisions, and the modulated
amplitude 84 divisions. What is the modulation percentage?
 OSCILLOSCOPES AND APPLICATIONS 159

References

Ghirardi, A. A., and J. R. Johnson, Radio and Television Recewver

Troubleshooting and Repair. New York: Rinehart Books, Inc.,
1952.
Johnson, J. R., and J. H. Newitt, Practical Television Servicing. New
York: Rinehart Books, Inc., 1949.
Rider, J. F., The Cathode Ray Tube at Work. New York: John F. Rider,
Publisher, Inc., 1935.
———, and S. D. Uslan, Encyclopedia on Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes and
Their Uses. New York: John F. Rider, Publisher, Inc., 1951.
Ruiter, J. H., Jr., Modern Oscilloscopes and Their Uses. New York: Rine-
hart Books, Inc., 1949.
Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., How to Service Radios with an Oscillo-
scope. New York: Sylvania Electric Products, Inc.
 10
R-F Test Oscillators

and Signal Generators

10.1 General-Purpose Service Test Oscillator

Usually, it is not economical for a service technician to design and
construct an “all-wave” r-f test oscillator to be used exclusively for
receiver servicing. Inexpensive, kit-type instruments in this category are
obtainable readily.
Figures 10-1 and 10-2 show a small r-f signal generator available in
kit form for private assembly.1 This instrument supplies signals, either
unmodulated (CW) or amplitude-modulated at approximately 400 cps, at
fundamental frequencies from 160 kc to 5Q mc and at harmonics from
51 to 150 mc. Band A tunes from 160 to 510 kc; B, from 500 to 1,650 kc;
C, 1,650 kc to 5.7 mc; D, 5.4 to 19 mc; E, 7 to 50 mc on fundamentals
and 51 to 150 mc on harmonics.
Maximum r-f output is better than 0.1 v (100,000 pv). The RF STEP
attenuator has three range steps, and the RF OUTPUT potentiometer
gives smooth, continuous adjustment of output voltage within these
ranges. A 6C4 triode oscillator circuit is employed for r-f generation.
The amplitude modulator is another 6C4 triode operated in a
Colpitts-type audio oscillator. When the MODULATION switch is in
its INT position, the modulator is connected to the r-f oscillator, and the
instrument delivers an AM signal. With the MODULATION switch in
this position, the audio oscillator also delivers a 14- to 2-v audio voltage
to the jack labeled AF OUT. This signal may be used externally to
check audio amplifiers, loudspeakers, headphones, etc., and for other
purposes requiring a 400-cps voltage. The output level is adjustable by
1 Heathkit Model SG-6, The Heath Co., Benton Harbor, Mich.
160
 R—-F TEST OSCILLATORS AND SIGNAL GENERATORS 161

means of the AF IN-OUT potentiometer. When the MODULATION

switch is in its EXT position, the internal audio oscillator is disabled,
and an external modulating signal source may be connected through the
jack labeled AF IN. The input resistance at this jack is 1 meg at the full

FIG. 10-1 Kit-Type R-F Signal Generator

Courtesy The Heath Co.

setting of the AF IN-OUT potentiometer, and approximately 5 v of

modulating signal will be required. The potentiometer gives smooth
adjustment of the input voltage level. When the MODULATION switch
is set to its EXT position, the 6C4 a-f oscillator becomes an audio
amplifier.

10.2 Frequency-modulated Signal Generators

In Chapter 9 (Sections 9.5 and 9.6) several visual-alignment methods
are described, and it is poirtted out that a frequency-modulated (FM)
signal generator is required. Some question is likely to arise as to how a
signal generator is frequency modulated.
A simple way of frequency-modulating an r-f oscillator is to connect
a small variable capacitor (motor-driven at a reasonably high speed)
in parallel with the frequency-determining L-C circuit of the oscillator.
As the capacitor rotates, the oscillator frequency is changed continuously,
returning to its original value when the capacitor has spun around to its
original setting. The oscillator frequency is said to be swept. The sweep
162 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

width (that is, the separation between the lowest and highest frequencies
reached by the capacitor rotation) depends upon the maximum and mini-
mum capacitance values of the rotating capacitor. The sweep frequency
depends upon the number of revolutions per second made by the capaci-
Vaal TUBE'B" NOTE:
le A-F OSC. 6C4 Modulation switch
Sada AMPLIFIER R-FOSC.
- .. .otpt aan shown es
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5,4 5/1 f = TUNING

45Oupt = Attenuator switch
COE 6 6 WA shown in "LO"
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ie 5600 S a marked
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SELENIUM
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ATTENUATOR R-F ie
SWITCH OUTPUT =
0000000000 (RIF STEPS ) =

Fic. 10-2 Complete Circuit of the Kit-Type R-F Signal Generator

Courtesy The Heath Co.

tor. There are numerous variations of this electromechanical method of

frequency modulation. One method, for example, vibrates the movable
plate of a two-plate air capacitor.
A better scheme is to sweep the oscillator frequency entirely by
electronic means. For this purpose, a reactance modulator is connected
across the oscillator tuned circuit. The reactance modulator acts like a
variable inductance or capacitance in parallel with the tuned circuit. Its
effect of tuning and detuning the oscillator is increased by applying a
control voltage to one of the grids of the modulator tube. When the con-
trol voltage is alternating, the oscillator frequency is swept back and forth
2
 R—F TEST OSCILLATORS AND SIGNAL GENERATORS 163

at a rate (sweep frequency) determined by the frequency of the control

voltage. The distance over which the oscillator frequency is varied (sweep
width) by the reactance modulator is governed by the amplitude of the
control voltage. ‘Thus is obtained a purely electronic frequency modulator
in which sweep frequency and sweep width are adjustable.
In the case of an adjustable-frequency r-f oscillator, a small change
in Capacitance or inductance will cause a greater frequency change at
high than at low frequencies. This results from the lower total capaci-
tance in the high-frequency circuit. If the capacitance or inductance
change is simulated by a reactance modulator, the sweep width will not
be constant for a given control voltage throughout the oscillator tuning
range. For this reason it is not desirable to apply frequency modulation
to the tunable oscillator. Instead, the oscillator or signal generator is
made up of two r-f oscillators—one tuned and the other operated at a
fixed frequency. A mixer stage combines the outputs of these two oscil-
lators. The combined r-f output then is the r-f beat-note sum or difference
of the fixed-oscillator frequency and the frequency of the tunable oscilla-
tor. Frequency modulation of constant, controllable bandwidth then is
obtained by reactance-modulating the fixed oscillator.
In frequency-modulated (sweep) signal generators, a portion of the
a-c control voltage applied to the modulator often is delivered to a SYNC
OUTPUT terminal. This voltage is used to synchronize an oscilloscope
used with the generator for visual alignment and other pattern tracing,
and sometimes is used as the actual sweep voltage of the oscilloscope.
The main difference between a conventional FM signal generator
and a special television sweep generator, aside from the higher frequencies
usually generated by the TV instrument, is the greater sweep width pro-
vided for television testing.
Modern service signal generators are equipped with both AM and
FM. Amplitude modulation usually is applied to the variable oscillator;
frequency modulation to the fixed oscillator.

10.3. Combination Signal Generator

Figures 10-3 and 10-4 show a combination signal generator? having
both amplitude and frequency modulation.
This is a beat-frequency-type instrument (operating with fixed and
variable oscillators), as described in Section 10.2 preceding. Amplitude
modulation is provided on frequencies from 100 kc to 120 mc, and FM
from 100 kc to 160 mc, all fundamental frequencies. The AM is con-
tinuously variable in frequency from 100 to 10,000 cps and from 0 to 80%
modulation of the r-f signal. The variable-frequency audio voltage used
for AM also is available at a panel jack for separate external use. Internal
2 Model 641, Jackson Electrical Instrument Co., Dayton, Ohio.
164 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

60-cps modulation and external modulation input also are available.

Frequency modulation is provided in two continuously adjustable ranges:
0-40 kc (applied to an internal 1,000-kc fixed oscillator) and 0-800 kc
(applied to an internal 40-mc fixed oscillator). The control voltage of
the frequency modulator is taken from the internal variable-frequency

Fic. 10-3 Combination AM-FM Signal Generator

Courtesy Jackson Electrical Instrument Co.

audio oscillator or from the 60-cps modulating source. The sweep fre-
quency thus may be 60 cps or may be varied continuously from 100 to
10,000 cps. ;
Radio-frequency output impedance of the signal generator is 300
ohms. Radio-frequency output voltage is controlled by a four-step attenu-
ator and continuously variable potentiometer. A crystal voltmeter at
the input terminals of the output attenuator is calibrated to read directly
in microvolts delivered by the attenuator network. The r-f output at any
setting of the attenuator controls thus is obtained by reading the micro-
voltmeter and multiplying by the step-switch setting. Ranges of 0-10,
0-100, 0-1,000, 0-10,000, and 0-100,000 pv are provided. A special RF
HIGH OUTPUT jack bypasses the attenuator step switch and delivers
output voltage in excess of 100,000 microvolts.
For stability and power, an r-f amplifier is inserted between the oscil-
lators and the output attenuator circuit. Amplitude modulation is applied
to this amplifier. When FM is used, the amplifier stage functions as a
mixer for the two r-f oscillators. The internal audio oscillator is followed
 R—F TEST OSCILLATORS AND SIGNAL GENERATORS 165

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by a 6AQ5 audio modulator which develops power to plate-modulate the

r-f amplifier.
When the AUDIO SELECTOR switch is in its 60-CYCLE VISUAL
ANALYSIS position, a voltage is available at the EXT JACK for hori-
zontal timing of the oscilloscope used in visual analysis. A panel-operated
PHASE control, R27, becomes available at the same time for elimination
of double traces on the oscilloscope screen.
When the MODULATION SELECTOR switch is in its AMPLI-
TUDE position, only the variable-frequency r-f oscillator (100 kc to
120 mc) is used. Unmodulated continuous-wave (CW) output may be
obtained in this position by setting the MODULATION CONTROL
to zero.

10.4 Television Sweep-Signal Generator

It was mentioned in Section 10.2 that the major difference between
a conventional FM signal generator and a television sweep-signal genera-
tor lies in the wide frequency sweeps provided by the television instru-
ment. The bandpass characteristics of common FM receivers are such that
a sweep width of several hundred kilocycles is adequate for visual align-
ment purposes. With television receivers, on the other hand, the sweep
width provided by the generator must be several megacycles, in order to
cover the very wide bands over which television receiving circuits operate.
A sweep generator designed expressly for television also may be used
for FM alignment by reducing the setting of the sweep control.
Figure 10-5 shows the circuit of a wide-band TV-FM sweep-signal
generator.3 Like other well-designed frequency-modulated generators,
this instrument employs the beat-frequency principle: r-f outputs of a
6J6 variable oscillator and 12AT7 fixed: oscillator are combined in a
6BG5 mixer. The fixed oscillator is frequency-modulated at a 60-cps rate
by a 12AT7 reactance modulator. For stability and harmonic reduction,
a 6BH6 wide-band buffer stage is inserted for isolation between the fixed
(swept) oscillator and the mixer.
The sweep generator delivers continuously variable r-f output from
0 to 100,000 uv in four frequency bands: 2 to 25, 20 to 64, 60 to 120, and
140 to 230 mc, all fundamentals. The fixed-oscillator center-frequency is
constant at 130 mc. The output frequencies are differences between the
frequencies of the fixed and variable oscillators. Sum frequencies also are
present but, through proper choice of the oscillator frequencies, are out-
side the band used. Two continuously adjustable sweep-width ranges are
provided: 0-600 kc (with switches S1A and S1B in their N position) and
0-15 mc (with the switches in their W position). Potentiometer R-21 is

3 Type 500, Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., New York.

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168 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

the SWEEP WIDTH control calibrated directly in kilocycles and mega-

cycles.
A 60-cps phasing voltage (available at the SYNC terminal) is pro-
vided for synchronizing or sweep voltage for the oscilloscope used with
the generator in visual alignments. The PHASING control, R-17, allows
phase correction to eliminate double images on the oscilloscope screen.
Potentiometer R-15 adjusts the r-f output voltage.

10.5 TV-FM Marker Generator

The instructions for visual alignment of radio and television re-
ceivers (Chapter 9, Sections 9.5 and 9.6) describe the use of a marker
generator to identify frequencies at points on the oscilloscope trace. It
was pointed out that an unmodulated (CW) oscillator or signal generator
might be used for marker purposes. However, special marker generators
featuring high-stability circuits, provision [Link] control, and wide-
range tuning have been developed expressly for FM and television appli-
cations. Figure 10-6 shows the circuit of a marker generator of this type.4
This instrument employs two separate oscillators, either or both
of which may be used. One is a tunable 6C4 oscillator covering the range
15 to 240 mc in four ranges: 15 to 30, 30 to 60, 60 to 120, and 120 to 240 mc.
All frequencies are fundamentals except in the last band where second
harmonics of the preceding band are used. The other oscillator is a 6C4
crystal circuit with provision for plugging in external crystals for fre-
quencies between 2 and 20 mc. Each oscillator has its own output attenu-
ator (R6 and R12). Switch S2 enables (1) either oscillator to be placed
into operation, (2) both oscillators to be operated simultaneously, (3)
plate voltages to be switched off without extinguishing the tube heaters,
and (4) the entire instrument to be switched off. Two output jacks, HI
and LOW, are provided for the output cable. Radio-frequency output
may be varied between 50 yv and 0.1 v. Also provided is an input for con-
nection of the main TV sweep generator. The output of the marker gen-
erator then contains both the alignment and marker signals, and no
separate connections need be made to the circuit under test.
When using a marker generator, the operator must be careful always
to use the lowest marker output which will produce a pip just visible
on the oscilloscope trace. An excessive marker voltage produces a large
pip which distorts the image, giving a false indication of circuit perform-
ance. Always use a crystal oscillator as a marker when adjusting 4.5-mc
intercarrier-type sound channels in television receivers, since acceptable
variation from 4.5 mc in a variable-frequency oscillator still is too great
in this instance for accurate circuit adjustment.

4 Type 501, Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., New York.

 R-F TEST OSCILLATORS AND SIGNAL GENERATORS 169

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10.6 Visual Alignment with Signal Generator

See Chapter 9 (Sections 9.5 and 9.6) for explanations regarding use
of sweep-signal generators and oscilloscopes in the visual alignment of
AM, FM, and TV receivers.

10.7 TV Linearity-Pattern Generator®

If the r-f signal applied to the antenna input terminals of a tele-
vision receiver is amplitude modulated at an audio frequency, a series of
horizontal black bars will appear on the TV screen. If the signal is

FIG. 10-7 TV Linearity-Pattern Generator

modulated at a radio frequency, a series of vertical bars will appear. In

each case, the number of bars will increase with the modulating frequency.
These bar patterns may be utilized in the inspection and adjustment
of the receiver. For example, if the vertical linearity of the set is adjusted
correctly, the horizontal bars will be spaced evenly across the screen.
If the horizontal linearity is correct, the vertical bars will be spaced
evenly. The contrast, focus, brightness, and vernier-tuning controls may
be adjusted for distinctness of these bars.
While it is easy to modulate a signal generator at various audio fre-
quencies, it is difficult to modulate most models at radio frequencies
because the external-modulation input is strictly for audio. The linearity-
test-pattern generator shown in Figures 10-7, 10-8, and 10-9 uses the
operating principle just discussed and was developed as a self-contained
5 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “Home-Built Linearity Test Pattern Generator,”
Radio & Television News, August, 1950, p. 36.
 R=—F TEST OSCILLATORS AND SIGNAL GENERATORS 171

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172 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

source of both horizontal and vertical bars for all television channel
frequencies.
The instrument consists of a carrier oscillator, modulated by either a
variable-freyuency 6SN7 audio oscillator for horizontal lines, or a variable-
frequency 6C4 r-f oscillator for vertical lines. In order to handle both the
a-f and r-£ modulation, a crystal-diode modulator is employed following
the carrier oscillator.

FIc. 10-9 Inside View of the TV Linearity-Pattern Generator

The carrier oscillator covers the tuning range 50 to 100 mc. Tele-
vision channels 2 to 6 therefore are reached on fundamentals. Channels 7
to 13 are covered by harmonics of the carriér oscillator. The tuning range
is set by means of the iron slug in the carrier oscillator coil.
Tuning the horizontal oscillator, by means of rheostat Ry, will vary
the number of horizontal lines produced between 4 and 20. Tuning the
vertical oscillator, by means of capacitor Cy, will give a minimum of 8
and a maximum of 20 vertical lines. The dpdt switch S,, gives the
operator choice between horizontal and vertical lines. Smooth control
of output is afforded by potentiometer Rx. Tuning to the various channels
is provided by the carrier oscillator tuning control C3.

10.8 External Modulator for Signal Generators®

An unmodulated (CW) r-f oscillator or signal generator can be am-
plitude-modulated externally with the aid of a germanium-diode circuit
6 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “New Applications for Crystal Diodes,”
Radio & Television News, June, 1950, p. 64.
 R=—F TEST OSCILLATORS AND SIGNAL GENERATORS 173

similar to the modulator shown in the linearity-pattern generator (Section

10.7). Figure 10-10 shows the simple, tubeless modulator circuit.
The unmodulated r-f signal is fed into the circuit via terminals a and
b; the modulating signal into c and d. An amplitude-modulated r-f signal

0.002 pf 0.002 pf

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then is delivered by terminals e and f. The modulation percentage is

governed by the ratio between the two voltages applied to the 1N34
crystal diode.
Since the circuit employs no transformers, an r-f modulating voltage
may be used, if desired. Also, two audio voltages may be used, one
modulating the other.

10.9 Audio Extractor for Signal Generators’

Some amplitude-modulated signal generators do not make the audio
modulating voltage available for external use. Although this voltage is
useful for checking audio amplifiers, sound accessories, and for operating
some a-c bridges, the installation of an audio output jack by the operator
is not always advisable, since the oscillator shielding may be impaired.
The simple crystal-diode circuit shown in Figure 10-11 is used
externally to extract the audio component from the modulated r-f output
of the signal generator. This is a shunt-type demodulator which strips the
audio from the r-f carrier and delivers it to the AUDIO OUTPUT
terminals.

7 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “Audio Extractor for Signal Generators,”

Radio Service Dealer, January, 1948, p. 19.
174 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

10.10 Calibration of Signal Generators

Four methods of calibrating r-f test oscillators and signal generators
are in general use. The particular method used depends upon the equip-
ment available to the technician. They are (1) checking against a fre-

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FIG. 10-11 Audio Extractor for Signal Generators

quency standard, (2) checking against another signal generator, (3) check-
ing against standard frequency broadcasts from the National Bureau of
Standards, and (4) checking against radio transmitting stations. In each
instance, the unmodulated output of the signal generator must be used.

Checking against Frequency Standard

The frequency standard is an accurate, high-stability, single-frequency
oscillator (crystal or self-excited) usually operated at 50, 100, or 1,000 kc.
The fundamental and harmonic frequencies of this oscillator form a
series of accurate spot frequencies spaced apart by the amount of the
fundamental frequency. Thus, the 100-kc standard provides a checking
frequency point at every 100 kc.
The frequency standard and the signal generator under test are
coupled to a mixer which, in turn, is coupled to a zero-beat indicator. The
mixer may be a radio receiver covering the frequency range of the signal
generator, or it may be the simple crystal-diode circuit shown in Figure
10-10. The most satisfactory receiver for this purpose is the tuned-radio-
frequency (t-r-f) type, since the superhet produces image frequencies which
can be misinterpreted as checking points. When a receiver is used, both
the frequency standard and signal generator are connected to its antenna
input terminals with a 0.001-yf capacitor in series with the output lead of
each instrument. If the crystal mixer (Figure 10-10) is used, it must be
followed by an audio amplifier having a voltage gain of at least 20, since
.
 R—F TEST OSCILLATORS AND SIGNAL GENERATORS 175

its output is too feeble to operate most zero-beat indicators. The zero-beat
indicator may be high-resistance headphones, a-c VI VM, oscilloscope, or
magic eye.
If the receiver is used, it is tuned successively to each point corre-
sponding to the fundamental and the harmonics of the standard fre-
quency, the signal generator is adjusted for zero beat at each point, and
the generator dial settings noted. For example, using a 100-kc frequency
standard, the receiver and generator would be set to 100 kc, 200 kc, 300 kc,
and so on, to the highest frequency at which the 100-kc points could still
be detected. Care must be taken to ascertain that the generator is not set
to a harmonic or subharmonic of the checking frequency. In this con-
nection, it is good practice to investigate three spot-frequency points—the
apparent desired point, the next lower, and the next higher. The correct
point usually is by far the strongest of the three.

Checking against Another Generator

The procedure for checking one signal generator against another is
the same as that outlined in the preceding section, except that a calibrated
signal generator is substituted for the frequency standard.
Only fundamental frequencies are used in this test. The standard
signal generator is set to the desired frequency. The generator under test
then is tuned for zero beat, and its dial setting noted. Here, as in the
preceding case, the correct frequency setting will give the strongest signal
before zero beat, harmonics and subharmonics being somewhat weaker.

Using Standard Frequency Broadcasts

Carrier frequencies accurate to 1 part in 10 million are broadcast
regularly from the radio stations of the National Bureau of Standards on
2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 mc. Transmission schedules may be found
in the radio magazines, especially QST.
To use these broadcasts for signal generator calibration: (1) Tune
in the standard-frequency signal carefully. (2) Connect the signal genera-
tor to the antenna input terminals of the receiver through a 50-yyf series
capacitor. (3) The standard-frequency signal normally is amplitude-
modulated, but the modulation is interrupted for a short time every
few minutes. During the unmodulated interval, set the signal generator
to zero beat with the standard-frequency fundamental, and then for zero
beat with the generator set to various submultiples of this frequency. Note
the generator dial settings. Thus, if the 5-mc standard-frequency signal is
used, the generator may be set to 5, 2.5, 1.25 me, etc. The receiver loud-
speaker may be used for zero beating, or (for greater accuracy of indica-
tion) a visual zero-beat indicator (such as a-c VI'VM, oscilloscope, or
magic-eye tube) may be connected in parallel with the speaker voice coil.
176 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Using Radio Station Carriers

When conditions prohibit use of one of the other methods, a fairly
accurate calibration of the signal-generator dial may be obtained by zero-
beating the generator frequencies or their harmonics against known radio
station carriers. This adjustment must be made during an interval when
there is no modulation on the station carrier; otherwise zero beat will be
difficult to recognize.
Any station with a known carrier frequency may be used in this
manner. Highest accuracy will be obtained with standard broadcast
stations, however, since their carriers are maintained, by Federal Com-
munications Commission (FCC) regulation, within plus or minus 20 cps
of assigned values.

Review Questions

1. If an r-f test oscillator supplies second harmonic signals on its

51-150-mc band, what are the actual frequencies at which this oscillator
operates?
2. Will the same small capacitance change in the tuned circuit of a
sweep oscillator cause a greater frequency change at the low- or high-
frequency end of the oscillator tuning range?
3. In an FM signal generator, an adjustable oscillator is tuned to 2
me, and a fixed oscillator is operated at 800 kc. A difference-frequency out-
put is used. The fixed oscillator is swept.10 kc on each side of its center
frequency. (A) What is the output signal frequency? (B) To what upper
and lower frequencies is the output frequency swept?
4. The television sweep generator described in Section 10.4 has a
top output frequency of 230 mc. To what upper and lower frequencies
is this output frequency swept when switches SJA and S/B are in their W
position?
 I
Audio Test

Oscillators

11.1. Simple Single-Frequency Audio Oscillators

Many tests in which an a-f voltage is used require only one test fre-
quency. The complexity and bulk of a variable-frequency signal genera-
tor consequently can be avoided. One familiar application of this kind
is the supplying of operating voltage to an a-c bridge. Section 8.5, Chapter
8, describes a single-frequency bridge oscillator intended for that specific
purpose.
A veritable multitude of single-frequency oscillators has been devel-
oped and is in current use. Figure 11-1 shows three representative circuits
which may be placed into operation quickly and economically.
A so-called transformer-coupled oscillator is shown in Figure 11-1(A).
Actually, this is a Hartley oscillator with a secondary winding provided
for output coupling. The frequency of oscillation is determined by the
inductance L of the primary winding of the transformer, and the capaci-
tance C in parallel with it. Values shown are for a frequency of approxi-
mately 400 cps. The frequency may be lowered by increasing the value of
C, and raised by decreasing C. The distributed capacitance of the primary
winding of the transformer lafgely limits the high frequency which may
be reached. Adjustment of the grid resistor will improve the output wave-
form. The 100,000-ohm resistor in series with the output control reduces
the detuning effect of output loads.
The circuit in Figure 11-1(B) uses an iron-cored choke coil L and a
parallel capacitor C to determine the operating frequency. The frequency
of any L-C combination available to the builder may be determined by
calculation or by reference to a reactance chart. Frequency is equal to
177
178 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

1/(6.284/LC); where frequency is in cycles, L in henrys, and C in farads.

Because of the way in which output voltage is taken from across the tank
circuit of this oscillator, there is some tendency for the external load to
detune the oscillator, but this effect is reduced by the 500,000-ohm resistor
in series with the output control.

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FIG. 11-1 Single-Frequency Audio Oscillators

Resistance-capacitance-tuned oscillators are popular in audio tech-

nology, since they require no iron-cored components and are inexpensive
and compact. For single-frequency operation, the phase shift oscillator
offers the advantages of good output waveform, high output voltage, and
small physical size. In this type of oscillator, a resistance-capacitance net-
work is connected between the plate and grid of a tube to introduce the
180 deg of phase shift (at the desired frequency) required for oscillation.
>
 AUDIO TEST OSCILLATORS 179

Figure 11-1(C) shows one type of phase-shift oscillator.1 Here, the

phase-shift network consists of three resistance-capacitance (RC) sections
(C1 and R1, C2 and R2, and C3 and R3) connected in cascade. Each sec-
tion introduces 60 deg of phase shift; all three 180 deg. The values given
in Figure 11-1(C) are for an operating frequency of approximately 400 cps.
The values of C1, C2, C3, RI, R2, and R3 may be changed for other fre-
quencies. Some designers favor four RC arms, each introducing a 45-deg
phase shift. The tangent of the phase angle = 1/(6.28 f CR); where f is in
cps, R in ohms, and C in farads.

11.2 Principle of the RC-tuned Variable-Frequency Oscillator

Most modern, variable-frequency audio oscillators and signal genera-
tors use a resistance-capacitance type of circuit and achieve variable-
frequency operation by varying continuously either the resistance or
capacitance elements. In all RC oscillators, several resistances or capaci-
tances must be adjusted simultaneously in order to vary the frequency.
Thus, in the phase-shift oscillator [Figure 11-1 (C) ], all three capacitances
(C1, C2, and C3) or all three resistances (RJ, R2, and R3) would have to
be varied simultaneously. The tracking between the adjusted elements, at
all settings, must be good; otherwise the network characteristics will not
be varied properly. The problem of tracking becomes more serious as
the number of variable elements increases. For that reason, the phase-
shift oscillator, with its three variables, seldom is used for variable-
frequency operation.
A more convenient circuit for variable-frequency operation is the
Wien bridge oscillator. (See Section 8.5, Chapter 8.) Only two capaci-
tances or two resistors need variation in this circuit in order to change
frequency. It is much easier to obtain good tracking between two ele-
ments than between a larger number. While either the resistances or the
capacitances may be varied, better tracking is obtained in commercial
two-gang variable capacitors than in ganged variable resistors. For this
reason, capacitance variation is employed universally.
Standard practice is to use a 10-to-1 variation in capacitance. This
produces a 10-to-1 frequency change. But since this change is insufficient
to cover the useful audio spectrum, several ranges are provided by switch-
ing in fixed values of the bridge resistors in pairs. The oscillator thus
can be made to cover the audio spectrum in three convenient ranges: 20
to 200, 200 to 2,000, and 2,000 to 20,000 cps. Some laboratory instruments
provide additional ranges which allow a complete coverage from 0.5 cps
to 200 kc.
The Wien bridge oscillator, as a variable-frequency unit, has low

1 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “Phase Shift Oscillator,” Radio & Television
News, October, 1950, p. 112.
180 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

distortion, in some instruments amounting to less than 1% total. This is

a decided advantage in an instrument which may be used in distortion
measurements on other equipment.

11.3 Kit-Type Audio Signal Generator

The Wien bridge variable-frequency oscillator described in the pre-
ceding section is used as the basis of the kit-type audio signal generator?
shown in Figures 11-2 and 11-3.

FIG. 11-2. Kit-Type Audio Signal Generator

Courtesy The Heath Co.

This instrument covers the ranges 20 to 200, 200 to 2,000, and 2,000
to 20,000 cps. The frequency-determining Wien bridge is connected
between the plate of 6K6 tube V2 and the control grid of 6J7 tube V1.
The main components of the bridge are resistors RI to R6 and the ganged
tuning capacitor, C3-C4. The tuning capacitor consists of four 400-yyf
sections, two of the sections being connected in parallel for C3 and two
for C4. This makes C3 and C4 each 800 pyf maximum. The 50-pyf
trimmers, CI and C2, are used to compensate for capacitance between
chassis ground and the frame of C3-C4 and for stray-circuit capacitance.
Oscillation results from positive feedback through the Wien bridge. For
stabilization, negative feedback is brought through the 3,600-ohm resistor
from the 8-uf 6K6 plate-coupling capacitor through the tungsten lamp,
PL. The 6J7 cathode is tapped to the junction between the lamp and the

2 Heathkit Model AG-7, The Heath Company, Benton Harbor, Mich.

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182 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

resistor. The nonlinear resistance of the lamp filament regulates the

amount of negative feedback (very large changes in lamp current are
required for a small change in the voltage drop across the lamp).
A particular feature of this generator circuit is its ability to supply
either a sine-wave or square-wave audio output voltage. When switch $2
is in its position A, as shown in the diagram, the sine-wave output of the
oscillator (VI and V2) is fed directly to the grid of the output amplifier
tube, V4, and is available at the OUTPUT terminals. When switch S2 is
in its position B, the sine-wave output of V2 is applied to the 6SL7 clipper
stage. Because the applied signal overdrives this stage, the positive and
negative peaks are clipped from the sine-wave signal and a square wave
results. The square wave then is applied by $2 to the grid of V4 and is
available at the OUTPUT terminals.
The output amplifier contains two 6J5 tubes, V4 and V5. The first
tube, V4, is cathode-coupled to the second 6J5, V5. When the output
switch, $3, is in its HIGH-IMP. position (15,000-ohms output), output
voltage is taken from the plate of V5 through an 8-yf coupling capacitor.
When S$? is in its LOW-IMP. position (700-ohms output), output voltage
is taken from the cathode of V4 through a 100-yf coupling capacitor. Sine-
wave output voltage at 1% distortion is 1 v across 10,000 ohms, 5 v across
33,000 ohms, and 10 v across 100,000 ohms at the high-impedance setting
of $3. At the low-impedance setting of $3, the same quality of signal is
obtained at 0.5 v across 500 ohms, 1 v across 1,000 ohms, and 1.5 v across
2,000 ohms. Lower distortion is secured at lower voltages with both low-
and high-impedance output. The square-wave range is 60 to 6,000 cps
with good squareness. Smooth, continuous control of output, with both
sine-wave and square-wave signals, is obtained by adjustment of the
100,000-ohm OUTPUT CONTROL potentiometer.

11.4 Calibration of Audio Oscillators

A setup for calibrating audio oscillators with the aid of an oscillo-
scope is shown in Figure 11-4. The oscillator under test is connected to
the vertical amplifier input terminals of the oscilloscope. The horizontal
amplifier input terminals are connected to an oscillator known to be
accurately calibrated. The internal sweep of the oscilloscope is switched off.
The standard oscillator is set to a desired checking frequency. The
oscillator under test then is tuned carefully until a stationary circle ox
ellipse [Figure 11-5(A)] appears on the screen. At that point, the fre-
quency (f,) of the oscillator under test equals the frequency (f,) of the
standard oscillator. Any desired number of frequency points may be
checked in this manner.
If a variable-frequency oscillator is not available as a standard, an
accurately known single frequency may be applied to the horizontal input
 AUDIO TEST OSCILLATORS 183

of the oscilloscope. The single circle [Figure 11-5(A)] then will be obtained
when the oscillator under test is set exactly to the frequency of the stand-
ard. When the oscillator is set to integral multiple or submultiple fre-
quencies, stationary patterns similar to the others in Figure 11-5 will be
OSCILLOSCOPE
OSCILLATOR STANDARD
UNDER TEST OSCILLATOR
( F;) : ( fe)
Vertical Horizontal
Amplifier Amplifier
Input Input
Terminals Terminals
SS 4

FIG. 11-4 Method of Calibrating an Audio Oscillator with Lissajou’s Figures

obtained. When the oscillator frequency is an integral multiple of the

standard frequency, the successive loops of the pattern will lie along a
horizontal line (as in B, C, and D). When the oscillator frequency is an
integral submultiple, the loops will be stacked vertically (as in E, F, and

«) i Re ee)

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figure by which the standard frequency must be multiplied or divided,
as the case may be, to obtain the unknown frequency. A 60-cps signal,
for example, might be applied to the horizontal axis of the oscilloscope
184 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

as a standard frequency, whereupon Figure 11-5(A) would indicate that

the oscillator is set to 60 cps, B to 120, C to 180, D to 240, E to 30, F to 20,
and G to 15.
When using Lissajou’s figures, in the manner just described, to
identify audio frequencies, the difficulty in counting the loops accurately
becomes more pronounced as the ratio between the two frequencies in-
creases. This condition is relieved by using the circuit shown in
Figure 11-6.

ere TSE OSCILLO- TO INTENSITY

MODULATION INPUT
TRANSFORMER SCOPE
\
\
\
\

Y Horizontal
7 Amplifier
STANDARD Input
FREQUENCY
INPUT

(fo)
Vez
oe
Ground OSCILLATOR
50,000 ~~ goals UNDER TEST
Ohms i nae (+, )
Vertical Amplifier Input

Va geen
(A) Spit FOSS ae
SETUP FOR SPOT WHEEL Sf \" (B)
CALIBRATION PATTERN 4a] \12 SPOT WHEEL
at Jis PATTERN
oN A14
~ =e 415
18 47 16

Fic. 11-6 Method of Calibrating an Audio Oscillator with a Spotwheel Pattern

In this method of frequency comparison, (1) the internal sweep of

the oscilloscope is switched off. (2) The standard-frequency signal is
applied to the oscilloscope through a phase-shifting network, RC, the
resistor being adjusted carefully for a circle pattern on the screen. (3) The
signal from the oscillator under test then is applied to the INTENSITY
MODULATION input of the oscilloscope. The unknown signal “punches
holes” at intervals around the rim of the circle pattern, dividing the cir-
cumference into a number of segments and giving the spot-wheel pattern
shown in Figure 11-6(B). (4) The unknown frequency then is determined
by counting the number of segments around the rim, and multiplying
the standard frequency by that number. (5) When the oscillator fre-
quency is known to be lower than the standard frequency, interchange
 AUDIO TEST OSCILLATORS 185

the oscillator under test and the standard-frequency source in the circuit
of Figure 11-6(A), and perform the calculation on the oscillator fre-
quency [thus, if the instruments are interchanged, the spot wheel in
Figure 11-6(B) then would show that f, is 18f,]. (6) When one frequency
has exact integral relation with the other, the wheel will stand still. When
the exact integral relationship is not present, the wheel will rotate.
The phase-shifting network characteristics [Figure 11-6(A)] must be so
chosen that the resistance is equal to the reactance of the capacitor. The
variable resistor makes it possible to adjust for this relationship over a
certain frequency range. At some frequencies it may be necessary to change
C as well. ‘

Review Questions

1. What is the operating frequency of the audio oscillator of Figure

11-1(A) if inductance L is 1 h and capacitance C is 0.01 pf?
2. What Lissajou pattern is obtained in audio-oscillator calibration
with an oscilloscope when the standard frequency is 100 cps and the
unknown frequency 200 cps?.
3. If a spot-wheel oscilloscope pattern is used in audio-oscillator
calibration, and the standard frequency is 60 cps, what is the unknown
oscillator frequency when thirteen spots appear around the rim of the
wheel?
4. When three vertical “loops” are obtained as a Lissajou figure in
calibrating an audio oscillator with an oscilloscope, and the standard
frequency is 60 cps; what is the oscillator frequency?
5. How many “loops” must be present in a Lissajou figure if the
standard frequency is 50 cps and the frequency of an oscillator under test
is 1,000 cps?
 [2
Frequency-Measuring Devices
for Radio Frequencies

12.1 Wide-Range Absorption Wavemeters

The absorption wavemeter is the simplest instrument for measuring
radio frequencies. Figure 12-1 shows its simple circuit, which consists of
a coil and variable capacitor connected in series. On the basis of a
calibration, the capacitor dial may be graduated directly in kilocycles or
megacycles.

PLUG-IN Tuning capacitor

COIL slPhong? tae
td frequency -calibrated
SSS dial

FIG. 12-1 Absorption Wavemeter Circuit

The wavemeter is used by coupling it loosely to the transmitter or

receiver being checked, and tuning it for.a dip in the receiver or trans-
mitter response or for interruption in receiver or transmitter operation.
The dip or interruption is caused by absorption of a small amount of
r-f energy by the wavemeter from the circuit under test when the two are
tuned to the same frequency. At this point the unknown radio frequency
is read from the wavemeter dial.
By proper choice of tuning capacitor and by using plug-in coils, a
wide frequency range may be covered. A 500-pyf capacitor with a mini-
mum capacitance of 20 pyf, for example, will cover the range 100 kc to
186
 FIG. 12-2 Group of Absorption Wavemeters

56 mc with the plug-in coils listed in Table 12-1. All coils are wound on
l-inch-diameter forms of bakelite, ceramic, or polystyrene, with the ex-
ception of the 100-500-kc coil which is a commercial unshielded 5-mh
radio-frequency choke.

TABLE 12—1

Range Coil Specifications

100 to 500 kc 5-mh lattice-wound choke with powdered-iron core.
500 to 2,500 kc . 91 turns No. 30 enameled wire close wound on 1-inch—
diameter form.
2.5 to 12.5 mc 30 turns No. 20 enameled wire close wound on 1]-inch—
diameter form.
11 to 56 mc 5 turns No. 20 enameled wire on 1-inch—diameter form.
Spread to winding length of 1 inch.

Wavemeter Calibration -
Absorption wavemeters may be calibrated with the aid of a lightly
oscillating regenerative receiver and a series of accurately known r-f
signals picked up from the air or delivered by a frequency standard. The
receiver is tuned sharply to a desired signal. The wavemeter then is
coupled loosely to the receiver grid coil by holding one about an inch from
the other. The wavemeter dial is adjusted until a sharp “plop” is heard
in the headphones or loudspeaker. Sharper tuning of the wavemeter and
188 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

less detuning effect upon the receiver may be obtained by decreasing the
coupling between wavemeter and receiver. At this absorption point the
corresponding signal frequency should be inscribed on the wavemeter
dial. Other checking frequencies then are tuned in and the operation
repeated until a sufficient number of dial points is obtained.
Absorption wavemeters may be checked also by means of a calibrated
r-f oscillator in whose grid circuit a d-c milliammeter or microammeter
has been connected. The wavemeter is coupled loosely to the oscillator
coil, and the oscillator set to a desired checking frequency. The wave-
meter then is tuned for a sharp dip in the milliammeter deflection,
indicating resonance between oscillator and wavemeter. The oscillator
frequency at that setting then is inscribed on the wavemeter dial, and the
operation repeated at a number of other frequencies.

12.2 Grid-Dip Oscillator

The absorption wavemeter may be used only to check circuits in
which r-f energy is present. A very convenient’ device for measuring the
resonant frequency of “dead” circuits is the grid-dip oscillator. This

FIG. 12-3 Wide-Range Grid-Dip Oscillator

Courtesy James Millen Mfg. Co., Inc.

instrument is nothing more than a simple, all-wave, tunable r-f oscillator

with a d-c microammeter connected in its grid circuit. For reasons of
economy, a magic-eye tube sometimes is used in place of the meter.
 FREQUENCY—MEASURING DEVICES FOR RADIO FREQUENCIES 189

The oscillator coil is coupled loosely to the tuned circuit under test,
and the instrument tuned carefully. When the oscillator frequency cor-
responds to that of the tuned circuit, the latter (acting as a wavemeter)
will absorb a small amount of energy from the oscillator, causing the
meter to dip sharply. At the point of complete dip, the frequency of the
circuit under test is read from the tuning dial of the grid-dip oscillator.

0.0001 pf Cc
PLUG-IN
COIL FOR
DESIRED
FREQUENCY
RANGE

_- 0.0001 pt
0.002 pt

90-200 V.
a D-C

FIG. 12-4 Circuit of Simple Grid-Dip Oscillator

Since the grid-dip oscillator generates a radio frequency signal, this

instrument may be used also as an emergency variable-frequency r-f test
oscillator. Its use in checking capacitance is described in Section 6.5,
Chapter 6; and in checking inductance in Section 7.4, Chapter 7. Figure
12-3 shows a commerctal grid-dip oscillator! with a set of plug-in coils to
cover the range 1.5 to 300 mc. Additional coils extend the frequency
coverage downward to 220 kc. Figure 12-4 shows a typical grid-dip
oscillator circuit.

12.3. Lecher Frame for Frequency Measurements

A specialized sort of absorption wavemeter for the measurement of
high radio frequencies is the Lecher frame, also called Lecher wires, illus-
trated in Figure 12-5. This device consists of a “hairpin” formed from
stiff, solid wire or metal rod. The wires usually are separated by about
2 inches, and the semicircular bend serves as a loop for inductive coupling
to the receiver or transmitter under test. The tuning element is a straight
short-circuiting bar which slides along the wires and makes tight contact
with them. The hairpin length usually is between 3 and 6 feet, although
it may be longer if the wires can be supported rigidly and kept uniformly
separated.

1 Model 90651, James Millen Mfg. Co., Inc., Malden, Mass.

190 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

In operation, the loop is coupled loosely to the tank circuit of an

ultra-high-frequency (u-h-f) transmitter or to the grid coil of an oscil-
lating u-h-f receiver. Starting at one end of the frame, the slider is moved
along the wires carefully until the plate milliammeter in the transmitter
is deflected sharply from its normal reading, or a sharp plop is heard in
the headphones or loudspeaker of the receiver. The position of the slider
is noted. The slider then is moved farther along the wires in the same
direction until a second response point is located. The distance between
the two points is measured and is equal to 4 the wave length of the
receiver or transmitter under test. If the distance between adjacent
response points is measured in meters, the signal frequency in megacycles
may be determined by dividing 150 by the number of meters.

COUPLING _— STANDOFF INSULATOR

/ LOOP

l
SLIDING SHORTING BAR

INSULATING BASE --~

Fic. 12-5 Lecher Frame

The coaxial wavemeter used for microwave frequency measurements

is a variation of the same idea. This instrument essentially is a short
length of transmission line, consisting of an outer metal cylinder and a
threaded inner metal rod coaxially mounted. A movable metal disc is
threaded onto the rod and short-circuits the inside of the cylinder to the
rod. It is moved along the inside of the cylinder by turning the rod. This
short-circuiting disc thus corresponds to the short-circuiting slider of the
Lecher frame. As the disc is moved through the cylinder, response points,
similar to those noted with the Lecher frame, are passed through. Radio-
frequency energy is coupled into the coaxial wavemeter at one end by
means of a coaxial cable extending to the transmitter.

12.4 Self-excited Dual-Frequency Standard

Section 10-10, Chapter 10, described the use of a frequency standard
for calibrating r-f test oscillators and signal generators. The accurate
signal and harmonics furnished by a frequency standard may be used also
to calibrate radio receivers.
A stable, self-excited oscillator may be made the basis of a 100- and
 FREQUENCY—MEASURING DEVICES FOR RADIO FREQUENCIES 191

1,000-kc frequency standard. Accuracy and stability comparable to that

afforded by a two-frequency crystal can be obtained by allowing a 1-hour
warm-up period and calibrating the instrument against Bureau of
Standards broadcasts immediately before each test period.
Figure 12-6 is the circuit of a frequency standard of this type. This
instrument will generate either 100 or 1,000 kc, depending upon the posi-
tion of switch S.

0.002 yt

Ohms
100,000

100,000
Ohms

~~ METAL ut ‘e
SHIELD BOX
0.4
ut

ADJUST FOR
40 MA. THROUGH
S OC3 WITH
20 HY, 6AU6 REMOVED
75 MA. FROM SOCKET

S S

+ > :
|

TO 6AU6
6.3 V. ( HEATER ) 063” 2
\

=— Pilot Light ==
115 V. A-C Tost =

FIG. 12-6 Self-excited Dual Frequency Standard

The oscillator coil, L, is a 24 mh pi-wound r-f choke (5-pi type) with

a tap taken between the second and third pi’s from the ground end. It is
mounted firmly on ceramic standoff insulators. CJ is a 15-yyf ceramic-
insulated miniature air trimmer for the 1,000-kc adjustment. C3 is a
similar 150-ppf trimmer for the 100-kc adjustment, and is shunted with a
2 The National Bureau of Standards radio station WWV operates on radio fre-
quencies of 2.5 (night only), 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 mc from Washington, D.C. The
accurate carriers are modulated by 600 cps and 440 cps alternately, and by pulses spaced
1 sec apart.
192 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

900-ppf silvered-mica loading capacitor, C2. Trimmer capacitors CJ and

C3 are mounted through the top of a thick-walled metal box enclosing
the entire coil, capacitor, and switch circuit and provided with slotted
shafts for screw-driver adjustment.
This instrument is calibrated by means of standard-frequency signals
from the radio stations of the National Bureau of Standards. Coupling
leads are run between the R-F OUTPUT terminals of the frequency
standard and the antenna and ground terminals of the radio receiver used
to pick up the broadcasts. With switch S in its 100-kc position, trimmer
C3 is adjusted for zero beat with the 2.5- or 5-mc standard-frequency car-
rier. With S at its 1,000-kc setting, CZ is adjusted for zero beat with the
5- or 10-mc carrier. .

12.5 Crystal-Type Secondary Frequency Standard

The crystal-type frequency standard shown in Figure 12-7 delivers r-f
checking signals at both 100- and 10-kc intervals.
The foundation of the instrument is a 100-kc 6AQ5 crystal oscillator.

R-F
OUTPUT

Boke MULTI - MULTI- OUTPUT

Boone VIBRATOR VIBRATOR CONTROL
SYNC CONTROL ON-OFF
10,000 Ohms

= 300V. D-C +
REGULATED 6.3 V. A-C
(100 MA) (2 Amp.)

FIG. 12-7 Crystal-Type Secondary Frequency Standard

 FREQUENCY—MEASURING DEVICES FOR RADIO FREQUENCIES 193

The quartz crystal is ground to a frequency a few kilocycles higher than

100 kc, and is set exactly to 100 kc by adjusting trimmer capacitor C, for
zero beat with a standard-frequency carrier.
The oscillator is followed by a 12AX7 10-kc multivibrator. This cir-
cuit is synchronized, by adjustment of SYNC CONTROL R,, to one
tenth of the oscillator frequency. The multivibrator then has the accuracy
and stability of the crystal oscillator. Switch S$ allows multivibrator opera-
tion to be interrupted when the 10-kc spot frequencies are not required.
The final stage of the instrument is a 6C4 output amplifier which
serves to boost the output signal and to isolate the oscillator and multi-
vibrator from external loads. Potentiometer R, is the OUTPUT CON-
TROL. Nonlinearity of the current vs. voltage curve of the 1N34 ger-
manium diode in the plate circuit of the 6C4 stage introduces enough
distortion in the r-f output to emphasize the higher-frequency harmonics
of 10 and 100 ke.
The frequency standard requires a voltage-regulated d-c power supply
delivering 300 v d-c and capable of 100-ma output. Also required are 6.3 v
a-c, at 2 amp, for the tube heaters. The power supply may be made
integral with the instrument, provided the quartz crystal is mounted in a
heat-free section of the chassis.

Adjustment
(1) Allow the frequency standard to run continuously for 1 hour
before undertaking adjustment. (2) With a good radio receiver, tune in
one of the standard frequency transmissions of the National Bureau of
Standards. The 2.5- or 5-mc broadcast will be the most satisfactory for this
purpose. (3) Connect the R-F OUTPUT terminals of the frequency
standard to the antenna and ground terminals of the receiver. (4) Open
switch S. (5) During an unmodulated interval in the broadcast, adjust
trimmer C, for exact zero beat with the received carrier. Increase the out-
put, by means of potentiometer R,, if required. ‘The 100-kc oscillator now
is adjusted. (6) Disconnect the antenna from the receiver but leave the
frequency standard connected to it. (7) Tune the receiver through the
standard broadcast band, noting that successive 100-kc points from the
frequency standard are passed through. Since the receiver is not oscil-
lating, these points have the sound of “‘swishes.” If the receiver has a beat
(CW) oscillator, the latter may be switched on to give a whistle at each
100-kc point. (8) Select a pair of adjacent 100-kc points in a portion of the
receiver dial free from any external interference. Set potentiometer R,
for higher output if the points are not distinctly heard. (9) Set the receiver
dial to the lower of the chosen 100-kc points, close switch S$, and tune
toward the higher 100-kc point, noting that a number of intermediate
194 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

points now appear in between. (10) There should be exactly nine inter-
mediate points between the pair of 100-kc points. Each intermediate
point is somewhat weaker than the 100-kc points. If there are more or less
than nine intermediate points, the multivibrator is not operating on 10 ke.
If this is the case, adjust potentiometer R,, noting that the multivibrator
jumps abruptly to a new frequency, and again count the number of inter-
mediate points. Repeat the adjustment until the required nine inter-
mediate points are obtained. The multivibrator then will be set to 10 kc.

Operation
When switch S is open, the multivibrator is disabled. The interstage
coupling capacitors in series then will deliver 100-kc r-f from the oscil-
lator to the 6C4 amplifier and to the R-F OUTPUT terminals, and 100-kc
spot-frequency check points will be available for testing. When switch $
is closed, the 100-kc points still will be present, but in addition there also
will be 10-kc check points subdividing the interval between each two
adjacent 100-kc points. Because the 100-kc points are so much stronger
than the 10-kc points, the former readily are recognized.

12.6 Heterodyne Frequency Meter

A heterodyne frequency meter is a continuously variable instrument
which is useful for calibrating r-f oscillators and signal generators and for
checking transmitter frequency. It consists of a dial-calibrated variable-
frequency r-f oscillator (tunable over a range of fundamental frequencies
having useful harmonics in overlapping ranges far into the radio
spectrum), an untuned detector, and an audio amplifier. A zero-beat
indicator of some kind is connected to the amplifier output.
An r-f signal voltage of unknown frequency is introduced, through the
R-F INPUT terminals of the frequency meter, to the detector-grid cir-
cuit. Output of the calibrated oscillator also is presented to the detector
grid. The oscillator is tuned to zero beat with the unknown signal. If
the unknown frequency is within the fundamental frequency range of
the oscillator, its value may be read directly from the oscillator dial. If
the unknown is some harmonic of an oscillator fundamental, the dial
reading at zero beat is multiplied by the harmonic number. If the un-
known frequency is a subharmonic of an oscillator fundamental, the dial
reading is divided by the subharmonic number.
The circuit diagram for a heterodyne frequency meter is shown in
Figure 12-8. This arrangement, embracing a 6AU6 electron-coupled oscil-
lator, 6AU6 untuned detector stage, and 6C4 a-f amplifier, is tunable from
500 to 1,000 kc. The frequency coverage accordingly will be 1,000 to
2,000 kc on second harmonics; 1,500 to 3,000 kc on third harmonics;
2,000 to 4,000 kc on fourth harmonics, etc. The instrument also will cover

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196 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

250 to 500 kc on second subharmonics; 125 to 500 ke on third subhar-

monics, etc., etc.3
The unknown signal is introduced at the R-F INPUT terminals.
The A-F OUTPUT terminals are connected to headphones or some
other type of zero-beat indicator, such as an a-c VI'VM, oscilloscope, or
magic-eye tube. The main tuning control is capacitor C2, a 350-yyf vari-
able unit. The oscillator dial is attached to this capacitor. CJ is a
100-yp£ trimmer which is present during:the initial adjustment of the
instrument.

Fic. 12-9 Commercial Heterodyne 'Frequency Meter

Courtesy General Radio Co.

Initial Adjustment
(1) Switch on the instrument and allow a l-hour warm-up period.
(2) Set C2 to its high-frequency limit (rotor plates turned completely out).
(3) Feed an accurately known 1,000-kc signal into the R-F INPUT
terminals. ‘This signal may be taken from a frequency standard. (4) Adjust
trimmer CJ for zero beat, and do not touch this capacitor subsequently

3 Actually, no “subharmonics” of the frequency-meter signal are produced. How-

ever, harmonics of the signal whose frequency is being checked will beat against the
signal from the frequency-meter oscillator. For instance, the second harmonic of a 250-kc
signal can beat against the 500-kc frequency-meter signal, showing that the latter has
twice the frequency of the unknown signal.
 FREQUENCY—MEASURING DEVICES FOR RADIO FREQUENCIES 197

until such time as a recalibration is required. Mark this point 1,000 on

the C2 dial. (5) Tune C2 to zero beat with a 990-kc signal, and mark the
corresponding point on the C2 dial. (6) Repeat the operation every 10 kc
until the 500-kc point is reached.
Figure 12-9 shows a commercial heterodyne frequency meter? em-
ploying the same principle as the instrument just described but designed
expressly for u-h-f and very-high-frequency (v-h-f) measurements. This
instrument employs a butterfly-type variable-frequency r-f oscillator
tuning from 100 to 200 me, a silicon-crystal detector, and an output
amplifier having a 50-kc bandwidth. Because of the 100-200-mc funda-
mental tuning range of the oscillator, this instrument will check sub-
harmonics as low as 10 mc, and harmonics as high as 3,000 me.

Review Questions

1. A signal is tuned in with an absorption wavemeter at a point

three-quarters of the distance between the 10- and 12-mc points on the
calibrated dial of the wavemeter. What is the frequency of the signal?
2. What is the resonant frequency of a tuned circuit under test if
a grid-dip oscillator coupled to this circuit “dips” at a point six-tenths of
the distance between 2.5 and 2.6 mc on the dial of the oscillator?
3. The two response points obtained with a Lecher frame in check-
ing a high-frequency transmitter are 26 inches apart. What is the trans-
mitter frequency in megacycles? (Key: 1 meter = 39.37 inches.)
4. An unknown signal slightly higher than 1,000 kc is tuned in on a
radio receiver. A secondary frequency standard (supplying 100- and
10-kc points) is used to identify this signal, which is found to lie one-half
of the distance between the first and second 10-kc points just higher than
the 100-kc check point at 1,000 kc on the receiver dial. What is the
unknown-signal frequency?
4 Type 720-A, General Radio Company, Cambridge, Mass.

a
 Is
Frequency-Measuring Devices
for Audio Frequencies

13.1. Bridge-Type A-F Meter

Because of their time constants, relatively simple resistance-capaci-
tance circuits are frequency sensitive. When a suitable calibration is
made beforehand, this characteristic may be utilized to identify unknown
audio frequencies.
Of the various types of resistance-capacitance circuits, the Wien bridge
is one of the most suitable for frequency measurement, since it provides
a wide range and only two of its circuit components require simultaneous
adjustment for tuning. Its operation as a frequency-measuring device
accrues from the fact that this bridge has a separate null point for each
frequency.
Figure 13-1(A) shows the simplest Wien bridge-type a-f meter. In this
circuit, ratio arm R2 has twice the resistance of ratio arm RI. Capacitors
CJ and C2 are equal in value. R3 and R¢ are the sections of a dual ganged
rheostat. The resistance of these two arms of the bridge therefore are
equal at all settings. This ganged rheostat is the main control of the
bridge and carries the direct-reading frequency dial. Potentiometer R5
is a separate resistance balance which compensates for small differences
in tracking between R3 and R4, thus sharpening the null point obtained
first by adjustment of the dual rheostat. It does not affect the setting of
R3-R4. No dial is required for R5. A shielded input transformer, T,
couples the source of unknown frequency to the bridge. This component is
not critical in values. Jack J is provided for the convenient connection
of a null detector which may be headphones, although more accurate and
198
.
 FREQUENCY—MEASURING DEVICES FOR AUDIO FREQUENCIES 199
RS
RANGE:
25 to 10,000 CYCLES

eel ne R4
500,000

ae LOTTO INPUT

RANGES:
A. 20 to 200
CYCLES
B. 200 to 20,000
CYCLES
rm C. 2000 to
/ 20,000 CYCLES

0.00796
0.00796 f * | yt
a 0.0796 (B)

> INPUT

Fic. 13-1 Bridge-Type Audio Frequency Meter Circuits

-

sensitive null indications will be obtained with an a-c VI'VM, oscillo-

scope, or magic-eye tube.
This instrument covers the range 25 to 10,000 cps. A single rotation
of the dial of the dual rheostat gives this frequency coverage.
The circuit shown in Figure 13-1(A) will be satisfactory for most pur-
poses. However, there is considerable crowding of frequencies in the
upper portion of the R3-R4 dial. Better frequency separation may be
obtained by limiting the resistance covered by rotation of the dual
rheostat, and switching the capacitors in matched pairs to multiply the
lowest frequency range.
This improvement is accomplished in the circuit of Figure 13-1(B)
by reducing the maximum resistance of the dual rheostat to 10,000 ohms.
A basic frequency range of from 20 to 200 cps is obtained with a pair of
0.796-y£ capacitors. Switch S1-S2 selects these capacitors, as well as a pair
200 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

of 0.0796-p£ units for the 200 to 2,000 cps range, and a pair of 0.00796-p£
units for the 2,000 to 20,000 cps range. The other circuit components are
the same as in the previous circuit.

Calibration of A-F Meters

The best calibration will be obtained with an audio oscillator of
known accuracy. (1) Connect the oscillator output to the INPUT termi-
nals of the a-f meter. (2) Set the oscillator to the lowest meter frequency
[25 cps for Figure 13-1(A) and 20 cps for 13-1(B)]. (3) Connect a null
detector to jack J. (4) Adjust the ganged rheostat carefully for null. (5)
At null, adjust potentiometer R5 for a sharper null, and readjust R3-R#,
if necessary. (6) On the dial of the dual rheostat, mark this point to
correspond to the oscillator frequency. (7) Repeat the procedure at as
many frequencies as practicable, graduating the dial in cycles per second.
(8) If the circuit of Figure 13-1(B) is used, calibrate the lowest-frequency
range (Range A) first, B next, and C last.
If an audio oscillator is not available, a somewhat less accurate
calibration can be obtained by setting the dual rheostat carefully to
calculated resistance values corresponding to the various desired fre-
quencies and inscribing the dial accordingly. The resistance settings must
be measured with a resistance bridge which will give four-place readings.
The resistance required for a given frequency may be determined by
means of the equation:

Ere : (13A)
6.28fC
where R is the required resistance (ohms),
f, the desired frequency (cycles), and
C, the capacitance (farads).
Capacitance C refers to either C/ or C2, since both are equal.

Operation
(1) Connect the source of unknown frequency to the INPUT termi-
nals of the a-f meter. (2) Connect a null detector to the output jack.
(3) Adjust the dual rheostat carefully for null. (4) Adjust the resistance-
balance potentiometer (R5) for a deeper null. (5) Readjust the dual
rheostat, if necessary. (6) Make a final close adjustment of the dual
rheostat. (7) Read the frequency from the dial of the dual rheostat.

13.2 Electronic A-F Meter!

A meter-type instrument reading directly in cycles per second and
requiring no balancing adjustments nor manipulations of any kind in
1 Heathkit Model AF-1, The Heath Co., Benton Harbor, Mich.; digested “from
 FREQUENCY—MEASURING DEVICES FOR AUDIO FREQUENCIES 201

order to obtain readings, is shown in Figures 13-2 and 13-3. This instru-
ment covers the frequency range 0 to 100 kc in seven steps: 0 to 100, 0
to 300, 0 to 1,000, 0 to 3,000, 0 to 10,000, 0 to 30,000, and 0 to 100,000 cps.
Aside from the feature of direct frequency indications without opera-
tional adjustments, the electronic a-f meter has the following advantages.
The frequency indications are independent of the waveform of the un-
known signal over a wide range, and of the signal-voltage amplitude

Fic. 13-2 Electronic A-F Meter

a Courtesy The Heath Co.

between the limits of 2 and 300 v rms. Since response of the circuit is
linear, an indicating milliammeter with a linear scale may be used, and
only one frequency point (preferably at full scale of the meter) need be
calibrated in each range in the initial adjustment of the instrument. The
device has high input impedance which insures a minimum amount of
loading of the circuit under test.
The circuit (Figure 13-3) consists of an overdriven 6SJ7 voltage
amplifier followed by an overdriven 6V6 triode-connected power amplifier.
By driving the two amplifier tubes to saturation with the unknown
signal voltage, clipping action takes place in both stages, and the output
of the 6V6 consists of constant-amplitude square waves, regardless of the
input waveform over a wide range of shapes. Square-wave output of the
6V6 stage is changed to sharp positive and negative spikes by a resistance-
Rufus P. Turner, “A Direct-Reading Electronic Audio Frequency Meter,” Radio & Tel-
evision News, February, 1951, p. 54.
202 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

capacitance circuit and applied to a 6H6 switching tube which permits

only the negative spikes to pass through the d-c milliammeter. These
spikes have the same frequency as that of the unknown signal applied to
the input terminals of the instrument. But since they are of constant
6SuU7 ON yf 6V6 Ona 6H6
400,000 8 240,000 3 s
Ohms 3 Ohms eae
Y a y 5 = 01 S1
N ut BA
O. So : 4
ut oe Cc
96 cr

:
10 pt

=
° 4 D'O

ret] x -&
=
> M tos wes
y E 1
D-c | “BD
a
= 8
25 Eé 4.0 Meg. e .0001 1 MA. +
= of a * =is 6 a! HeL-.|~— aanne
© itO 8 05 esut 9 1 SW. =
Mm oh

JL i
onut 0.1 ut ay EE 200 Ohms is 220
oe.
=
; 470 ~- 470|2500] © | Rt
1

Ohms “A Ohms! Ohms |WH | po ; H

Ie ‘eo 1 O
x 2 | O
R3 p |
rb “ale pst : i
ut | | R4 O OO O
ON-OFF = OF S2 L O
e aS ak
| b

x R6

R7 /

= RANGES
A. 0-100 CYCLES
B. 0-300 CYCLES
C. Q-1000 CYCLES
D. O-3000 CYCLES
105-125 V E. 0-10,000 CYCLES
A-C 6X5 6SJ7 6V6 6H6 =e F. Q-30,000 CYCLES
50-60~ = G. 0-100 KC.

Fic. 13-3 Complete Circuit of the Electronic A-F Meter

Courtesy The Heath Co.

amplitude, the milliammeter deflection is proportional only to the num-

ber of spikes passing through it during each second. This deflection there-
fore is proportional to the frequency of the unknown signal.
The frequency ranges of the instrument are changed by means of
switch S$/-S2 which selects simultaneously a resistor and capacitor for the
differentiating network. The resistors (RJ to R7) each are 200-ohm
rheostats mounted inside the instrument case. They are adjusted only
during the initial calibration of the instrument.

Initial Adjustment
(1) Connect an accurate audio oscillator with 5—10-v rms output to
the INPUT terminals of the a-f meter. (2) Set the meter to its 0-100 cps
 FREQUENCY—MEASURING DEVICES FOR AUDIO FREQUENCIES 203

range. (3) Set the oscillator to 100 cps. (4) Adjust rheostat RJ for exact
full-scale deflection of the meter. (5) Change the oscillator frequency to
300 cps, change the instrument range to 0-300 cps, and adjust R2 for
full-scale meter deflection. (6) Repeat this operation for each range of
the a-f meter, setting the oscillator frequency each time to the full-scale
frequency of the meter, and adjusting the corresponding rheostat for
exact full-scale deflection. To calibrate the 0-100-kc range, use a 100-kc
frequency standard. (See Chapter 12.)

Operation
If the unknown signal voltage is sinusoidal, it must have an rms
value between 2 and 300 v. If it is nonsinusoidal, its peak value must be
between 3 and 300 v. (1) Set the frequency meter to its highest-frequency
range. (2) Connect the source of unknown frequency to the INPUT
terminals of the audio frequency meter. (3) Switch to each successively
lower frequency range, until deflection is obtained in the upper half of
the meter scale. (4) Read the frequency directly from the meter and the
range-switch setting.
The audio frequency meter may be used for the convenient measure-
ment of the frequency of oscillators, buzzers, vibrators, generators, com-
mutators, and other repetitive switching or contacting devices, beat notes,
frequency deviation between a test oscillator and a standard, etc. If a
high-output microphone having an output of 2 v or more is connected
to the INPUT terminals of the instrument, sounds emanating from horns,
chimes, bells, pitch pipes and other musical instruments, whistles, sirens,
etc. may be checked for frequency. Low-output microphones (such as
crystal and dynamic types) require a high-gain amplifier ahead of the a-f
meter. The time rate of recurrent mechanical phenomena may be checked
with the electronic frequency meter if the mechanical movement is con-
verted first into electrical impulses. Thus, a rotating shaft or wheel may be
provided with a transducer to feed the a-f meter, and its revolutions per
minute checked in terms of frequency.
Since response of the audio frequency meter is independent of signal
voltage amplitude between 2 and 300 v, the voltage or volume of the tone
under test can fade and vary considerably without causing any change
whatever in the reading of the meter.

13.3 Frequency Checking with Oscilloscope

Unknown frequencies may be measured by comparison with an audio
test oscillator or a single-frequency source, using Lissajou’s figures dis-
played on an oscilloscope screen. This technique is explained in Section
11.4, Chapter 11.
204 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Review Questions

1. In a Wien bridge-type a-f meter [Figure 13-1(A)], the capacitors

are 0.01 pf each. What is the resistance setting of the dual rheostat (R3-R#)
for a desired null frequency of 2,500 cps?
2. The null frequency of the Wien bridge-type a-f meter [Figure
13-1(A)] is determined from the equation: f = 1/(6.28 RC), where f is the
frequency in cycles, C the capacitance of each capacitor in farads, and R
the setting of dual rheostat R3-R4 in ohms. What is the null frequency in
kilocycles when both R3 and R# are set to 100 ohms and each of the
capacitors is 0.01 pf?
3. The capacitance required in a Wien, bridge-type, a-f meter may
be determined by interchanging R and C in Equation (13A). What
capacitance in micromicrofarads is required for a null frequency of 1,000
cps when R = 1,500 ohms?
 14
Audio-Amplifier
Testing Devices

14.1. A-F Signal Tracers

Signal tracers are useful in troubleshooting, since they allow the
checking of a circuit under dynamic operating conditions and use the
signal itself as the common denominator. Signal-tracing technique is
simple and straightforward: a suitable test signal is applied to the circuit
under test; and the signal tracer is used to check for presence, absence,
amplification, reduction, or distortion of the signal at various points in
the circuit, as it is moved along progressively from input to output. The
operator discovers quickly the point at which the circuit is not function-
ing normally, and his task then is narrowed down to finding which com-
ponents at that point are defective or misadjusted.
An a-f signal tracer is invaluable for troubleshooting in audio am-
plifiers. The following paragraphs describe several devices which may be
used for this purpose.

Headphone-Type Tracer r
The simplest a-f signal tracer is a pair of high-impedance headphones
connected in series with a blocking capacitor to prevent short-circuiting
d-c points in the amplifier under test. With this arrangement, the operator
simply listens for the test signal at various points in the amplifier and
appraises it by ear. A shielded test probe must be used, in order to isolate
the circuit under test from body capacitance and hum pickup. Figure 14-1
shows such a probe with a 0.1-uf blocking capacitor mounted close to the
prod tip. The shell (handle) of the probe is shielded with an inner
205
206 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Fic. 14-1 Simple A-F Signal Tracer Probe

cylinder of metal foil which is connected to the shield braid of the

flexible cable connecting the probe to the headphones.
The capacitance-coupled headphone type of signal tracer is a natural
selection in emergencies when instruments of other types are not available.
However, its disadvantages must not be ignored. (1) The relatively low
impedance even of high-resistance headphones tends to load the circuit
under test. (2) The human ear does not detect small changes in volume
accurately. (3) Lack of volume control in the tracer itself may cause
annoying discomfort when strong signals are checked.
The disadvantage of low impedance may be relieved considerably
by using crystal headphones, these units having more than 80,000 ohms
impedance at any frequency in the audio range. With slightly more com-
plication, a volume control may be added.

Headphone-Type Tracer with Volume Control

The improvements mentioned in the preceding paragraph have been
incorporated into the signal tracer shown in Figures 14-2 and 14-3.

Fic. 14-2 Headphone-Type A-F Signal Tracer

 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 207

A 1-meg volume-control potentiometer and headphone jack are

mounted in a small metal shield box. The shielded probe shown in
Figure 14-1 is used for signal exploration. Crystal headphones are em-
ployed for minimum loading of the volume control and the circuit under
test.
If visual instead of aural indication is desired, an acc VITVM or
oscilloscope may be plugged into the phone jack.

0.4 pf, 600 V. CRYSTAL

/ SHIELDED ~~~
HEADPHONES
——----_
7 CABLE
METAL BOX
SHIELDED PROBE
( See Fig. 14-1) PHONE JACK
\
=-----—

CLIP FOR
GROUND OR NEGATIVE
(CHASSIS) CONNECTION

FIG. 14-3 Circuit of the Headphone-Type A-F Signal Tracer

VTVM as A-F Signal Tracer

An a-c VIVM which will indicate low potentials in the millivolt
ranges, as well as voltages in excess of 100 v, is very convenient for a-f
signal tracing. This instrument will indicate not only the presence of
the signal but its amplitude as well. And its ability to respond to low
voltages makes possible the use of a test signal of a few millivolts, insur-
ing against overdriving the circuit under test. A shielded probe (Figure
14-1) should be connected to the “high” input terminal of the VIVM.
The high impedance of the VIVM almost completely eliminates
loading of the circuit under test. A highly satisfactory meter for this
application is described in Section 3.9, Chapter 3.

Amplifier as A-F Signal Tracer

A small resistance-capacitance-coupled audio amplifier with volume
control provides a highly sensitive a-f signal tracer with high-impedance
input. For aural indications, the amplifier output may include a small
loudspeaker. For visual indications, a simple a-c voltmeter or magic-eye
tube may be built in. A shielded test probe (Figure 14-1) will be required
for the input.
A great deal of latitude is possible in the design or selection of a
signal-tracing amplifier. Sensitivity, for example, is a matter of individual
preference. The amplifier gain should not be so high, however, that the
208 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

tracer picks up hum from surrounding a-c fields. A good amplifier lineup
is an input 6AU6 pentode with circuit constants for a voltage gain of
200, a 6C4 triode with circuit constants for a voltage gain of 10, and a
6AQ5 beam-power amplifier. Resistor and capacitor values for the stages
may be obtained from the resistance-coupled amplifier tables in tube
manuals. A 300-v d-c power supply will be required, and can be made
integral with the tracer-amplifier.
Any spare audio amplifier can be pressed into service as an a-f signal
tracer. It is imperative, however, both to minimize hum interference and
to prevent electric shock, that any amplifier used for signal tracing have
a transformer-type power supply. Transformerless (a-c/d-c) power sup-
plies are both dangerous and electrically unsatisfactory in this application.

Oscilloscope as A-F Signal Tracer

Since the oscilloscope essentially is a type of VI'VM, it may be used
to advantage in a-f signal tracing. A shielded probe must be connected to
the vertical amplifier input terminal; but no blocking capacitor is needed
in the probe, since one already is provided in the oscilloscope.
The oscilloscope has high input impedance, and it will show not only
the presence of a signal at a test point but the signal amplitude and wave-
form as well. In addition, it will reveal the presence of extraneous
phenomena, such as hum, oscillation, noise, and external-signal pickup
by the circuit under test. These features fit the oscilloscope ideally as an
a-f signal tracer.

14.2 Distortion Meter!

One of the most important considerations in appraising audio-
amplifier performance is how faithfully the amplifier transmits a-f signals.
Only distortion measurements can establish quantitatively the degree of
this fidelity.
Distortion tests enable the designer to check the effects of circuit
changes on reproduction. They are invaluable also to the service techni-
cian in determining the effectiveness of repairs and adjustments. In
routine maintenance work, the sudden appearance of small amounts of
distortion, usually not detected by ear, points to the beginning of trouble
in some circuit component.
There are several methods of measuring audio distortion. Of these
techniques, the fastest, as well as the simplest, is that of checking total
distortion. This means obtaining a figure expressing the combined dis-

1 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “Measuring Distortion,” Radio-Electronics,

December, 1951, p. 34.
 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 209

tortion due to all of the harmonics of a test frequency present in the out-
put of the amplifier under test. This figure shows what percentage of the
amplifier output voltage is harmonic voltage.
In a standard method of measuring total distortion, a sine-wave test
signal is applied to the amplifier. This signal must be as free as possible
from distortion. The amplifier output voltage is measured. This voltage
contains the fundamental-frequency component plus all of the harmonic
voltages introduced by distortion in the amplifier. The fundamental

xs FIG. 14-4 Distortion Meter

frequency then is removed from the amplifier output by means of a satis-

factory band-suppression filter. Any voltage remaining then is due only
to the total harmonics present. This voltage is measured and its ratio to
the first measured voltage is computed to obtain the distortion percentage.
It is very important that the filter remove the fundamental frequency
completely without seriously attenuating the harmonic voltage; otherwise
the calculated percentage will be in error. The bridged-T network, con-
sisting of a high-Q inductor, two matched capacitors, and a resistor,
has the desired filter characteristics and is widely used in distortion
meters.
Figures 14-4, 14-5, and 14-6 show a simple distortion meter applying
the principles just discussed. This instrument consists of a bridged-T
network (L-C1-C2-R1) followed by an a-c VITVM-millivoltmeter (a two-
210 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

0.5 yt GAIN
_ CONTROL
OF) _~” 500,000
rs Ohms

Meg.
1.8

Ohms
480,000

Ohms
20,000

PLUG-IN
FREQUENCY
NETWORK ;
estar
+
=
ri
1.5 V. 1.5 V.

FIG. 14-5 Complete Circuit of the Distortion Meter

Fic. 14-6 Inside View of the Distortion Meter

 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 211

stage amplifier driving a crystal voltmeter). The output terminals of the

audio amplifier under test are connected to the INPUT terminals of the
distortion meter. When switch SJ is in its position B, the VI'VM reads
the full output voltage (EJ) of the amplifier. When SJ is set to A, the
bridged-T network is introduced into the circuit and the VIVM reads
only the total harmonic voltage (£2). The total distortion in percent is
equal to 100 (E2/E1) . The voltmeter is linear. The 0-1 scale of the mil-
liammeter therefore can be used directly to read 0-1%, 0-10%, and
0-100% distortion, depending upon the setting of range switch $2. When
S2 is set to its 100% position and SI to position B, the input gain control

TABLE 14—1

Test Frequency Capacitors Cl and C2 Potentiometer R1

(Cps) (uf Each) (Ohms)
50 as 10,000
100 ] 10,000
200 0.250 50,000
300 0.110 50,000
400 0.064 50,000
500 0.040 100,000
600 0.028 100,000
700 0.020 100,000
800 0.016 100,000
900 0.0125 100,000
1,000 0.010 500,000
2,000 0.0025 500,000
3,000 ~ 0.0011 500,000
4,000 0.00064 2 meg
5,000 0.00040 2 meg

of the distortion meter may be adjusted to give full 100% reading of the
meter with l-v output from the amplifier under test. The milliammeter
then will read directly in per cent distortion when switch SJ subsequently
is thrown to position A, and S2 set to the proper range for good meter
deflection. In this case, no calculations will be required.
It is advisable to measure distortion at several test frequencies. For
this reason, provision must be made for changing the rejection frequency
of the bridged-T network. In order to do this easily, C1, C2, and R1 are
enclosed in a plug-in metal shield can. Different plug-in combinations
are made up according to Table 14-1 and enclosed in separate plug-in
cans. The C1, C2, and RJ values given in Figure 14-5 are for a test fre-
quency of 400 cps.
212 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Inductor L must have high Q, to prevent severe attenuation of the

harmonics which are to be measured. A Type VI-C15 inductor (U.T.C.)
is used. By employing plug-in capacitors and resistor, only one such induc-
tor is needed. Resistors R/ in the separate units are enclosed in the cans
and provided with slotted shafts for screw-driver adjustment, since they
will require no resetting after initial adjustment of the instrument.
Battery operation has been chosen, in lieu of operation from the
power line, in order to eliminate hum and noise at the low signal levels
at which the distortion meter is operated.

Initial Adjustment
If precision resistors are used in the three positions associated with
range switch $2 and in the crystal voltmeter circuit, no calibration or
adjustment of the VI'VM circuit will be required. The plug-in frequency
units each must be adjusted to corresponding operating frequencies. We
will give one example, that of the 400-cps unit: (1) Switch on the distor-
tion meter and allow about 5 minutes warm-up time. (2) Set an audio
oscillator to 400 cps and connect its output to the distortion-meter INPUT
terminals. (3) Plug in the 400-cps frequency unit. (4) Set switch $2 to its
100% position and advance the gain control so that a good deflection of
the meter is obtained. (5) Adjust potentiometer RJ in the frequency unit
for the lowest meter reading (complete null). (6) With an Allen wrench,
adjust the inductance setscrew in the inductor, L, for further improvement
in this null. (7) Do not disturb the setting of RI afterward unless a routine
recalibration is made. Also, do not disturb the setting of the inductance
tuning screw. (8) Successively plug in each of the other frequency units
and adjust each for null at its operating frequency (with the audio oscilla-
tor set to the same frequency) by adjustment of RJ only.

Operation
CHECKING OSCILLATOR DISTORTION: After warming up both the oscil-
lator and distortion meter for at least $ hour, connect the oscillator to
the distortion meter and set the oscillator output to the desired test level.
(1) Set switch $2 to its 100% position. (2) Plug in a frequency unit for the
desired test frequency and set the oscillator to that frequency. (3) Set
switch S/ to its position B and adjust the gain control for full-scale meter
deflection. (4) Set switch SJ to position A. (5) Set switch $2 successively
to lower ranges until an accurately readable meter deflection is obtained.
This deflection, together with the setting of switch $2, will indicate the
oscillator-distortion percentage directly. (6) Rock the oscillator dial back
and forth slightly for any improvement in the meter dip. (7) Repeat the
procedure at several settings of the oscillator output control, since oscil-
lator distortion often varies with output.
 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 213

CHECKING AMPLIFIER DISTORTION: Measuring the distortion of an

amplifier is similar to the procedure just given for checking an oscillator.
There is an important preliminary point, however, and that is to check
carefully the distortion of the oscillator which will be used to supply a
test signal to the amplifier. The oscillator distortion figure then must be
subtracted from any distortion figure obtained for the amplifier. When
checking a complete amplifier, connect the INPUT terminals of the dis-
tortion meter across the loudspeaker voice coil. If quiet operation is a
necessity, the voice coil may be replaced temporarily with a resistor having
the same ohmic value as the voicé-coil impedance and rated at twice the
power output of the amplifier.
To check the amplifier: (1) Connect the prechecked audio oscillator
to the amplifier input. (2) Connect the amplifier output to the distortion
meter. (3) Allow the oscillator, amplifier, and distortion meter to warm
up. (4) Plug in a distortion meter tuning unit for the first test frequency.
(5) Set the oscillator to the same frequency. (6) Set switch S2 to its 100%
position. (7) Set switch S/ to position B, set the amplifier gain control to
the desired test point, and advance the gain control of the distortion meter
for full-scale meter deflection. (8) Set switch SI to its position A, and
change the setting of $2 for an accurately readable meter deflection.
(9) Rock the oscillator dial to deepen the null. (10) Read the distortion
percentage from the meter deflection and the setting of $2. (11) Subtract
from this figure the distortion of the audio oscillator, previously deter-
mined. (12) Repeat the entire procedure at as many test frequencies and
at as many settings of the amplifier gain control as desired.

Special Note Regarding Low Test Voltages

When the oscillator or amplifier under test delivers an output
voltage of 1 v or higher, the distortion meter can be set initially to 100%.
Under this condition, 1% distortion may be read at full scale when the
range switch, S2, is at its 1% setting. On the same range, the first major
division of the meter scale (0.1-ma) indicates 0.1% distortion, and the
first small division, .0.02% distortion. If the input voltage to the distor-
tion meter is less than 1 v, but sufficient to allow the meter to be set
to full scale with switch S2*in its 10% position, then 10% distortion
is indicated at full scale when S2 is switched to its 1% position. When
the test voltage is too low to permit the meter to be set to full scale,
simply divide the final distortion figure, indicated by the meter, by
whatever distortion figure is indicated in the initial setting. For example,
with switch S2 at its 100% setting, the meter can be set initially to the
50% point. In the distortion measurement, with $2 subsequently set to
its 1% position, the meter indicates 0.5% distortion. The true indicated
distortion then is 0.5 divided by 50, or 1%.
214 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

14.3. Wave Analyzer”

Simple distortion meters are suitable only for measuring total har-
monic distortion. A detailed analysis of distortion, however, requires that
each harmonic in an amplifier output voltage be measured separately.
On the basis of such an analysis, the technician can state the percentage

FIG. 14-7 Heterodyne Wave Analyzer

Courtesy General Radio Co.

of second harmonic distortion present, third harmonic, fourth harmonic,

etc. The wave analyzer is the instrument used for the separate measure-
ment of each of a series of harmonics.
In order to perform its task, a wave analyzer must be capable of being
tuned continuously over the entire audio spectrum. It is tuned first to the
fundamental frequency of the test signal, and then to each successive
harmonic. Its selectivity must be so high that upon being tuned to one
frequency, no interference will be experienced from the other frequencies
2 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “Theory of Wave Analyzers,’ Radio News,
October, 1944, peas 2
 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 215

in the distorted wave. The voltage which the analyzer is tuned to accept
is displayed by the output voltmeter. In its functioning, the wave analyzer
resembles a selective radio receiver with an output meter, except that it
is used at audio instead of radio frequencies. Another point of view is
that the wave analyzer is a highly selective, tuned audio-frequency VT VM.
Two types of wave analyzer are in general use for distortion measure-
ments: the heterodyne type and the RC-tuned type. The heterodyne type
is the more complicated and expensive. In its circuit arrangement and
BALANCED
MODULATOR “
50 KC
RANGE
prose ESS /
7 SWitcH
one.
! 1

INPUT
AMPLIFIER
AND
PHASE
INVERTER

AMPLIFIER AND
V-T VOLTMETER-
poleeme ary eCHCATOR MILLIVOLTMETER
(Tuning Range: 34 to 49.98 KC)

Fic. 14-8 Basic Circuit of the Heterodyne Wave Analyzer

operation, it resembles a superheterodyne radio receiver. The RC-tuned

type is less complicated and expensive and resembles a tuned-radio-fre-
quency (t-r-f) recéiver, but is not as selective as the heterodyne type.
Figures 14-7 and 14-8 illustrate a commercial heterodyne wave ana-
lyzer.3 In the skeleton circuit diagram, Figure 14-8, power supplies and
associated components have been omitted for simplicity. In this instru-
ment, the a-f voltage (consisting of a fundamental frequency and a
number of harmonics) which is to be analyzed is applied to the input
amplifier and phase inverter. From the phase inverter the audio voltage
is delivered in push-pull to the grids (VJ and V2) of the balanced-
modulator stage. Also applied to the grids of the balanced modulator is
the r-f voltage from a continuously variable oscillator, tunable from 34 to
49.98 kc. This r-f voltage is referred to as the carrier.
T is a radio-frequency transformer and will not pass the input audio
frequency. However, heterodyne action between the audio and carrier
voltages produces sum-and-difference radio frequencies which are passed
by this transformer. The sum frequency is equal to the carrier plus the

3 Type 736-A, General Radio Company, Cambridge, Mass.

216 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

audio, while the difference frequency is the carrier minus the audio. Thus,
when a 1,000-cps audio voltage is applied to the input terminals of the
instrument and the r-f oscillator is tuned to 49 kc, a sum frequency (upper
sideband) of 50 kc and a difference frequency (lower sideband) of 48 kc
are present at the secondary of transformer T. The balanced modulator
is followed by a highly selective, three-crystal-type filter (comparable to
the i-f stage in a superheterodyne receiver) which, being pretuned
sharply to 50 kc, accepts and passes only the upper sideband.
Only the beat-note sum-and-difference frequencies may be permitted
at the secondary of transformer T. Since the.r-f carrier from the oscillator
is close in frequency to the filter frequency, the carrier must be suppressed
from the converter output. This is accomplished by using a balanced-
modulator stage instead of a conventional superheterodyne Ist detector.
How a balanced modulator accomplishes carrier suppression at the same
time that it mixes two signals is explained in this manner: The circuit is
symmetrical. The audio voltage is applied to the grids of VJ and V2 out
of phase (push-pull) and can appear at the tube plates but will not be
transmitted by the r-f transformer, T. The carrier voltage, on the other
hand, is applied to the grids in phase (parallel) and is canceled out of the
plate output by the circuit symmetry. (Balancing capacitor C and bal-
ancing potentiometer R are provided to compensate for mismatch
between the two tubes.) Neither the audio nor the carrier voltage there-
fore can appear at the secondary of T, only the upper and lower side-
bands which result from operation of the balanced modulator.
Whenever the r-f oscillator is set to a frequency equal to 50 kc minus
the frequency of the audio voltage applied to the input terminals of the
wave analyzer, a 50-kc voltage appears across the secondary of transformer
T and is transmitted with high selectivity. to the VIVM. Suppose, for
example, that the signal applied to the input terminals of the wave ana-
lyzer is the 100-cps output of an audio amplifier. This signal will contain
not only 100 cps but several harmonic frequencies due to distortion in the
amplifier. When the oscillator is set to 49,900 cps, a beat note of 50 kc is
produced, and the output voltmeter will read the strength of the 100-cps
fundamental. For the second harmonic (200 cps), the oscillator is set to
49,800 cps, and the VI'VM reads the strength of the second harmonic.
Similarly, the oscillator is set to 49,700 cps for the third harmonic (300
cps), to 49,600 for the fourth harmonic (400 cps), etc. The oscillator dial
accordingly can be graduated directly in a-f cycles per second correspond-
ing to the frequency of the input a-f signal. The oscillator dial is the main
tuning control of the wave analyzer and is the large dial seen in
Figure 14-7.
To use any wave analyzer, a low-distortion test signal of frequency f
is applied to the input terminals of the amplifier under test. The amplifier
 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 217

FIG. 14-9 R-C-tuned Wave Analyzer (Sound Analyzer)

Courtesy General Radio Co.

is terminated with its normal load and connected to the wave-analyzer

input terminals. The analyzer then is tuned to frequency f and its gain
control and meter range control are set for a meter reading of 100%. The
analyzer then is tuned to the second harmonic (2f) and the strength of
* $3620 Sas ca Ee Se ot Sa ae ee 7
TUNABLE---->4 '
R-C NETWORK! GO G2
1
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1 |

; eo :

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@ SS
| tana :
| Ganged R3
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AF Sis Dp ee | fp ep mr [ie 4
INPUT QI te

= Ss , =
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ul Hl emul HAN HII tt}

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FIG. 14-10 Basic Circuit of the R-C-tuned Wave Analyzer

this harmonic read directly in percentage from the meter scale, and to
each successive harmonic (3f, 4f, 5f, etc.) and the corresponding per-
centage read for each.
218 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Dotted curve shows 400-cycle

selectivity of Heterodyne
Wave Analyzer

Solid curve shows 400-cycle

selectivity of R-C Tuned
Wave Analyzer
.
‘

DECIBELS
IN
RESPONSE
RELATIVE

—60
100 200 500 1000
CYCLES

Fic. 14-11 Comparison of Selectivity of the Two Types of Wave Analyzer

The second type of wave analyzer is a selective, tunable audio am-

plifier. Like the heterodyne wave analyzer, this instrument may be tuned
first to the fundamental frequency of the test signal and then successively
to each of the several harmonics. An output VIVM reads the strength
of each of these components. Figures 14-9 and 14-10 illustrate an instru-
ment of this type.4
The circuit (Figure 14-10) consists basically of a three-stage direct-
coupled amplifier. Direct coupling gives this amplifier a substantially flat
frequency response throughout the audio spectrum. Negative feedback
then is introduced through a tunable resistance-capacitance network.
This latter is a null network; so degeneration occurs on all frequencies
except the null frequency of the network. The degeneration cancels the
amplifier gain on all but this frequency. The amplifier accordingly has
no transmission (or very little) except at this one frequency. By adjusting
the network constants, the pass frequency of the amplifier may be shifted
to any desired value throughout the audio spectrum. It is in this way
that the amplifier is tuned to different frequencies.
The tunable RC network is a parallel-T circuit consisting of CJ, C2,
C3, RI, R2, and R3. The values of the components are chosen such that
Cl = C2 = 3C3, and RI = R2 = 2R3. The expression for null frequency,
under these conditions, is similar to that of the Wien bridge. That is,
f = 1/(6.28 RI C1). In order to tune the network, all three capacitors or
all three resistors must be varied simultaneously and must track at all
4 Type 760-B, General Radio Company, Cambridge, Mass.
 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 219

settings. The capacitors are large for audio frequencies; so it becomes

more practical to vary the three resistors in a ganged setup. The maximum-
resistance values are kept low enough to permit the use of stable wire-
wound rheostats. This results in lower frequency coverage with a given
set of capacitors; so capacitors are switched into the circuit in matched
sets of three to change the frequency ranges. Ranges of the instrument
shown in Figure 14-9 are 25 to 75, 75 to 250, 250 to 750, 750 to 2,500, and
2,500 to 7,500 cps.
Figure 14-11 shows a graphic comparison between the selectivity of
the two types of wave analyzer. Operation at 400 cps is shown. Note that
response of the RC-tuned instrument is down about 36 db at the second
harmonic (800 cps) and at 200 cps, while that of the heterodyne instru-
ment is 60 db down at approximately 50 cps each side of 400 cps.

14.4 Square-Wave Generator

The audio signal generator described in Section 11.3, Chapter 11, also
delivers square waves for audio testing. The square-wave generating cir-
cuit in Figure 14-12 is presented for the benefit of technicians who may

42AX7 eee
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ELECTRO- x 100,000 ode
LYTIC 50,000 Ohms 500 S
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1000 3000
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—— 5W. SW.
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ELECTROLYTIC ELECTROLYTIC
=o ee 250-350 V., 75 MA.
115 V, A-C EACH SIDE OF CENTER TAP

Fic. 14-12 Square-Wave Generator

220 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

own sine-wave audio oscillators only and require a source of square waves
which may be operated from the oscillator. This circuit delivers square
waves of good shape between 60 and 5,000 cps.
The circuit essentially is a four-stage amplifier of special design. The
two triodes of the 12AX7 tube are direct-coupled and form a clipper.
Clipping action results from overdriving by the sine-wave signal, derived
from the oscillator and applied to the SINE-WAVE INPUT terminals.
The resulting square wave then is delivered to the cathode-coupled two-
stage 12AU7 amplifier. In passing through the latter stage, the squareness
of the signal waveform is preserved. Degeneration introduced by the
unbypassed 500-ohm cathode resistor minimizes distortion here. Output
amplitude is adjusted with the 100,000-ohm OUTPUT CONTROL
potentiometer. Peak output is approximately 10 v no load, and 1 v across
10,000 ohms.
Operation of the square-wave generator’is a simple matter of con-
necting a sine-wave source to the SINE-WAVE INPUT terminals and
taking square-wave output voltage from the SQUARE-WAVE OUTPUT
terminals.

14.5 Use of Square Waves in Audio-Amplifier Testing®

Square waves afford a rapid and simple means of checking audio-
amplifier performance. A square-wave signal is applied to the properly
terminated amplifier under test, and the amplifier output is viewed

AMPLIFIER OSCILLOSCOPE
LOAD DEVICE ---
( Loudspeaker
or Resistor)

SQUARE AMPLIFIER
WAVE UNDER
GENERATOR VEST
2
a
72
* Vertical Amplifier
Input Terminals

Fic. 14-13 Setup for Square-Wave Testing of an A-F Amplifier

with an oscilloscope (Figure 14-13). If the amplifier performance is good,

both from a standpoint of frequency response and phase shift, the output
signal also will be perfectly square [Figure 14-14(A)]. Defective per-
formance will cause distortion of the squareness of the output wave. The
5 Digested from Rufus P. Turner, “How to Check Audio Amplifiers, Radio Distri-
bution & Maintenance, October, 1949, p. 12; and ‘‘Square-Wave Analysis of aoe
Equipment,” Radio and Television Maintenance, February, 1951, p. 6.
 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 221

internal sweep of the oscilloscope is set for a display of one or two waves,
and the oscilloscope SYNC switch is thrown to its INTERNAL position.
The vertical amplifier of the oscilloscope must have good frequency
response itself; otherwise this test will not be reliable.

eet UL
(A)
EXCELLENT
RESPONSE
© POOR LOW-FREQUENCY
RESPONSE
FAIR LOW-FREQUENCY
RESPONSE

(D) (E) (F) (G)

POOR HIGH- IMPROVED EMPHASIZED REDUCED
FREQUENCY HIGH-FREQUENCY LOW-FREQUENCY LOW-FREQUENCY
RESPONSE RESPONSE AMPLIFICATION AMPLIFICATION

(H) (a) (J)

FREQUENCY OR FREQUENCY OR OSCILLATION
BAND OF FREQUENCIES BAND OF FREQUEN- de BOR. ei
EMPHASIZED CIES ATTENUATED "RINGING

FIG. 14-14 Typical Square-Wave Response Patterns

A square wave may be regarded as made up of an infinite number

of sine waves. Effectively, therefore, the amplifier tested with a square
wave is being checked simultaneously at a number of frequencies. The
steep sides of a square wave make the signal rich in harmonics. For that
reason, a square wave of given frequency automatically checks the am-
plifier at a fundamental frequency and a number of harmonics. Actually,
the principal harmonics of a square wave are odd-numbered (third, fifth,
seventh, ninth, etc.) and this fact must be kept in mind when choosing a
fundamental frequency so that one of the odd-numbered harmonics will
222 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

coincide with some frequency at which amplifier operation is of interest.

Thus, if a resonance is expected at 3,000 cps, a fundamental square-wave
frequency of, say, 600 cps would be a better choice than 500 cps, the reason
being that an odd harmonic of 600 cps (the fifth) coincides with 3,000,
while the even harmonic of 500 cps (the sixth) would not be present in
useful strength. Standard practice is to regard the ninth harmonic as the
highest at which a given square wave provides a good test. Thus a 60-cps
square wave would check the amplifier between 60 and 540 cps. The
fundamental then would have to be increased successively in steps to
cover the rest of the operating range of an amplifier.
A rounding-off of the leading edge of the square-wave peaks indicates
poor low-frequency response, while a rounding-off of the trailing edges
indicates poor high-frequency response. Tilting of the vertical lines of
the pattern also indicates poor high-frequency response, while tilting of
the horizontal lines reveals poor low-frequency response. Figure 14-14
shows some of the common patterns obtained in square-wave analysis of
audio equipment.
In addition to amplifier testing, square waves may be used also to
check the performance of transformers and a-f networks. A single stage,
as well as a complete amplifier, may be checked with square waves. In
checking a complete amplifier, it is advisable to make tests with the tone
and volume controls in their various operating positions, in order to
determine the effect of adjustment of each upon amplifier response.

14.6 Intermodulation Measurements

If two separate sine-wave test frequencies are applied simultaneously
to the input terminals of an audio amplifter, each will emerge from the
amplifier output terminals unaffected by the other if no nonlinearity is
present in the amplifier. If nonlinearity is present, one signal will be
amplitude-modulated by the other. The percentage of modulation then
may be measured and will indicate the degree of such distortion in the
amplifier. This is one way of checking intermodulation distortion.
The factors which cause nonlinearity in an amplifier usually cause
harmonic distortion as well. Audio engineers report, however, that inter-
modulation measurements correlate more closely with critical listening
tests than do the more common measurements of harmonic distortion.
Conventional practice is to apply selected low- and high-frequency
signals (for example, 60 and 3,000 cps) simultaneously to the amplifier.
When intermodulation distortion is present, the high-frequency signal
will be modulated by the low frequency. In making a complete inter-
modulation test, it is advisable to employ several combinations of low-
and high-frequency test signals and several ratios between the two signal
voltages.
%
 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 223

Figure 14-15(A) shows an arrangement for checking intermodulation

with an oscilloscope. Frequencies from the two test oscillators are mixed
by a simple resistance bridge connected ahead of the amplifier input
terminals. If one of these frequencies is 60 cps, the low-frequency oscil-
lator may be replaced with the low-voltage secondary of a filament trans-
former operated from the power line.

Ra Ae OSCILLOSCOPE

OSCILLATOR Ghee Orne BicHeenSs

nt

52
Oo:
one
HIGH- q |
FREQUENCY
OSCILLATOR

Vertical Amplifier Ext. Ee

(A ) Input Terminals Terminal

0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005

2s) pt pt, Set et
% MOD.= 100 ( a

INPUT OUTPUT

450,000
Ohms 450,000
Ohms Ohms
450,000Ohms
150,000

(Cc)
FIG. 14-15 Intermodulation Testing with an Oscilloscope

A high-pass filter is connected between the amplifier and oscilloscope,

removes the high-frequency signal, and transmits the modulated or un-
modulated signal to the oscilloscope. This filter must be designed for a
cut-off frequency equal to twice the value of the low test-frequency. A
simple RC filter for use with a low test-frequency of 60 cps is shown in
Figure 14-15(C). This circuit does not have the sharp cutoff of the L-C
filter but will be satisfactory for most tests.
If intermodulation is present, a pattern similar to Figure 14-15(B)
will be seen on the oscilloscope screen. If there is no intermodulation, a
plain band without modulation humps will appear. The internal sweep
and sync amplitude controls of the oscilloscope must be adjusted for one
or two stationary humps of the pattern. The oscilloscope SYNC switch
224 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

must be thrown to its INTERNAL position. The formula for calculating

modulation percentage from the modulated and unmodulated heights of
the pattern is given in Figure 14-15(B). The unmodulated amplitude (A)
may be checked accurately by disabling temporarily the low-frequency
oscillator and measuring the height of the high-frequency plain-band
pattern.

! |
I
\
H |
| |
| |
| |
| 1
HIGH-PASS DETECTOR LOW-PASS
DISTORTION ( Demod- FILTER
FILTER
AMPLIFIER ulator)

A-C
V-T VOLTMETER

Fic. 14-16 Block Diagram of Intermodulation Meter

Figure 14-16 shows the functional block diagram of an intermodula-

tion meter which gives direct readings of intermodulation percentage.
Also shown in this figure are the signal waveforms at various points in
the instrument. The input signal to the instrument, as delivered by the
amplifier under test, contains the two test-signal frequencies (see Pat-
tern A). The high-pass filter removes the low-frequency signal and trans-
mits the modulated high-frequency component (Pattern B). The latter
is amplified (Pattern C) by the low-distortion amplifier. The amplified
signal then is demodulated (Pattern D). The demodulator stage contains
a d-c milliammeter, the deflection of which is proportional to the average
value of the high-frequency component. The instrument gain is adjusted
always to set this deflection to a predetermined reference value. The
demodulated signal is passed through a low-pass filter which removes the
high frequency carrier and transmits only the low-frequency modulation
envelope (Pattern E). The amplitude of this envelope voltage actuates
the acc VI'VM which is calibrated to read directly in intermodulation
percentage. The calibration of this meter will be correct, provided the
milliammeter in the demodulator is set to the reference level.

14.7 Checking Frequency Response

The measurement of frequency response ranks with distortion check-
ing in determining amplifier fidelity. Frequency-response checking is
relatively simple, although painstaking. a
 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 225

To check frequency response: (1) Connect a variable-frequency audio

oscillator, with low distortion and constant voltage output (or some
means of keeping the output voltage set to a constant level), to the
amplifier input terminals. (2) Connect an a-c VI'VM or a voltage-
calibrated oscilloscope to the amplifier output terminals. The amplifier
must be terminated with its normal load device, such as the loudspeaker.
If quietness during the test is mandatory, the loudspeaker may be replaced
with a resistor having the same ohmic value as the speaker voice coil and
a wattage rating equal to twice the expected amplifier-power output.
(3) Switch on the amplifier and instruments, and allow a short warm-up
period. (4) Set the oscillator to 20 cps. (5) Set the oscillator output
voltage to a value low enough to insure that the amplifier will not be
overdriven. This voltage level must be maintained throughout the test.
(6) Record the reading of the output VIVM opposite 20 cps. (7) Set the
oscillator to 50 cps and record the voltmeter reading opposite 50 cps.
(8) Repeat at every 10 cps to 100 cps, and at every 100 cps from 100 to
1,000 cps and at every 1,000 cps from 1,000 to 20,000 cps. (9) Plot the
response curve, showing output voltage vs. frequency. (10) A separate,
complete frequency-response run should be made in this manner for each
setting of the amplifier tone control and at several settings of the volume
control.
Several modern high-fidelity amplifier circuits (e.g., the McIntosh
and Williamson circuits) are rated far beyond 20,000 cps in frequency
response. When checking these amplifiers, the test frequencies should be
extended to the highest values given in the performance ratings.
The frequency response of individual stages, as well as a complete
amplifier, may be. checked.

14.8 Checking Gain

To measure the voltage gain of an amplifier stage, a known voltage
(which must be low enough to prevent overdriving of the amplifier under
test) is applied to the input terminals of the amplifier or amplifier stage,
and the corresponding output voltage measured. An a-c VIT'VM-millivolt-
meter or a voltage-calibrated gscilloscope may be used for both input and
output voltage measurements. If the input voltage is designated EJ, and
the output voltage E2, voltage gain = E2/EI. Expressed in decibels,
voltage gain = 20 log,, E2/EI.

14.9 Checking Power Output

Amplifier power output may be checked in terms of the output
voltage developed across a load resistance, in the following manner: (1)
Connect the amplifier output terminals to a load resistor having an ohmic
value equal to the amplifier output impedance. The wattage of this
226 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

resistor, which replaces the loudspeaker, must be equal at least to twice

the expected power output of the amplifier. (2) Connect an a-c VITVM
in parallel with the load resistor. (3) Connect a low-distortion, sine-wave
audio oscillator to the amplifier input terminals, and set it to the desired
test frequency. (4) Allow a 5-minute warm-up period for the amplifier
and instruments. (5) Adjust the oscillator output voltage to the specified
signal input level recommended for the amplifier. (6) Note the reading
(EZ) of the output VIVM. (7) The output power (P) in watts = E2/R,
where E is the output voltage, and R the load resistance. (8) Repeat the
measurement at several frequencies throughout the audio spectrum, and
at several settings of the volume and tone controls. If the power measure-
ment is to be significant, the amplifier output voltage must be as free
from distortion as practicable. With this in mind, inspect the output
with an oscilloscope or distortion meter.
A convenient, direct-reading instrument for audio power measure-
ments is the output power meter. This instrument is connected to the
amplifier output terminals in place of the normal load device, such as
the loudspeaker, and is set to the required impedance value. It indicates
watts directly and requires no calculations. The output power meter is
described in Section 4.5, Chapter 4.

14.10 Commercial A-F Microvolter

Low-level signal voltages are required for amplifier testing, in order
to prevent overdriving. The output controls in most audio oscillators
usually do not permit close adjustment of the voltage to these low values.
A second, external attenuator ordinarily will be required. Such an
attenuator may be calibrated to read directly in millivolts and microvolts
output on the basis of a predetermined voltage applied to the attenuator
input.
While any potentiometer or attenuator can be calibrated in terms of
a constant-voltage input, for example, 1 v, the professional instrument
employed for this purpose is the microvolter. Figures 14-17 and 14-18
illustrate an accurate commercial microvolter.6 This instrument consists
of an input a-c voltmeter of the rectifier type, two step-type attenuators
of the T-type ganged to a single shaft, and a continuously variable ladder-
type attenuator connected between them (Figure 14-18).
The input voltmeter is set to a predetermined reference level (2.2 v
for this particular instrument) by adjustment of the output control in the
oscillator to which the microvolter input terminals are connected. The
output ranges are selected with the ganged step-type attenuator. The
continuously variable attenuator provides smooth, fine control of output
voltage within these ranges. The instrument shown here provides con-
6 Type 546-C, General Radio Company, Cambridge, Mass.
 AUDIO—AMPLIFIER TESTING DEVICES 227

SET IWPUT TO O-db

GENERAL RADIO CO.

FIG. 14-17. Audio-Frequency Microvolter

Courtesy General Radio Co.

tinuously variable output voltage between 0 and 1,000 mv in six ranges:

0 to 10, 0 to 100, and 0 to 1,000 pv; and 0 to 10, 0 to 100, and 0 to
1,000 mv. The upper-operating frequency limit is 100 kc. Readings are
given both in volts and decibels. Input and output impedance each is
approximately 600 ohms
RECTIFIER-TYPE ' / ,GANGED, STEP-TYPE ATTENUATORS, \
A-C VOLTMETER Sy ded Se ee ree ee
\

Z Uv = i OUTPUT

Soest
ee)
Ba
Seas
SS
SS

CONTINUOUSLY - VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

Fic. 14-18 Basic Circuit of the A-F Microvolter

The microvolter is inserted between an audio oscillator or signal

generator and the amplifier or other device under test. The reference
voltmeter is set to 2.2 v by adjustment of the output control in the
228 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

oscillator. The microvolter dial and range switch then are set to give
the desired test-signal voltage. Smooth control of the signal voltage is
provided by the continuously variable attenuator, and step control (in
steps of X10) by the range switch (step-type attenuator).

Review Questions

1. A small audio amplifier has an over-all voltage gain of 20,000 and

an output voltage of 10 v rms. If this amplifier is used as a signal tracer,
what is the lowest value of input signal (in millivolts) which will give
full output voltage?
2. An oscilloscope has a vertical amplifier sensitivity of 10 mv per
inch of screen deflection. There are ten screen divisions per inch on this
instrument. If this oscilloscope is used as an audio signal tracer, what
input signal will produce a deflection of one screen division?
3. When using an a-c VIVM to trace a signal through an audio
amplifier, a reading of 0.3 v is obtained at the input of one stage and 13 v
at the output. What voltage gain in decibels does this indicate for the
stage under test?
4. The initial reading taken with a distortion-meter circuit similar
to the one described in Section 14.2 is 2.5 v. The final reading with the
filter in the circuit is 0.03 v. Calculate the distortion percentage.
5. A heterodyne wave analyzer employs an intermediate frequency of
20 kc. If this frequency corresponds to the sum of the local-oscillator and
applied-audio frequencies, what local-oscillator frequency is required for
tuning the instrument to 5,000 cps?
 15
R-F Signal Tracers
/

15.1 High-Gain R-F Signal Tracer

The signal-tracing technique provides a means for checking a radio
or television receiver for presence and strength of a test signal at the
input and output of each stage. An inoperative or maladjusted stage
thus may be localized quickly, and voltage, current, and continuity tests
then made to locate the defective components responsible for the trouble.
In r-f signal tracing, an AM signal is applied to the antenna input
terminals of the receiver under test, and the receiver dial set to the test
frequency. The signal tracer itself is an aperiodic radio receiver, consisting
of an input detector (usually a crystal mounted in the exploring probe)
and a high-gain audio amplifier followed by a loudspeaker for aural
testing, or an output meter for visual testing. Starting at the antenna
input terminals, the detector probe of the signal tracer is transferred from
the input to the output of each stage through to the audio amplifier.
From the first audio stage to the loudspeaker, the amplifier of the signal
tracer is used alone, the detector not being required. Presence, increase,
decrease, or loss of the signal easily is spotted by this process. Sensitivity
of the signal tracer depends upon the gain of its audio amplifier. This
sensitivity is adjusted readily with the amplifier volume control.
In moving through a receiver in which signal amplification is taking
place, the volume control is turned down as a stronger signal is en-
countered, and vice versa. If the control settings are calibrated, the
ratio between two successive settings will indicate the voltage gain
between the corresponding test points.
A sensitive signal tracer may be made quite easily from a germanium-
diode detector probe and a high-gain audio amplifier. Figure 15-1 shows
this arrangement. A loudspeaker is indicated for aural indications, but
an a-c output voltmeter may be used for visual indications, if desired,
either with or without the speaker.
229
230 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Shielding of the “hot” test lead and its terminating detector is im-
perative to prevent hand-capacitance effects. This tracer may be used for
following an amplitude-modulated signal through the r-f amplifier,
detectors, and i-f amplifier stages of a receiver. For tracing in the audio
stages, the detector probe is disconnected and a conventional shielded test
probe used in its place.
rea ae METAL SHELL
40 Meg... 1.0 Meg. 0,002 put ( PROBE HANDLE)

_-- FLEXIBLE COAXIAL CABLE

LOUDSPEAKER
hs

GROUND
CLIP

HIGH- GAIN
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER

Fic. 15-1 Simple High-Gain R-F Signal Tracer

15.2 Kit-Type Signal Tracer and Substitution Speaker!

Figures 15-2 and 15-3 illustrate a kit-type signal tracer designed for
private assembly. In addition to performing the functions of an r-f and
a-f signal tracer, this instrument makes its self-contained loudspeaker
available externally, through a tapped coupling transformer, for sub-
stitution in equipment in which the regular speaker is disabled. The
transformer also is available externally for impedance matching and
substitutions. The instrument may be used for signal tracing at frequen-
cies as high as 200 mc.
Figure 15-3 shows the complete circuit diagram. A 6SH7 high-gain
pentode voltage amplifier is followed by. a 6K6 power amplifier. The
latter stage drives the internal loudspeaker. A PROBE INPUT jack
accommodates the shielded crystal detector probe for r-f signal tracing
or a conventional shielded test probe for a-f signal tracing.
When using the signal-tracing function, switch $3 is closed, and the
loudspeaker is placed in the output of the 6K6 tube. The 12 secondary
taps selected by switches SJ and S2 provide 30 different impedance ratios
for matching purposes when the speaker or transformer is used externally.
A chart on the front panel of the instrument lists these impedance values
with switch settings.
1 Heathkit Model T-2, The Heath Company, Benton Harbor, Mich.
 FIG. 15-2 Kit-Type Signal Tracer and Substitution Speaker
Courtesy The Heath Co.

—- SHIELD
BRAID DETECTOR PROBE

“s.~--CRYSTAL MAY BE USED

EITHER WAY

6SH7 6K6 P
PROBE .01. .00
INPUT ut pt 3
ama, aa vw
d
° Qa oS Pp

Ohms a (Q000000) OUTPUT

470,000® x TRANSF.
= Ge (03856)
~1.0
Meg “i |
4
ea
A
if Meg
40 °

SENSI- =>
TIVITY
CONTROL
“Ot 400,000
Ohms a
wt ‘ROTARY “
SWITCHES
O

INTERNAL SEG;
CLOSED aS
EXTERNAL
‘ OPEN g
wr |
ve go O
On rear ‘~ SPEAKER V-C
of sensi- VOICE COIL
tivity : LW
control C

FIG. 15-3 Complete Circuit of the Kit-Type Signal Tracer

231
232 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

To use the speaker externally, the instrument power first is switched

off. The output of the amplifier under test then is connected to terminals
P-B+-P. (A single-ended output stage is connected to B+ and either one
of the P terminals; a push-pull stage to all three terminals.) Switch $3
is closed, and Si and S2 set to give the required impedance value or, if
this value is not known, adjusted for maximum undistorted output.
To use the transformer alone with an external speaker: (1) Connect
the external amplifier to terminals P and B+ for a single-ended output,
or to P-B+-P for push-pull. (2) Open switch $3. (3) Connect the voice
coil of the external speaker to the C and SEG. terminals. (4) Set SZ and S2
to the required impedance value or adjust them for maximum undistorted
volume.
When the output transformer in an external amplifier is in good
operating condition but the voice coil of the external speaker is inopera-
tive, the voice coil alone in the signal-tracer’ speaker may be used. (1)
Open switch $3. (2) Connect the external voice-coil leads to terminals C
and VC,
Since this instrument is operative from a transformer-coupled power
supply, it may be used with complete safety to test a-c/d-c equipment.

15.3 Professional Channel Analyzer?

The channel analyzer is a complex signal tracer. This instrument is
distinguished from simple tracers chiefly by the fact that the channel
analyzer may be tuned sharply to the tesi-signal frequency, thereby re-
moving the possibility of spurious indications due to extraneous signals.
The channel analyzer also operates with an unmodulated test signal. In
configuration, this instrument is a specialized form of tuned r-f receiver.
The Chanalyst, shown in Figures 15-4 and 15-5, is a highly refined channel
analyzer.
The Chanalyst has two tuned signal-tracing channels, each corre-
sponding to a complete tuned r-f receiver. The first is the RF-IF channel,
which has a three-stage tuned r-f amplifier, diode detector, and magic-eye
signal-strength indicator. This channel tunes from 96 to 1,700 kc in three
frequency bands and covers the i-f and front-end frequencies of broad-
cast receivers. Signals are picked up from various points in the receiver
under test with the shielded RF-IF-OSC probe. This unit has a tiny
isolating capacitor built into the probe handle, and is plugged into jack
Ji. Switch SZ operates a capacitance-type attenuator for regulating the
input signal level. Rheostat R2 is the LEVEL control for continuously
variable adjustment of the r-f gain within the ranges set by the positions
of SJ. The voltage gain (amplification) of a receiver stage under test may
be checked by sampling the test signal at the input and output of the
2 RCA-Rider Chanalyst, Type 162C, Radio Corporation of America, Camden; N.J.
 R—F SIGNAL TRACERS 233

stage and noting the ratio of the two settings of the two attenuators which
will just close the RF-IF eye tube.
The RF-IF channel may be used to trace signals in the r-£ amplifier,
first detector, i-f amplifier, and second detector of a radio receiver.
The second tuned channel, the OSCILLATOR channel, contains a
single-stage r-f amplifier, diode detector, and eye-tube indicator. The
capacitor-isolated signal-tracing probe also is used with this channel and

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FIG. 15-4 Professional Channel Analyzer

Courtesy Radio Corporation of America

is plugged into jack J2. The OSCILLATOR channel is intended ex-

pressly for checking the signal from the high-frequency oscillator in a
superheterodyne receiver. ‘This signal usually is quite strong, so only one
r-f amplifier is needed in the instrument. A continuously variable gain
control (LEVEL), R19, is provided for adjusting the gain of this ampli-
fier. The OSCILLATOR channel tunes from 600 to 15,000 kc in three
frequency bands.
The AF channel is intended primarily for signal tracing in audio
amplifiers. It consists of a single a-f amplifier stage, diode rectifier, and
eye-tube signal-strength indicator. The AF probe is a conventional,
shielded test probe which is inserted into jack J3. Switch $5 operates a
two-step input attenuator (X0.1 and X10) for adjusting the input signal
level. Smooth, fine control of signal amplitude within the ranges set by
S5 is provided by the LEVEL CONTROL potentiometer, R43.
The ELECTRONIC VOLTMETER channel consists of a center-
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 R—F SIGNAL TRACERS 235

zero d-c VI'VM with three ranges: 5-0-5, 25-0-25, and 500-0-500 v.
The shielded voltmeter probe, for insertion into jack J#, has a l-meg
isolating resistor built into the probe handle. Input resistance of the
VTVM is 11 megs on all voltage ranges. The voltmeter channel usually is
employed to measure circuit voltages in stages in which the signal-tracing
operation indicates trouble.
The WATTAGE-INDICATOR channel is used to measure the
power (in watts) drawn by a radio device connected to its terminals. This
channel consists of a current transformer (T2), balancing potentiometer
(R36), diode rectifier, and eye-tube indicator. Power-line voltage is sup-
plied to a panel receptacle into which the device under test is plugged.
Potentiometer R36 is adjusted only far enough to close the eye-tube
shadow. The wattage (up to 250 w) then is read from the scale of R36.
The RF-IF and AF channels are provided with output jacks, J5 and
J6, respectively. These jacks increase flexibility of the instrument. For
example, the INTERCHANNEL CABLE may be run between J> and
the a-f input jack, J3, to provide audio amplification for the RF-IF
channel when a modulated test signal is used for signal tracing. A pair of
headphones plugged into the output jack, J6, of the AF channel then will
afford aural signal tracing, in addition to the visual response given by the
eye tubes. The instrument also may be used in this manner as a complete
tuned r-f radio receiver for a number of test purposes, including the
testing of antennas. Through jacks J3 and J6, the AF channel may be
used as a single-stage audio amplifier for miscellaneous experimental
purposes.
Pin jacks J7 in the RF-IF channel and J8 in the OSCILLATOR
channel also are provided for connection to the input of the ELEC-
TRONIC VOLTMETER channel. This permits the VI'VM to be used
as a tuning indicator at the same time the eye tubes are operating. The
voltmeter probe tip is inserted directly into the pin jack.
The RF-IF, OSCILLATOR, AF, and ELECTRONIC VOLT-
METER channels all have high input impedance, in order to minimize
loading of the circuit under test. This means that signal tracing and
voltage measurement may be carried on in each stage of the receiver
under test without upsetting normal operation.

15.4 Signal Injectors for Rapid Troubleshooting

Signal injection is a troubleshooting technique somewhat similar
to signal tracing, except that signal injection, quite the opposite of signal
tracing, starts at the loudspeaker output of a receiver and progresses back
toward the input—the last test being made at the antenna terminals. Like
signal tracing, signal injection quickly isolates a stage which is disabled
or operating improperly.
236 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

Signals at radio, intermediate, and audio frequencies are required for

signal injection. Many service technicians favor signal injection because it
requires only one instrument. Figure 15-6 shows a block diagram of a
superheterodyne receiver with explanatory key points for signal injec-
tion in troubleshooting.
An audio signal at a establishes whether the loudspeaker is oper-
ating. If the speaker is inoperative, it must be replaced, since it will
be the signal indicator during the remainder of the test. Audio at b tests
the audio output stage. Audio at c checks the first a-f stage. Gain in this
stage is indicated by the ratio of the audio signal voltages at b and c.

2990009 @
| | | | | | | |

SPEAKER
OSCILLATOR

Fic. 15-6 Block Diagram of Superheterodyne Receiver, Showing Key Points

for Signal Injection

Modulated i-f at d checks the second detector. Modulated i-f at e checks

the second i-f amplifier. Gain in the second i-f stage is indicated by the
ratio of signal voltages used at d and e. Modulated i-f at f checks the first
i-f amplifier. Gain in the first i-f stageis indicated by the ratio of voltages
used at e and f. Modulated r-f at g checks'the first detector. It also will
check operation of the oscillator, since no signal will be passed by the
rest of the receiver when applied at g unless the oscillator is operating.
Modulated r-f at h checks the r-f amplifier. Gain in the r-f stage is indi-
cated by the ratio of signal voltages used at g and h. It is assumed that
the r-f amplifier stages are tuned to the r-f injection frequency and that
the i-f stages are aligned to the i-f injection frequency.
Loss of the loudspeaker signal between any two test points indicates
disability of the stage included between these points. .
A conventional amplitude-modulated test oscillator or signal genera-
tor is the most convenient signal injector. The r-f output is used (at the
proper r-f and i-f frequencies) to check at points d, e, f, g, and h. The
audio output is used at points a, b, and c. If the oscillator does not have a
separate audio output, an inexpensive, external audio extractor for
obtaining audio output from the modulated r-f output may be con-
structed according to directions given in Section 10.9, Chapter 10. ;
 16
Tube Characteristics

and Tube Testers

16.1 Static Characteristics

The condition of a vacuum tube may be estimated from measure-
ments made on the basis of fixed or stepped voltages and currents applied
to the tube electrodes. These static tests are not always conclusive, how-
ever, because they do not check the tube under actual operating condi-
tions or under conditions which approximate operation in service. Plate
current, for example, may be checked statically by applying the rated
plate, grid, and filament voltages to the tube and measuring the plate-
current flow. And while the measured current may be correct according
to manufacturer’s specifications, the tube still might not be capable of
amplification or oscillation. But static tests do have their place in tube
checking and cannot be ignored here.
Important static characteristics include plate, screen, grid, sup-
pressor, cathode, and filament, or heater voltages and currents. Each of
these voltages and currents is d-c, except those of the filament or heater,
which in some cases may be a-c or d-c. All currents are measured in
milliamperes, except filament
or heater current, which in some instances
amounts to amperes. Electrode currents are measured with rated elec-
trode voltages applied. When checking the characteristics of one electrode
of a tube, the other electrodes must be operated at the same time at their
rated voltages. For example, when checking plate current of a pentode
tube, the rated grid, screen, filament, and suppressor voltages also must
be applied. A single setup may be made with power supplies and meters
for checking any of the static characteristics just enumerated.
Also in the category of static tests are checking for filament or heater
237
238 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

continuity, presence of gas, microphonics, interelectrode capacitances,

heater-cathode leakage, and interelectrode short circuits. With all correct
electrode voltages applied to a tube, a test is made for gas by checking
grid current with a d-c milliammeter or microammeter (with the grid
biased to the correct negative value, there will be no grid-current flow
unless the tube is gassy). Cold filament continuity may be checked with
an ohmmeter; hot continuity by means of an ammeter (a-c or d-c, de-
pending upon the supply voltage) in series with the filament and the
filament power supply. Microphonics are revealed by ringing sounds in

D-C MILLIAMMETER

D0-C VOLTM ETER

\

VARIABLE PLATE
VOLTAGE
GRID
VOLTAGE

Fic. 16-1 Circuit for Static Transconductance Testing

headphones connected in series with the plate and the plate power supply
when the tube is tapped sharply. Headphones may be connected directly
into the circuit only when the plate current is not high enough to damage
them. Short circuits are checked with a small neon lamp in series with
approximately 100 v a-c and the two electrodes suspected. A short circuit
is indicated by continuous lighting of the lamp, or flashing of the lamp
when the tube is tapped sharply. The filament or heater must be oper-
ating during the short-circuit test. Heater-cathode leakage is checked
by means of an a-c milliammeter in series with the cathode and one
terminal of the burning heater. This test may be made also with a high-
resistance a-c voltmeter when the leakage is excessive for a milliammeter.
Interelectrode capacitances in vacuum tubes are small and may be
measured accurately only with special low-range bridges.
Transconductance (G,,) and amplification factor (x) may be checked
statically, although dynamic tests usually are applied for these char-
acteristics. Figure 16-1 shows a circuit for transconductance testing. While
a triode is shown for simplicity, tetrodes and pentodes may be tested in
the same manner, provided screen voltages also are provided. The grid
voltage (Eg,) and plate voltage (E,) are set to the rated values. The plate
current value (Ip,) is recorded. The grid voltage then is increased a
 TUBE CHARACTERISTICS AND TUBE TESTERS 239

small amount to obtain a readable change in plate current. The new grid
voltage is recorded as Egy, and the new plate current as Ip). The change
in grid vdltage (Ego-Eg,) is designated dE,, and the change in plate
current (I[p,-Ip2) as dJ,. Transconductance (G,,) in micromhos equals
1,000 (dI,/dE,) where dI, is in ma.
Figure 16-2 shows a circuit for static testing of amplification factor.
Here, the grid and plate voltages first are adjusted to the values specified
for the tube under test. The initial plate current is recorded as Ip,, and
the corresponding grid voltage as Eg,. The grid voltage then is decreased
D-C MILLIAMMETER

D-C VOLTMETER
\

VARIABLE
GRID
VOLTAGE

/
D-C VOLTMETER

Fic. 16-2 Circuit for Static Testing of Amplification Factor

a small amount to obtain a readable change in plate current. The new

grid voltage is recorded as Egy, and the new plate current as Ip,. The
grid voltage then is restored to its initial value Eg,, and the plate voltage
is increased slightly to produce the same change in plate current to the
value Ip, previously obtained with the grid-voltage shift. The change in
grid voltage (Eg,-Eg.) is designated dE,, and the change in plate voltage
(Ep,-Ep,) as dE,. The amplification factor (y) equals dE,/dE,. ‘This
means that » is equal to the ratio of the plate-voltage change to the grid-
voltage change which will produce the same change in plate current.

16.2 Dynamic Characteristics

A check of dynamic characteristics tests a vacuum tube under con-
ditions approximating actual operation in electronic circuits. A dynamic
test therefore is more likely than are static tests to indicate the true con-
dition of a tube. In practice, dynamic tests commonly are made of trans-
conductance, power output, plate resistance, and rectifier characteristics.
The rectifier test consists simply of applying the rated a-c plate voltage
and measuring the resulting d-c plate current, and comparing with
manufacturer’s ratings. Dynamic plate resistance is measured by super-
240 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

imposing an alternating voltage upon the d-c plate voltage of the tube
under test. The composite fluctuating voltage then has a maximum and
a minimum value, the difference between the two being designated dEp.
The resulting a-c plate current likewise has a maximum and minimum
value, the difference being designated dJ,. These voltages and currents
are measured, and the plate resistance (r,) calculated from the relation-
ship dE,/dI,. Dynamic transconductance and power-output tests are dis-
cussed separately in Sections 16.4 and 16.5.

16.3 Emission Testing

Many commercial tube testers test and rate a tube in terms of its
emission. A simple circuit for this type of test is shown in Figure 16-3.
Here the tube is operated at its rated filament or heater voltage, or at a

VARIABLE
VOLTAGE

FIG. 16-3 Circuit for Emission Testing

somewhat lower value. All the other electrodes, except the cathode, are
connected together for the test. A variable voltage is applied between
the combined electrodes and the cathode, being set to some recom-
mended value, and the resulting “plate” current noted. The applied
voltage often is a-c, although d-c is shown in Figure 16-3. The tube
condition is determined on a basis of the current reading obtained with
a good tube of the same type operated under the same conditions. A set
of such data, covering every type of tube to be tested, is necessary.
In commercial tube testers, each electrode is connected to a key or
rotary switch, in order that each may be cut into the circuit independently
and the separate emissions compared. An open-circuited electrode may be
detected by failure of the current to increase when this electrode is added
to the others by switching.
The emission test is the simplest tube test. Emission current read in
this fashion often is a fairly good index of tube condition, since it usually
falls off as the tube deteriorates. It is not entirely conclusive, however,
since highly emissive “hot spots” on the filament or cathode will give rise
 TUBE CHARACTERISTICS [Link] TESTERS 241

to high emission currents when the emitting area actually is insufficient

for grid control within the tube.

16.4 Transconductance Testing

Figure 16-4 shows a circuit for the dynamic testing of transcon-
ductance. Rated heater, grid, and plate voltages are applied to the tube.
A 1-v a-c signal is applied to the grid in series with the d-c grid bias. An

A-C } A-C
MILLI-
tea AMMETER

PLATE
GRID VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE ===

FIG. 16-4 Circuit for Dynamic Transconductance Testing

a-c milliammeter in the plate circuit reads the a-c component of plate
current. This meter must be isolated (transformer or capacitor) so that
it will not be deflected by the d-c component. If an a-c grid signal of
exactly 1 v is employed, the transconductance will be equal to the a-c
plate current in milliamperes multiplied by 1,000, and will be expressed in
micromhos.

A-C
GRID MILLI-
VOLTAGE = eee AMMETER

Fic. 16-5 Circuit for Power-Output Testing

16.5 Power-Output Testing

Figure 16-5 shows a simple circuit for checking power output. An
adjustable a-c signal is applied to the tube grid, this signal being selected
in voltage in accordance with tube-operating data from the tube manu-
242 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

C—

ad
osMareen!

FIG. 16-6 Complete Circuit of the Commercial Tube Tester

y Sylvania Electric Products, Inc.
TUBE CHARACTERISTICS AND TUBE TESTERS 243

NOVAL 7AX

eh

F.0

U7 V. YEL- BLK.

70 YE&L-RED,

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PRIMARY COM.

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105 -/25 VOLTS
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UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.
Rie * NOTE:ALL SWITCHES ANO
digs SOCKETS - BOTTOM VIEW

R17
100 K METER LIGHTS
TOTAP I

FIG. 16-6 (cont.)

244 BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST INSTRUMENTS

facturer’s tables. An iron-core choke coil, CH, is the output reactor. The
a-c milliammeter is connected in series with the normal load resistance,
R, recommended for the tube, and is isolated from the d-c plate com-
ponents by capacitor C. If the plate current, indicated by the a-c milliam-
meter, is expressed in amperes, the power output in watts equals ?R,.

FIG. 16-7 Commercial Tube Tester

Courtesy Sylvania Electric Products, Inc.

16.6 Commercial Tube Tester!

Figures 16-6 and 16-7 show a commercial tube tester. In this instru-
ment, sockets are provided for the various tube basings. Filament and
heater voltages are selected from taps on the secondary of the power
transformer by means of the rotary switch A-SW, and are distributed to
the proper socket terminals by predetermined settings of key and rotary
switches. The various electrodes of the tube under test are connected
through key switches to an appropriate load resistor or to test voltages.
Test conditions thus may be set up for any one of the many tubes in
current use.
The meter scale is graduated in rating units which are a composite
of transconductance and emission values. It also is graduated REPLACE-
?-GOOD for the rapid testing of tubes in service operations.
Tube testers of many styles and types, utilizing the test principles

1 Type 219, Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., New York. 3

 TUBE CHARACTERISTICS AND TUBE TESTERS 245

discussed in this chapter, are in use by service technicians, manufacturers,

and laboratories. They are invaluable in appraising quickly the condi-
tion of tubes. The technician should bear in mind, however, that no tube
tester is completely conclusive in its indications, for the reasons that
tubes are used in a wide variety of applications which cannot possibly be
duplicated in a single tube-tester circuit, and also many variables, such
as spotty emission, enter into the test picture. The final criterion of tube
condition is operation in the circuit it normally serves.
¢

Review Questions

1. In checking the static transconductance of a tube, the control grid

voltage is stepped from | to 2 v. When the grid potential is 1 v, the plate
current is 2 ma; and when it is 2 v, the plate current is 4.2 ma. What is
the transconductance in micromhos?
2. A static test is made of the amplification factor of a tube. The grid
voltage is changed from 2 to 3 v to obtain a plate-current change of 1 ma.
It is found that the plate voltage must be changed from 100 to 110 v to
obtain the same plate-current shift. Calculate the amplification factor
from these data.
3. In a dynamic test of the plate resistance of a tube, the maximum
and minimum a-c plate-voltage values are found to be 110 and 90 v,
respectively. The corresponding maximum and minimum ac-c plate-
current values are 3 and 1 ma, respectively. Calculate the dynamic
plate resistance.
4. One volt a-c is applied to the control grid of a tube in a dynamic
transconductance test. The resulting a-c plate current is found to be 2 ma.
What is the transconductance value in micromhos?
5. In a dynamic test of tube power output (Section 16.5 and Figure
16-5) , an a-c plate current of 15 ma is obtained when a signal is applied
to the tube grid. If the load resistance is 3,500 ohms, what is the power
output?
Index
 Index

A Basic wattmeter, 69
Absorption wavemeters, 187 Battery-operated diode VIVM, 52
Accessories for VT VM’s, 59 Bridge, combination inductance, 101
Accuracy of VIVM’s, 66 impedance, 119
A-c/d-c multimeter, 20 inductance type assembled from lab-
A-c operated diode VI'VM, 54 oratory parts, 94
Advance wire resistors, 8 Maxwell, 96
A-f amplifier, distortion check, 212 Maxwell-Hay, 101
frequency response checking, 224 precision resistance, 109
gain checking, 225 rheostat skeleton-type, 116
power output measurement, 225 skeleton-type L-C-R, 111
as signal tracer, 207 Wien constants, 125
square-wave check, 220 Bridge amplifier, sharply-tuned, 128
A-f microvolter, 226 Bridge oscillator, 124
A-f power checking, 70 Bridge-type audio frequency meter, 198
A-f signal tracers, 205 Bridge-type impedance meter, 78
AM-FM signal generator, 163
Ammeter shunt, 2 G
Amplification factor, 238 Calibration-adjustment procedures, audio
Amplifier, a-f (see A-f amplifier) frequency meter, bridge-type, 200
Amplifier-rectifier VWIVM, 52 electronic, 202
Audio extractor for signal generators, 173 audio oscillator, 182-184
Audio frequency meter, bridge-type, 198 audio VT voltmeter-millivoltmeter, 64
calibration, 200 bridge amplifier, 129
electronic, 200 bridge oscillator, 125
Audio oscillator, calibration, 182 ¢ capacitor checker, 87
phase-shift type, 178 center-zero d-c VIVM, 54
RC-tuned variable-frequency type, 179 current meters, 22
single-frequency, 177 diode VIVM, 52
Wien bridge-type, 179 distortion meter, 212
Audio output power meter, 70 electronic audio frequency meter, 202
Audio signal generator, 180 frequency meter, bridge-type a-f, 200
Audio VI'VM-millivoltmeter, 62 electronic a-f, 202
heterodyne, 196
B frequency standard, crystal-type, 193
Basic oscilloscope, 133 self-excited, 192
249
250 INDEX

Calibration adjustment procedures (cont.) Current meter (cont.)

general-purpose VI'VM, 58 resistance measurement with, 31
heterodyne frequency meter, 196 shunt, 2
impedance bridge, 123 Current shunts for VI'VM’s, 62
Maxwell bridge, 98
null detector, 128 D
ohmmeter, 34 d’Arsonval, J. A., 1
oscilloscope screen, 156 d’Arsonval movement, 1
photoelectric r-f£ wattmeter, 75 db (see Decibel)
Q-meter, 105 dbm, 76
rheostat-type skeleton bridge, 116 Decibel, calculations, 76
signal generators, r-f, 174-176 scales, 75
simple meters, 21-26 Diode-type VI'VM, 45
skeleton-type L-C-R bridge, 113 Diode VTVM, a-c operated, 54
vacuum-tube voltmeters (see VIVM) battery-operated, 52
voltmeters, a-c, 23, 24 series type, 45
d-c, 23, 24 shunt type, 46
r-f, 25 Discriminator alignment, 147
volt-ohm-milliammeter, 40 Distortion meter, 208
VTVM, 52, 54, 58, 64, 65 Dynamic tube characteristics, 239
wavemeter, 187
Capacitance measurement, grid-dip oscil- 9
lator method, 92 Electronic audio frequency meter, 200
meter method, 92 Electronic switch, 141
substitution method, 91 Emission testing of tubes, 240
Capacitance meter, 92 External modulator for signal generators,
Capacitance-resistance bridge, 89 172
Capacitor checker, compact, 88
kit-type capacitance-resistance bridge, F
89 FM discriminator alignment, 147
simple, 85 FM ratio-detector alignment, 147
Center-zero d-c VI'VM, 54 Frequency checking with oscilloscope, 155
Chanalyst, 232 Frequency meter, bridge-type audio, 198
Channel analyzer, r-f, 232 electronic audio, 200
Charts (see Tables) heterodyne, 194
Coil checker, capacitor-standard type, 96 Frequency-modulated signal generator,
combination inductance bridge, 101 161
L-meter, 98 Frequency response checking, 224
Combination AM-FM signal generator, Frequency standard, crystal-type, 192
163 self-excited, 191
Combination inductance bridge, 101
Commercial tube tester, 242 G
Commercial VOM, 35 Gain checking in a-f amplifiers, 225
Contact potential, 47 Gas test in tubes, 238
Crystal diode, maximum voltage, 51 General-purpose oscilloscope, 134
meter rectifier, 19 General-purpose service test oscillator,
Crystal meters, 19 160
Crystal probe for VI'VM, 60 Germanium diode (see Crystal diode)
Crystal-type frequency standard, 192 Grid-dip oscillator, capacitance checking
Current meter, calibration, 22, 25 with, 92
multirange, 13 description, 188
power measurement with, 71 inductance checking with, 100
 INDEX 251

H Meters (cont.)
Headphone-type a-f signal tracer, 206 capacitance, 92
Heater-cathode leakage, 238 current, 2-7, 11, 13, 14, 22
Heterodyne frequency meter, 194 decibel, 75-77
Heterodyne wave analyzer, 215 distortion, 208-219
High-gain null detector, 125 frequency, a-f, 198-203
High-voltage d-c probe for VI'VM, 61 frequency, r-f, 194
Hum checking with oscilloscope, 149 impedance, 78-84
inductance, 98
I intermodulation, 224
Impedance bridge, 119 j milliammeters, 2-7, 11, 13, 14, 22
Impedance measurement, a-f, 78, 80, 81 millivoltmeter, a-f, 62
range, 78 multimeter, a-c/d-c, 20
r-f, 82 ohm, 28-32
T-network method, 81 oscilloscope as voltmeter, 156
voltmeter-ammeter method, 80 output power, 71
Impedance meter, bridge-type, 78 power, 69-77
commercial self-contained, 80 Q, 102-108
Inductance bridge assembled from labor- vacuum-tube voltmeters, 44-67
atory parts, 94 voltmeters, simple, 2-4, 10-12, 15-20
Inductance measurement with grid-dip voltmeters, V-T (see Vacuum-tube
oscillator, 100 voltmeters)
Interelectrode capacitance, 238 volt-milliammeter, 14
Intermodulation measurements, 222 volt-ohmmeter, 32
Intermodulation meter, 224 volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM), 34
Internal resistance, current meter, 11 watt, 69-77
voltmeter, 10 wave, 186, 189
Internal resistance of meters, 5 Microfarad meter, 92
Microphonics in tubes, 238
L Microvolter, a-f, 226
Lecher frame, 189 Millivoltmeter, a-f, 62
Linearity pattern generator, 170 Modulation checking with oscilloscope,
Lissajou’s figures, 183 153
L-meter, 98 Modulator, external for signal generators,
Loudspeaker, substitution-type, 230 172
Mounting position of meter, 26
M Moving-coil meter, 1
Manganin wire resistors, 8 Multimeter, a-c/d-c, 20
Marker generator, 168, Multimeter operating instructions, 41
Maxwell bridge, 96 Multiplier resistor calculation, 2
Maxwell-Hay bridge, 101 ” Multirange current meter, 13
Metal panel, effect on moving-coil meter, Multirange voltmeter, 11
26 Multivibrator, in frequency standard, 192
Meter calibration, 21
Meter rectifiers, 15
Meter resistance measurement, potenti- N
ometer method, 7 Null detector, high-gain, 125
variable resistor method, 5 oscilloscope as, 129
Meter resistor specifications, 8 peaked-amplifier, 127
Meter operating principle, 1
Meters, a-c/d-c multimeter, 20 O
ammeters, 2-7, 11, 13, 14, 22 Ohmmeter, calibration, 34
252 INDEX

Ohmmeter (cont.) Operating instructions (cont.)

operating principle, 28 wave analyzers, 216
potentiometer-type, 31 wavemeter, 186
series-connected, 30 Oscillator, audio single-frequency, 177
shunt-connected, 30 bridge, 124
Ohms per volt, 10 general-purpose service test type, 160
Operating instructions, a-f microvolter, grid-dip, 188
227 phase-shift, 178
a-f signal tracers, 205-208 RC-tuned variable-frequency, 179
audio frequency meter, bridge-type, 200 Oscilloscope, a-f signal tracing with,
electronic, 203 208
capacitance checker, 85, 91-93 basic, 133
current meter as ohmmeter, 31 frequency checking with, 155
distortion meter, 212 general-purpose kit-type, 134
electronic switch, 142 intermodulation checking with, 222
frequency standard, 194 modulation checking with, 153
grid-dip oscillator, 189 null ,detector, 129
heterodyne frequency meter, 196 phase checking with, 155
high-gain null detector, 126 radio receiver servicing with, 145
impedance meter, 78-83 screen calibration, 156
inductance checker, 95, 98, 100, 101 television-type, 137
Lecher frame, 190 TV receiver servicing with, 149-153
linearity pattern generator, 171 voltage calibrator, 156
marker generator, 168 wide-band type, 137
microvolter, a-f, 227
multimeter, 41 ip
ohmmeter, 30, 31 Pattern generator, 170
oscilloscope, as a-f signal tracer, 208 Peaked-amplifier null detector, 127
frequency checker, 155 Peak-to-peak probe for VIVM, 60
general, 137 Phase angle, 69
intermodulation checker, 222 Phase checking with oscilloscope, 155
modulation checker, 153 Phase-shift oscillator, 178
null detector, 129 Photoelectric r-f wattmeter, 75
phase checker, 155 Plate resistance in tube, 240
in radio service, 145-149 Potentiometer method of calibration, cur-
in TV service, 149-153 rent meter, 25
power meters, 69-77 voltmeter, 24
Q-meter, 107 Potentiometer-type ohmmeter, 31
resistance bridge, 110 Power drain measurement, 70
r-f signal tracer, 230-232 Power measurement, current-meter
rheostat-type skeleton bridge, 117-119 method, 71
signal injector, 236 drain of electronic equipment, 70
signal tracer, a-f, 205-208 output power meter method, 73
r-f, 230-232 radio-frequency, 73
simple meters, 26 voltmeter method, 70
skeleton-type L-C-R bridge, 113-116 voltmeter-ammeter method, 69
speaker, substitution-type, 232 Power output checking, a-f amplifiers, 225
square-wave generator, 220 tubes, 241
substitution loudspeaker, 232 Precision resistance bridge, 109
voltage calibrator, 156-158
voltmeter as ohmmeter, 28-30 Q °
VTVM's, 66 Q-meter, 102
 INDEX 253

R Signal generator (cont.)

Radio servicing with oscilloscope, 145 TV linearity-pattern, 170
Ratio-detector alignment, 147 TV marker, 168
RC-tuned variable-frequency oscillator, TV sweep, 166
179 Signal injector, 235
RC-tuned wave analyzer, 218 Signal tracer, a-f, 205
Rectifier-amplifier VTVM, 50 chanalyst, 232
Rectifier-type a-c meter, description, 15 high-gain r-f, 229
error in, 18 r-f channel analyzer, 232
Rectifiers, meter, 15 r-£ kit-type with substitution speaker,
Resistance, bridge, 109 230
voltmeter, 10 Single-frequency audio oscillators, 177
Resistance measurement, bridge method, Skeleton-type L-C-R bridge, 111
110, 113, 118 Sound detector alignment with oscillo-
current-meter method, 31 scope, 150
voltmeter method, 29 Sound i-f alignment with oscilloscope, 150
VTIVM method, 56 Speaker, substitution, 230
Resistor, multiplier calculation, 2 Square-wave generator, 219
shunt calculation, 2 Square-wave testing of audio amplifiers,
meter-type specifications, 8 220
wire wound, 8 Standard frequency broadcasts, 175
Resonant L-meter, 98 Static tube characteristics, 237
R-f amplifier alignment with oscilloscope, Substitution capacitance measurements,
148 91
R-f calibration of meters, 25 Substitution speaker, 230
R-f impedance checking, 82 Sweep signal generator, 166
R-f£ power measurement, 73
R-f£ probe for VI'VM’s, 59 T
R-f signal tracers, chanalyst, 232 Tables, 4-187
channel analyzer, 232 capacitance data for rheostat-type
high-gain, 229 bridge, 118
kit-type with substitution speaker, 230 capacitance data for skeleton-type
R-f wattmeter, 73, 75 ~ bridge, 115
Rheostat-type skeleton L-C-R bridge, 116 capacitor standards, 86
crystal voltages, 51
S distortion-meter tuning components,
Self-excited dual frequency standard, 191 211
Sensitivity of voltmeter, 10 germanium diode voltages, 51
Series-connected ohmmeter, 30 inductance data for rheostat-type
Servicing receivers with oscilloscope, 145 bridge, 119
Sharply-tuned bridge amplifier, 128 , inductance data for skeleton-type
Short circuits in tubes, 238 bridge, 116
Shunt-connected ohmmeter, 30 internal resistance of meters, 4
Shunt resistor calculation, 2 meter sensitivity, 10
Shunt resistor construction, 9 meter shunts, 11
Shunts for VI'VM, 62 meter voltage drops, 11
Signal generator, AM-FM, 163 multiplier values, 6, 10
audio, 180 Q-meter calibration data, 107
audio extractor for, 173 resistance calibration data for capacitor
calibration, 174 bridge, 87
external modulator for, 172 resistance calibration data for Maxwell
frequency-modulated, 161 bridge, 97
254 INDEX

Tables (cont.) Vacuum-tube voltmeter (cont.)

resistance data for rheostat-type bridge, signal tracing with, 207
118 triode type, 47
resistance data for skeleton-type bridge, types, 45
115 Very-high-resistance d-c voltmeter, 15
standard coil values for inductance Video i-f alignment with oscilloscope,
bridge, 95 149
TV center-channel frequencies, 151 Voltage calibration of oscilloscope screen,
TV marker frequencies, 151 156
VTVM current shunts, 63 Voltage calibrator for oscilloscopes, 156
wavemeter coil-winding data, 187 Voltmeter calibration, 23
Wien bridge oscillator components, 125 Voltmeter-ammeter method, impedance
Television center-channel frequencies, 151 checking, 80
Television-FM marker generator, 168 power checking, 69
Television linearity-pattern generator, 170 Voltmeter method of power measurement,
Television operational waveforms, 152 70
Television oscilloscope, 137 Voltmeter multiplier, 2
Television peak-to-peak probe, 60 Voltmeter, a-c, 15-20
Television receiver checking with oscil- d-c, 2-14
loscope, 149 multirange, 11
Television r-f alignment with oscilloscope, operating principle, 2
150 vacuum-tube (see Wacuum-tube volt-
Television sweep-signal generator, 166 meter)
Television video and carrier frequencies, very-high-resistance d-c, 15
151 Voltmeter resistance, 10
T-network for impedance checking, 81 Voltmeter sensitivity, 10
Transconductance, dynamic, 241 Volt-milliammeter, 14
static, 238 Volt-ohmmeter, 32
Trapezoidal patterns, 154 Volt-ohm-milliammeter, 34
Triode-type VITVM, 47 VOM calibration, 40
Tube tester, commercial, 242 VTVM (see Vacuum-tube voltmeter)
TV (see Television)
} WwW
Vv Wattmeter, basic, 69
Vacuum-tube voltmeter, accessories, 59 photoelectric, 75
accuracy, 66 Tf 35005)
a-c operated diode type, 54 Wave analyzer, heterodyne, 215
amplifier-rectifier type, 52 RC-tuned, 218
audio VIVM-millivoltmeter, 62 theory, 214
battery-operated diode type, 52 Wayemeter, absorption, 187
calibration procedure, 65 calibration, 187
center-zero d-c type, 54 coaxial, 190
current shunts, 62 Lecher frame, 189
diode type, 45 Wide-band oscilloscope, 137
features, 44 Wien-bridge audio frequency meter, 198
kit-type general-purpose, 57 Wien-bridge audio oscillator, 179
operating instructions, 66
rectifier-amplifier type, 50 Z
resistance measurement with, 56 Z-angle meter, 80
a)
BASIC
ELECTRONIC TEST
PROCEDURES
By RUFUS P. TURNER

From rocketry to radio, the basic prob-

lems of testing are the same — the evaluation
of electronic properties such as resistance,
phase, power factor, etc. (see table of con-
tents). In this definitive book, Rufus Turner
has covered all aspects of the subject for
those interested in industrial electronics,
radio and television, automation, and allied
professions.
Written in the clear, logical manner which
the author’s large following has come to
expect of him, BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST PRO-
CEDURES gives the reader step-by-step in-
struction in the measurement of all types
of electronic phenomena. In addition, the
book covers in considerable detail such non-
electronic properties as strain, pressure,
speed, etc., and how to measure them. Addi-
tional material explains how these results are
used in instrumentation and control of indus-
trial and design processes.
BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST PROCEDURES is
heavily illustrated with almost 200 drawings
and photographs, many of them showing
graphic “set-ups” of equipment. Each chap-
ter is followed by a complete summary and
comprehensive review questions.
The clarity and thoroughness of this book
make it an indispensable addition to the
reader’s test equipment, and a welcome com:
panion to Turner’s BASIC ELECTRONIC TEST
INSTRUMENTS,

316 pages 194 illus.

MODERN OSCILLOSCOPES AND THEIR USES, Revised Edition
By JACOB H. RUITER, Jr. 368 pages, 6 x 9, 390 illustrations.
Shows what the oscilloscope is, what it does, and how to use this versatile instrument
in the field of electronics, in industry, in radio and television receiver servicing, in radio
transmitting, in teaching, etc. For the technical reader, the book gives the engineering
essentials of oscilloscopes, their tubes, circuits, operation, etc., and gives complete details
of the various methods of application. This new edition is completely up-to-date, and
includes an added chapter on Quantitative Measurements.

RADIO AND TELEVISION RECEIVER CIRCUITRY

AND OPERATION
By ALFRED A. GHIRARDI and J. RICHARD JOHNSON.
669 pages, 6 x 9, 417 illustrations. .
Presents a thorough discussion, in clear terms, of the types of circuits used in all
modern radio and TV receivers and the way these circuits operate. It includes the
characteristics of AM, FM and TV waves, how they are used, and the difierences between
them. Then each type of home radio and TV receiver is analyzed in simple, nonmathe-
matical language. A full discussion of phono pickups, record changers and disc and
magnetic recorders is also included. This book provides an ideal groundwork for the
second volume, RADIO AND TELEVISION RECEIVER TROUBLESHOOTING
AND REPAIR.

RADIO AND TELEVISION RECEIVER

TROUBLESHOOTING AND REPAIR
By ALFRED A, GHIRARDI and J. RICHARD JOHNSON.
822 pages, 6 x 9, 415 illustrations.
Complete, clear, nontechnical coverage of all phases of troubleshooting, part replace-
ment, and repair of TV and radio receivers. Explains not only the technical methods and
requirements, but also the philosophy, habits, and procedures so important in profitable
radio and television servicing. Starts with discussion of individual components and how
they fail, then spells out basic troubleshooting methods, including preliminary surveys
and questioning, static tests, and dynamic tests. The most practical, direct approach by
any method is always emphasized. Special troubleshooting problems in a-c/d-c, battery-
powered, and communications receivers are treated in individual chapters. A full, generous
chapter covers television servicing. This is followed by chapters on alignment of AM, FM,
and TV receivers. The next portion of the book discusses the problems of component
replacement and repair, devoting separate chapters to resistors, r-f transformers, power
and a-f transformers, tuning and switching devices, and loudspeakers. Finally, servicing
of record players and home receivers is covered. This is undoubtedly the most compre-
hensive radio and T’V servicing book ever published!

BASIC ELECTRICITY
By RUFUS P. TURNER. 396 pages, 6 x 9, 291 illustrations.
No one can get along without a thorough working knowledge of this vital subject, basic
to all work in the vast fields of radio, television, and industrial electronics and electricity!
Explains, chapter by chapter, all the fundamentals with diagrams, photos, charts, prob-
lems, and solutions. Clearly written and richly illustrated. Includes chapters on instru-
ments, wiring, illumination, and a special chapter on Electronics — how vacuum tubes work
and where they’re used. A must for the man who has to know.

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