BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

 Early classifica on of organisms was based on prac cal uses and simple traits, as done by
Aristotle and Linnaeus.

 Aristotle used morphology, dividing animals into those with or without red blood; plants into
trees, shrubs, and herbs.

 Linnaeus proposed the Two Kingdom system (Plantae and Animalia), which was simple but
unable to address groups like unicellular organisms, prokaryotes, and non-green fungi.

 As scien fic knowledge grew, classifica on criteria expanded to include cell structure, wall
type, nutri on, habitat, reproduc on, and evolu onary rela onships.

 R.H. Whi aker (1969) proposed the Five Kingdom Classifica on: Monera, Pro sta, Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia.

Five Kingdom Classifica on

Charact Monera Pro sta Fungi Plantae Animalia

er

Cell Prokaryot
type ic Eukaryo c Eukaryo c Eukaryo c Eukaryo c

Present, Absent
not (some Present
Cell wall cellulose present) (chi n) Present (cellulose) Absent

Nuclear
memb. Absent Present Present Present Present

Cellular Mul cellula

Body (loose r (mycelial Organ-
Org. Cellular ssue) ssues) Tissue/organ system

Autotrop Autotrophic/
Nutri o hic/heter heterotrophi Saprophy c Autotrophic/photosynt Holozoic
n otrophic c /parasi c he c (inges on)

Kingdom Monera

 Includes bacteria, the most abundant group of organisms; found everywhere, even extreme
habitats.

 Four shapes: coccus (spherical), bacillus (rod), vibrio (comma), spirillum (spiral).
  Grouped as autotrophs (photosynthe c/chemosynthe c) and heterotrophs (decomposers or
pathogens).

 Significant roles: nutrient cycling, disease, fermenta on, nitrogen fixa on.

 Mycoplasma: bacteria lacking cell walls, smallest living cells, survive without oxygen,
pathogenic.

 Archaebacteria: live in extreme condi ons (halophiles, thermophiles, methanogens).

 Eubacteria: "true" bacteria; cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) photosynthesize, fix

atmospheric nitrogen.

Kingdom Pro sta

 Unicellular eukaryotes, aqua c; bridge gap between plants, animals, and fungi.

 Cell contains nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; move by flagella/cilia.

 Reproduc on: asexual by cell fusion, sexual by zygote forma on.

 Subgroups:

 Chrysophytes: diatoms, desmids; main producers, silica cell walls, form

diatomaceous earth.

 Dinoflagellates: mainly marine; colored by pigments; rapid mul plica on causes red
des.

 Euglenoids: mostly freshwater, flexible body, both autotrophic and heterotrophic.

 Slime Moulds: saprophy c, move over decaying ma er, form plasmodium and
spores.

 Protozoans: heterotrophic; four groups—Amoeboid (pseudopodia), Flagellated

(flagella), Ciliated (cilia), Sporozoans (spore-forming, e.g., Plasmodium).

Kingdom Fungi

 Unique heterotrophs: can be unicellular (yeast) or filamentous (molds, mushrooms).

 Body consists of mycelium (network of hyphae).

 Cell wall is chi n and polysaccharide.

 Modes of nutri on: saprophytes (decomposers), parasites (pathogens), symbionts

(lichens/mycorrhiza).

 Reproduc on: vegeta ve (fragmenta on, fission, budding), asexual (spores), sexual (gamete
fusion, plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis).

 Classes:

 Phycomycetes: aqua c/plant parasites, aseptate hyphae, zygospore forma on.

 Ascomycetes: sac-fungi, mul cellular (Penicillium), unicellular (yeast), produce

ascospores.
  Basidiomycetes: mushrooms, pu alls, smuts, rusts; exogenous basidiospore
forma on, frui ng bodies (basidiocarps).

 Deuteromycetes: "imperfect fungi"—only asexual phase known, major decomposers.

Kingdom Plantae

 Eukaryo c, chlorophyll-containing organisms (algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes,

gymnosperms, angiosperms).

 Some members are heterotrophic: insec vorous (Venus fly trap, Bladderwort), parasi c
(Cuscuta).

 Cell wall composed of cellulose; prominent chloroplasts.

 Life cycle alternates between haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) genera ons—
a phenomenon called alterna on of genera ons.

Kingdom Animalia

 Mul cellular, eukaryo c, heterotrophic organisms without cell walls.

 Rely on plants directly or indirectly for food; nutri on is holozoic (inges on).

 Store food as glycogen or fat; have definite growth pa erns and show advanced sensory and
locomotor abili es.

 Sexual reproduc on predominates; embryological development described in detail in next

chapter.

Viruses, Viroids, Prions, Lichens

 Not included in Five Kingdom Classifica on.

 Viruses: non-cellular, inert outside host, contain either DNA or RNA (never both); infect
plants, animals, and bacteria (bacteriophages), cause many diseases.

 Viroids: discovered by T.O. Diener (1971) as infec ous agents smaller than viruses, have free
RNA without protein coat (cause potato spindle tuber disease).

 Prions: infec ous proteins, cause neurological diseases (BSE/mad cow, CJD).

 Lichens: symbio c associa ons between algae (phycobiont) and fungi (mycobiont); indicators
of pollu on, do not grow in polluted areas.

Summary

 Classifica on systems evolved as understanding improved, reflec ng deeper knowledge

about structure, func on, and evolu onary rela onships.

 Whi aker’s Five Kingdom system is based on cell structure, body organiza on, nutri on,
reproduc on, and phylogeny.

 Monera = bacteria, most diverse metabolically.

 Pro sta = unicellular eukaryotes, wide variety.

 Fungi = decomposers, saprophytes, parasites; diverse reproduc on.

 Plantae = green eukaryotes showing alterna on of genera ons.

 Animalia = mul cellular, heterotrophic, advanced nervous/sensory mechanisms.

 Viruses, viroids, prions, lichens are noted but not formally classified.